History of Marine Science

“My soul is full of longingfor the secret of the sea,

and the heart of the great oceansends a thrilling pulse through me.”

― Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

History of Marine SciencePossibly the first thing that inspired man to look to the ocean was the basic human

need to know. Know the hidden secrets of its mystery.

Know what lies within the vastness of its boundaries. To stretch the understanding of

nature and investigate is who we are.

History of Marine Science

Let’s be creative.While watching and listening, make a list(s) of what the ocean makes you think about.

Thoughts, feelings, what do you wonder about the ocean?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mEbABPtTv8

History of Marine Science

Certainly people of long ago felt and thought the same things about the oceans.

Some surely pursued it further!

History of Marine Science

Part I – Age of Discovery

History of Marine ScienceThe first explorers (around

10,000 BC) were the “Polynesian’s” who made

10,000 South Pacific islands home made necessary by

overpopulation, depletion of resources and religious wars.

Doubled hulled ships carrying up to 100

people navigated by the stars. They would locate new islands by the rhythm of waves

and tracks of sea birds.

History of Marine Science

The “Cretans” and “Phoenicians” in the Mediterranean were ocean voyagers prior

to 1000 BC.Individual merchant traders and pirates.

To West Africa

To Britain

FYI

History of Marine Science

Around the 8th century BC were the first drawn charts to note routes, landmarks,

currents, etc.These were the first cartographers.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceThe “Chinese” used the Pacific coast for

transportation of goods.The “Polynesian's” in SE Asia jumped from island to

island.All used sunrise and sunset and stars for navigation

starting in 4th Century BC

FYI

History of Marine ScienceSystematic study of the oceans first began and were written down in the 3rd century BC at the

world’s first university, the “Library of Alexandria”, Egypt.

Burnt by a mob in 415 AD

History of Marine Science“Eratosthenes”(a librarian at Alexandria & astronomer) figured the size of the Earth around 200 BC.He noticed that on the longest day at noon Sun light can be seen at the bottom of a well, while at the same day of the year it made a shadow at 7.2o at Alexandria, which was 4400 stades North, so…He was correct to within 8%.

History of Marine ScienceLibrary researchers invented astronomical, geometric

and math basis for celestial navigation by the stars. Cartographers there made the first 3D maps of the

Earth with longitudinal and latitudinal lines for precise navigation.

Modern long/lat. World map

History of Marine ScienceSide Note:

Ptolemy around 100 AD tried to improve on Eratosthenes’ estimate of the Earth’s circumference, but made a drastic

mistake that made Earth 30% smaller than it was.This error allow Columbus 1500 years later to convince people

he could sail west and get to the orient…we know how that ended up.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceAfter the fall of Rome in 476 AD, Europe went into

the “Dark Ages” for 1000 years. Most scientific achievement was made by “Arabs” and “Chinese”

during that time.

South

Here is a Chinese compass 1040 AD

imported to Arabia during that time.

The magnetic spoon points South.

History of Marine ScienceThe Polynesians

discovered one of the last new places on Earth, “Hawaii” around 500 AD.

They had to cross the equator doldrums

probably by paddling and using totally different

stars in the North.

No wind at the equator

History of Marine ScienceThe Polynesians also

discovered “Easter Island” around the same time. It is

one of the world’s most remote places.

The home of the “Moai”,

thought to be honored ancestors and possibly deified caretakers of

the people.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceThe “Dark Ages” were

punctuated by periods of raiding (793-1066) by

fearsome “Scandinavian Vikings”.

Vikings found it easier as a way of life to take what

they wanted instead of being

farmers.

History of Marine ScienceViking raiders were made

successful by a finely engineered ocean going ship

called a “longboat”.Longboats were

strong, fast, very sea worthy with little draw that would

allow navigation up rivers easily…faster

than locals could warn surrounding

people.

Side Note:The right side steer oar became known as the side-board or

starboard.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceAs European defenses strengthened against

marauding Vikings, the Vikings adventured west. “Leif Ericson” was the first European to set foot in N. America at “Newfoundland” around 1000 AD. Their

colony was abandoned in 1020.

