History of Mirrors Dating Back 8000 Years.17

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

History of Mirrors Dating Back 8000 Years

JAY M. ENOCH, OD, PhD, FAAO

School of Optometry, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California

ABSTRACTPurpose. The purpose of this study is to consider the ancient history and early development of mirrors, because mirrorsplayed a key role in refraction and magnification for an extended period of time before the invention of spectacles,including broad use in Roman times.Findings. The earliest known manufactured mirrors (approximately 8000 years old) have been found in Anatolia (southcentral modern-day Turkey). These were made from obsidian (volcanic glass), had a convex surface and remarkably goodoptical quality. Mirrors from more recent periods have been found both in Egypt and Mesopotamia and still later in Chinaand in the New World. In each of these areas, mirrors were in use by approximately 2000 BC or 4000 years ago.(Optom Vis Sci 2006;83:775–781)

Key Words: history of optics, ancient mirrors, obsidian, corundum, grinding of mirrors

First Mirrors

The very first mirrors most probably were quiet pools of water androck or clay containers of water. Interestingly, from approximately722 BC onward, Chinese characters for mirrors, known as jian andjing, were best translated as “a [large] tub filled with water.”1,a

Except for naturally occurring pools, mirrors have been manufac-tured. They also have played a lengthy and important role in earlyvision corrections and as magnifiers2,b; thus, it is of interest to tracemirror origins, development, and use. Here, earliest known man-ufactured mirrors are discussed and their origins in different partsof the world are considered and compared. Contrary to popularbelief, mirrors did not appear to have originated in China.

The first known mirrors were recovered from graves in Anatoliaby Mellaart in the region of the Neolithic settlement of CatalHuyuk,3–5 which is also written as Catalhoyuk (Fig. 1). It is locatednear Konya in south central modern-Turkey.6,7 The cemetery, andoldest sections of buildings containing secondary burials, weredated approximately 6000 to 5900 BC.3–5 Pendergrast6 cites this

find as occurring in 6200 to 6000 BC. These mirrors were manu-factured from ground and polished obsidian (a volcanic glass) andhad a round reflective surface; some were conical. These mirrorsurfaces were slightly convex and highly polished. Their diameterswere approximately 9 cm,3,4,8 and they form reasonable images.9,c

The fine mirror image seen in Figure 2 is remarkable!9 Conolly9

states, “Their use as mirrors, in the sense that a reflective surfacewas the functional surface, cannot be disputed.” One specimenstands upright on a small flattened base, and the finest one was setinto lime plaster; these mirrors were believed to have originated ingraves of females, based upon the contents of the grave.3,9

Anatolia is a source of both obsidian and corundum. Corundum(also known as carborundum�, or emery) is a grinding and polish-ing material and although very hard (no. 9 on the Mohs hardnessscale in which no. 10 is the highest value), it is easy to work inmineral form.

Obsidian objects were among early exports from Anatolia, andthey were used for spears, arrowheads, knives, axes, scrapers, andjewelry. It is reasonable to conjecture that mirrors were also ex-ported from there. Conolly9 suggests the first shaping/grinding ofan Anatolian mirror surface was quite coarse; the surface was thenpolished with a fine-grained material such as silt and buffed withmaterial such as leather.

In a recent report Prof. Colin Renfrew, Cambridge University,7

argued that, in approximately 6000 BC, Catalhoyuk (Fig. 1),which then had a population of 10,000, was the center for major

aIn reference 1, almost all mirror surfaces and decorative rear surfaces areillustrated. Note: bubble formation, associated with cooling metal castings, ad-versely affected mirror surfaces. From the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) onward,white metal was used for plating/smoothing mirror surfaces.

bSee Enoch JM. Possible/probable early use of visual aids before spectacles.Lenses and Mirrors. Session on ‘The History of Spectacles in Florence.’ Presented atthe Renaissance Society of America; March 22–24, 2001; Florence, Italy. Atti dellaFond. G. Ronchi 2001;56:133–48. Also see proceedings manuscript, Enoch JM.Use of concave mirrors for visual corrections and magnifying devices precededspectacle corrections. Cogan Ophthalmic History Society Proceedings. St. Louis,MO: Washington University; meeting on April 11–12, 2003, pp.141–51. Avail-able from American Academy of Ophthalmology Library, San Francisco, CA.

cLilyquist notes (personal communication, 2004): “Thefinest of these was set inlime plaster and beautifully smoothed to fit the owner’s hand.”

1040-5488/06/8310-0775/0 VOL. 83, NO. 10, PP. 775–781OPTOMETRY AND VISION SCIENCECopyright © 2006 American Academy of Optometry

Optometry and Vision Science, Vol. 83, No. 10, October 2006

developments in farming and language. If he is correct, it followsthat Catalhoyuk, and greater Anatolia, were likely associated withthe spread of other critical civilizing components to other areas andpeoples.

Next Mirrors

The next known mirrors may have been Egyptian. William M.Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) suggested that ground stone “pal-ettes” were wetted and used as mirrors in Pre-Dynastic times.3

They apparently could provide good mirror images. Lilyquistnotes that water evaporated very rapidly from their surfaces; shealso noted that ceramic bowls designed to hold water were appar-ently used as mirrors and cites early findings at El Badari.3 Pender-grast6 dates items from Badari at approximately 4500 BC, al-though there is controversy as to dates of El Badari articles. Theitems from Badari include a slab of selenite with traces of wood (apossible frame?) around it and a slate disc.3,6 Also, a piece of reflec-tive mica pierced with a hole (a possible wall attachment?) waslocated.6 Lilyquist also notes that polished stone mirrors fromancient Egypt are not known nor are metallic mirrors before Dy-nastic times.3

During the time period approximately 4000 to 3000 BC, smallcopper disc mirrors were recovered in the Tigris-Euphrates Valleyin Southern Mesopotamia, now Iraq.4 These were found nearUruk and at Tello (in approximately 3200 BC).

From then onward, in Egypt, in city-states of Mesopotamia, and inthe Levant, records of mirror use appeared within sculptures, raisedand incised carvings, papyrus texts, and as mirrors (see Figs. 3–6).3,4,10

Tables 1 and 2 are created from published data.4,10 (Items are alignedto allow comparisons of dates of findings). Early mirrors were near flat(but not at Catal Huyuk); later mirrors were convex, which created an

upright image in a smaller mirror surface area, thus requiring lessbronze. Concave mirrors served to magnify objects and both mirrorforms allowed correction of some refractive errors.

FIGURE 1.Map locating ancient Catalhoyuk, Anatolia, within modern Turkey.Adapted from Culotta E, Hanson B. First words. Science 2004;303:1326.

FIGURE 2.Color reproduction of a woman viewing her face in an image of hercaptured in an ancient Anatolian mirror (Neolithic) from Catalhoyuk. Themirror is in the collection of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations,Ankara, Turkey. The photograph was taken outdoors in bright sunlight andthe mirror is dated “first half of the 6th millennium BC.” Photo provided byC. Lilyquist, September 2004, and is reproduced with permission of bothDr. Hikmet Denizli, Associate Director, Museum of Anatolian Civiliza-tions, Ankara, Turkey, and Dr. James Conolly.

FIGURE 3.Three depictions of mirrors obtained from Egyptian tombs. They are dated2050 BC, 2450 to 2300 BC, and 2300 to 2250 BC respectively. (BianchiRS. Reflections in the sky’s eyes. Notes on the History of Science 1985;4:10–8, Figs. 1–3.)

776 History of Mirrors Dating Back 8000 Years—Enoch


In these societies, mirrors were sometimes used to symbolizereligious or other beliefs. They served as symbols of the sun ormoon and may have been carried on tops of standards. A one-sidedflattened disc symbolized a setting or rising sun. Mirrors weresometimes used to symbolize the inner self; they also provided away to “look back.” Magical properties were sometimes attributedto mirrors and mirrors served as burning glasses, as weapons, and astime-keeping devices.4,10 References can also be found to the use ofmirrors in pornography.2,10

From Tables 1 and 2 it is suggested that parallels in mirrordevelopment existed between cultures, and similarities in develop-ments increased with time. Early civilizations were not completelyisolated. There were exchanges and communications between peo-ples through trade, war, conquest, emigration, and importation ofslaves. In 2003, at the Brooklyn Museum in New York City, amajor exhibit titled “Art and Interconnections” showed fine mir-rors and lenses in eyes of an ibis statue. It revealed remarkable tiesbetween art objects found in Egypt and regions extending eastwardto Western India and north and westward. There were connectionsamong Egypt, Greece and its islands, the Holy Land, and theLevant. Byblos, Lebanon, served as a meaningful entrepot for manyproducts, including mirrors.

East and Central Asia, Including China

There are discussions in the Source4,10 addressing possible Cen-tral Asian origins of apparently later-appearing Chinese mirrors;both Julianno11 and Robinson,12 in their discussions, suggest Chi-nese mirrors developed outside of China per se. Precursors of Chi-

nese mirrors may have developed in southern Siberia (Fig. 7), e.g.,at Andronovo, or Karasuk, Scythia, or Kelermes, just north of theCaucasus Mountains near the Black Sea. They had different struc-tural features than Western mirrors.

Within China, two mirrors were located at Guinan Xian, Quin-hai, approximately 2000 BC (Qijia culture).1,11–13 They origi-nated during the Xia period, 2100 to 1200 BC. Nakano1 shows aclear image of a Guinan Xian mirror (8.9-cm diameter, obtainedfrom Tomb 25) (Fig. 8).

Later, mirrors were found in the tomb of Lady Hao, Tomb 5,Anyang (late Shang Dynasty approximately 1300-1028 BC) (Fig.9). Mirrors came into limited general use in China during theEastern Zhou Dynasty (approximately 1045–771 BC).1,11,12 EarlyChinese mirrors ranged from 6 to 12 cm in diameter, were notornate, and had a centered pierced knob or raised area on theornamented back surface. The knob served as a means of holding

FIGURE 4.Bronze mirror with a handle and possibly a stand, Egyptian Dynasty XVIII,1570 to 1350 BC. (Bianchi RS. Reflections in the sky’s eyes. Notes on theHistory of Science 1985;4:10–8, Fig. 5.)

FIGURE 5.Stone (basalt) stele of a goddess holding a mirror in the right hand andpossibly a pomegranate in the left. Obtained from the area of Biredjik,near Carchemish in modern Northern Syria dating from 1000 to 700 BC.(Albenda P. Mirrors in the ancient Near East. Notes on the History ofScience 1985;4:2–9, Fig. 2.)

History of Mirrors Dating Back 8000 Years—Enoch 777


the mirror or for tying it to a supporting cord. These early mirrors weregenerally thin, and raised ridges included in patterns on their rearsurfaces possibly provided some rigidity. Copper alloys/bronze wereused early, and handles appeared later than in Western-based civiliza-tions. Of course, mirrors found could have originated in China itself,but the available early mirrors do not exhibit orderly evolutionaryproperties and are consistent with existing Southern Siberian designs.Evidence exists for trade in mirrors along the Silk Road (mirrors werewrapped in Chinese silk cloth). Early Chinese mirrors appeared asitems in graves and were mentioned in Chinese texts.

Here again, mirrors were believed to be endowed with specialproperties, including the ability to look backward in time (and totake warning) and to see oneself as you are (to be aware of faults);magical properties were attributed them. These are similar to char-acteristics discussed vis-a-vis Egyptian and other ancient mirrors.

Central and South America

Pre-Columbian optical workmanship has been found in Cen-tral and South America and is described by Calvo and Enoch.14

For example, South American mirrors were reported from ap-proximately 1925 BC onward. In Mexico, they were made bythe Olmec, Mayan, and Teotihuacan peoples, and the Zoque

tribe in a remote region of Chiapas State during Mayan times. Itis known that lenses and mirrors were made in Chiapas State. Insouthern Columbia and northern Ecuador, refined manufac-turing techniques for working gold and polishing preciousstones were developed by the La Tolita culture (600 –300 BC).In Peru, there was the Chavin culture (or Chavine, or Chavin deHuantar) (900/800 –200 BC), which developed polished an-thracite mirrors, and later there was the Moche culture (approx-imately 200 BC– 600 AD), which had copper-framed mirror-holders (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) and(probable) rock crystal lenses (Larco Museum, Lima, Peru).The Incas also had mirrors. In Brazil, mirrors were known in theMogi Mirim City area, Sao Paulo State.14,15

Known mirrors in the Americas were made of non-metallic ma-terials (e.g., iron pyrite, obsidian, anthracite).14 Olmec mirrorsrange in date from approximately 1125 to 130 BC, and productionof mirrors continued up to at least the Teotihuacan civilization.15

An Olmec convex mirror is displayed at the Museo Nacional deAntropologia, Mexico City (Fig. 10).15

Mirrors were polished, some mirrors were flat, but most mirrorswere concave with focal lengths ranging from 5 cm to 80 cm. A smallnumber of convex mirrors were found. There is a fine image repro-duced by Lunnazi15 obtained from a 5-cm diameter Olmec convex

TABLE 1. Egypt

(3200 BC onward)10

ca 3200 to 2700 BC: Memphite region, outside Cairo; copperalloy metal discs, cordiform, no handles were preserved,cords might have fitted into mirrors or believed to be inhandles

Old Kingdomca 2700 to 2200 BC: round or elliptical discs, one lotiform

(really, water lily form) disc; had papyriform wood handlesca 2450 to 2300 BC: Tomb 24 of Shiek Said disc with handle

(relief on tomb)ca 2300 to 2250 BC: Tomb of Mereruka, Saqqara, Dynasty VI;

disc had more complex handle

Middle Kingdomca 2050 BC: Sarcophagus of K3wi.t, Dynasty XI; disc with

advanced handleca 2000 to 1600 BC: mirrors became more elaborate, made

of polished copper alloy, gold, silver, electrum, generallywith fabric or woven reed cases, and sometimes woodenboxes; handles were simple compared with the 1600 BC–Roman era

Other regions in Western and Central Asia4

ca 3200 BC: Sialk, Iran; plain copper disc mirrors found in twofemale tombs; discs measure 12 to 16 cm, convex, withedges angled concave, some fabric adherent

ca 2000 to 1000 BC: mirrors found at many sites; copper alloymirrors appeared

TABLE 2. Mesopotamia

(3200 BC onward)4

ca 3200 BC: Jemdet Nasr Tombs at Kish; copper mirrors withshort handles found in tombs containing no weapons;females believed to be in tombs with mirrors

ca 3000 BC: private dwellings, Khafaje; plain copper mirrorsca 3000 BC: Ur, early Dynastic period; two copper discs,

round, long handled

ca 2900 BC: Ur, Dynastic I level; copper disc, 13.5 cm, edgesturned as if to secure mirror to wooden backing

ca 2300 BC: Ur, Sargonid period; mirror found in grave

Comparison of Early Mirror Developments in Egypt and Mesopotamia



mirror (Fig. 10). He provides comparative reflection data for differentmaterials: 21% for magnetite, 28% for hematite, and 55% for ironpyrite.15 Further, he points out mirrors were also used for making fire,self-contemplation, medicine, divination, and astronomy.

A polished iron pyrite mosaic-style mirror was discovered byarchaeologists in Chiapas State (attributed to the Zoque tribe,approximately 1000 AD).16 In this video, the mirror is disassem-bled in the hands of the digger, but there is a good view of theconcave mirror and the mosaic of mirror elements. There are vary-ing numbers of sides of the well-fitted individual mosaic elements,i.e., three to four to six sides. The mirror retained its highly glossysurface after a millennium of burial.

At a dig at Takalik Abaj, in Guatemala, a late-Olmec, early-Mayan center, the grave and body of a king were discovered. Evi-dence was presented for early trade between Takalik Abaj andneighboring areas in “...quetzal feathers, (iron) pyrite, obsidian,and jade for tools, jewelry, and works of art.” Included in the royaltomb, dated between 800 BC and 200 AD, was a mosaic mirrormade of iron pyrite.14

Separately, Wirth discusses some interesting “parallel” de-velopments occurring in Central America and Egypt (pre-Columbian era).17

CONCLUSIONS

The first known manufactured mirrors were located in Anatoliaapproximately 8000 years ago. We can assume mirrors were used

FIGURE 6.Mirror from approximately 600 BC. This is a mirror stolen from a grave inDeve Huyuk in north Syria. It has a rather elongated tang, which probablyfitted into a handle. (Albenda P. Mirrors in the ancient Near East. Notes onthe History of Science 1985;4:2–9, Fig. 4.)

FIGURE 7.Map of Asia stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Pacific Ocean.11,12 showing the approximate sites of Kellermes, Scythia (near the Volga River),Andromovo (north of the Altai Mountains), Qinghai (west of Xian and south of the Great Wall), and Anyang (east of Xian).



much earlier through observation of reflections in quiet pools ofwater and in water containers. A number of early manufacturedmirrors were essentially flat (but not those found in Catal Huyuk).A variety of crystals/stones were used in a number of early mirrors.Included were polished obsidian a (generally) black volcanic glass,mica, polished iron pyrite, polished hard stone surfaces, anthracite,and/or possibly smooth and wetted rock surfaces. With develop-ment of copper, and later copper alloys (including bronze), thesereadily shaped and molded metals became substances of choice formirror manufacture. The more expensive but harder and strongerbronze alloys superseded early copper mirrors. Still later, gold andsilver were used in mirrors and for plating them. Plated whitemetallic coatings were added to bronze mirrors to providesmoother surfaces with higher levels of polish and reflectance.

By approximately 2000 BC, there existed dispersed utilizationof mirrors in virtually every major region of the world with settledsocieties; this includes Central and South America. After that time,mirror distribution and quality increased rapidly.

Convex mirrors, providing upright but smaller images having anacceptable field of view, came into vogue, e.g., in China, becausethey required much less costly metallic bronze for manufacture.Concave mirrors offered upright images within defined opticalconstraints (object–image relationships, aberrations); these al-lowed meaningful magnification of images for a number of pur-poses as well as refractive corrections2 just as concave mirrors areused today for shaving and makeup mirrors.

Hard rock grinding and polishing technologies developed inpart through availability and use of corundum found in ancientmines in Naxos (Cycladic Islands, Greece), Anatolia (modern Tur-key), and in the Indus Valley. Other hard rock materials were usedas well, e.g., see Conolly.12 Because the volume of corundum con-taining rocks required for processing a small batch of mirrors or

FIGURE 9.Drawing of one of the second group of early Chinese mirrors unearthed at Anyang, Henan Province (see Fig. 7), dated approximately 1300–1028 BC.This illustration was taken from Bronze Mirrors From Ancient China: Donald H. Graham, Jr. Collection [Kono T, transl.]. Hong Kong OrientationsMagazine; 1994, Fig. 3. This is a convex mirror with a prominent handhold or support bridge on the back surface. (Reproduced with permission of D. H.Graham, Jr., 2004.)

FIGURE 8.Earliest recovered mirror found in China found in a site dated in lateNeolithic or early Shang period,11 or the Xia period.1 It is made of bronzeand the pattern on the back surface of the mirror is heptagonal andstar-shaped. This photograph was taken from Bronze Mirrors From An-cient China: Donald H. Graham, Jr. Collection [Kono T, transl.]. HongKong Orientations Magazine; 1994, Fig. 2 (which was reproduced Zhong-guo meishu quanji [Anthology of Chinese Art]: Gongyi meishu bian 4[Crafts Arts 4]. Beiling: Wenwu Chubanshe; 1985). This mirror has itsorigin in the Qijia Culture, Tomb 25, Guinan County, Qinghai Province,China, approximately 2000 years BC. The two drilled holes located at thetop were added after fabrication; a cord through these holes could havesupported the mirror. There are two modest raised areas at the rear-centerof the mirror with an apparent slit depression between them. Theseprovided a handhold and may have also served to allow suspension of themirror. Such rear-central mirror structural features later became moreprominent. Mirror diameter is 8.9 cm. (Reproduced with permission ofD. H. Graham, Jr., 2004.) A lesser-quality image of the same artifact(rotated 90°) appears in Julianno A. Possible origins of the Chinese mirror.Notes in the History of Art 1985;4:36–45, Fig. 5.



lenses was not particularly large, it is conceivable that mined ma-terials could be shipped in sufficient quantities. Another form ofcorundum, emery sands (a limited supply exists in Egypt), was alsoused for grinding and polishing. In addition, quartz sands wereavailable in Egypt and could be used to grind rock crystal (quartz).One wonders how, early on, appreciation of suitability of corun-dum and other hard materials originated or evolved for use ingrinding, shaping, and polishing surfaces because this was a majorand broadly applicable technologic advance.

Materials needed for early mirror development were present inAnatolia, and there were early trade connections with neighboringregions. It does not follow that achievement of defined purposeswill occur because of the presence of necessary resources, but, ap-parently, these purposes were achieved. I assume that developmentof polished mirrors followed already traded chipped and polishedobsidian knife blades, scrapers, arrow points, and jewels.

China played a major role in the development of mirrors, butthe Chinese were not among the early contributors to this art andscience; they may have imported this technology from other Asiansources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Ann Gunter, who provided a copy of a Smithsonian Proceedings issueaddressing ancient Chinese mirrors. I also thank C. Lilyquist, R. Stone, and J.Jones of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Received June 14, 2004; accepted July 11, 2006.

REFERENCES

1. Bronze Mirrors From Ancient China: Donald H. Graham Jr. Collec-tion [Kono T, transl.]. Hong Kong: Orientations Magazine; 1994.

2. Seneca LA. Naturales Quaestiones. With an English translation byThomas H. Corcoran. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press;1971.

3. Lilyquist C. Ancient Egyptian Mirrors: From the Earliest TimesThrough the Middle Kingdom (Munchner Agyptologische Studien).Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag; 1979.

4. Albenda P. Mirrors in the ancient Near East. Notes on the History ofScience 1985;4:2–9.

5. Mellaart J. Excavations at Catal Huyuk, 1961: first preliminary re-port. Anatolian Studies 1962;12:41–65.

6. Pendergrast M. Mirror�rorriM: A History of the Human Love AffairWith Reflection. New York: Basic Books; 2003.

7. Culotta E, Hanson B. First words. Science 2004;303:1315–35.8. Mellaart J. Excavations at Catal Huyuk, 1961: second preliminary

report. Anatolian Studies 1963;13:43–103.9. Conolly J. The Catalhoyuk Flint and Obsidian Industry: Technology

and Typology in Context. Oxford: Archaeopress; 1999.10. Bianchi RS. Reflections in the sky’s eyes. Notes on the History of

Science 1985;4:10–8.11. Julianno A. Possible origins of the Chinese mirror. Notes on the

History of Science 1985;4:36–45.12. Rubinson KS. Mirrors on the fringe. Notes on the History of Science

1985;4:47–50.13. Zhongguo meishu quanji [Anthology of Chinese Art]: Gongyi

meishu bian 4 [Crafts Arts 4]. Beiling: Wenwu Chubanshe; 1985.14. Calvo ML, Enoch JM. Introduction to the history of lenses and visual

corrections: a reference to Spain and the Spanish colonies in the NewWorld (XV–XVI centuries). Presented at Optics, Life and Heritage:Present and Future Optics, Preserving Past and Glorious Times; SanFrancisco de Asis Churchqq, Havana City, Cuba; September 26–30,2004.

15. Lunnazi JJ. Quality of Olmec mirrors and its utilization. In: Ma-lacara-Hernandez D, Acosta-Ortiz SE, Rodriguez-Vera R, MalacaraZ, Morales AA, eds. Proceedings of SPIE, volume 2730. SecondIberoamerican Meeting on Optics; Guanajuato, Mexico; September18–22, 1995. Bellingham, WA: SPIE Press; 1996:2–7.

16. Search for the Lost Cave People [videotape]. NOVA Adventures inScience Series. Boston: WGBH Video; 1988.

17. Wirth DE. Parallels: Mesoamerican and Ancient Middle Eastern Tra-ditions. St. George, UT: Stonecliff Publishing; 2003.

Jay M. EnochSchool of Optometry

University of California at BerkeleyBerkeley, CA 94720-2020

e-mail: [email protected]

FIGURE 10.Reproduction of a photocopy of a photo by Lunazzi, 1996, “taken undernon-ideal conditions.” The image was created by an ancient convex(possibly iron pyrite) Olmec mirror, 1125 to 130 BC. (PreClassic OlmecSection, Museo Nacional de Antropologia, Mexico City). Convex mirrorswere rarely used by Olmec peoples. (Reproduced from Lunnazi JJ. Qualityof Olmec mirrors and its utilization. In: Malacara-Hernandez D, Acosta-Ortiz SE, Rodriguez-Vera R, Malacara Z, Morales AA, eds. Proceedings ofSPIE, vol 2730. Second Iberoamerican Meeting on Optics; Guanajuato,Mexico; September 18–22, 1995. Bellingham, WA: SPIE Press; 1996:2–7,Fig. 1.)



Documents

History of Mirrors Dating Back 8000 Years.17