Newfoundland

History of Marine ScienceSide Note:

Ironically, the banding together

of Europe to defend against

marauding Vikings was one of the causes of the

Renaissance in Europe that ended

the Dark Ages.New age of thought and achievement, 12th – 17th century

FYI

History of Marine ScienceIn 1086, Chinese

philosopher “Shen Kuo” had deduced the Earth was very old and was

shaped by sedimentary deposits, rock

formation, uplift and erosion over great time.

11th century Chinese painting depicting exposed Earth layers and twisting rock strata.

Side Note:Until 1800 European scientists thought the Earth was 6,000-10,000 years old.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceDuring the latter European Dark Ages, Chinese (1100)

were making many innovations to ocean going

ships: compass, central rudder, watertight

compartments, sophisticated sails and multiple masts.

Much of which would later be adopted by Europeans.

Unfortunately, China stopped ocean exploration

after that time till the twentieth century.

1405-1433 “Zheng He” voyage to give away treasures to the world to show the kindness,

wealth and power of the Ming Dynasty.

Sail battens

History of Marine Science“Prince Henry” of Portugal explored,

mapped and extended commerce with west

Africa from 1451-1470.He used the compass

from China.

Side Note:Compasses were considered magical at the time and were kept in boxes only to be brought

out while not in view of the crew.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceUsing “Ptolemy’s” bad

data, “Christopher Columbus”, thinking the

Earth’s surface was half its size, set out west in 1492

to find a shorter trade route to the Orient. He landed in N. America

thinking it was Japan or India.

He though till his death that the natives were island tribal off the Asian coast.

History of Marine ScienceSoon after, explorers corrected Columbus’s error and charts

were drawn, but again underestimating the size of the Americas and the Pacific.

“Ferdinand Magellan” sailed a Spanish ship west in 1519, he was killed in the Philippians and the only 18 of the original 260

survived returning to Spain after 3 years to be the first to circumnavigate the Earth.

History of Marine SciencePart II – Voyaging with Science

History of Marine ScienceIn the 18th century, the three European powers,

England, France and Spain, needed sea power and dependable sea outposts to fuel their colonial

aspirations around the world.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceScientific oceanography began with “James Cook” of the British

Navy and his ship, “HMS Endeavour”, in 1768. In addition to creating a British presence in the South Seas, he had several

scientific goals as well:• Visit Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus across the Sun.• Went south to find theoretical southern continent.

• Charted New Zealand and Australia's “Great Barrier Reef”.• Made notes of natural history and human habitation.

History of Marine ScienceJames Cook’s 2nd and 3rd voyages in 1772 & 1776:• Charted Tonga, Easter Island, New Caledonia & S. Georgia

• Circumnavigated at high latitudes • Unsuccessfully tried to find a passage over Canada and Siberia

• Discovered Hawaii• Charted the west coast of N. America

As scientists, he and his crew had high accuracy, were thorough and complete in descriptions. They took samples of marine life, plants and animals, the ocean floor and geological formations. This marine scientist peacefully changed the map of the world more than any other explorer.

History of Marine ScienceThe key to accurate plotting of ocean charts and positions is a

good clock! If you measure the angle of a shadow at time 0, sail east or west

and get the shadow angle again, and knowing that the Earth turns at 15o/hour (360o/24 hours), then knowing the time

between the two points can determine how degrees longitude you traveled.

“John Harrison” made such a clock called a chronometer in 1736. He perfected its design in 1760 called the Number Four.Number One Number Four

(spring wound fit for sea use)

John Cook navigated with this clock.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceIn 1769, “Benjamin Franklin”

published charts showing the Gulf Stream currents to shorten travel

time across the Atlantic.

History of Marine Science“Sir James Clark Ross” discovered the magnetic

South at the North Pole in 1831 and …

The magnetic pole moves about 10-40 km each year to the N-NW.

History of Marine ScienceTaking sediment samples from the ocean floor had

been difficult and impossible in deep water.During the early to mid 1800’s this process was

perfected. Depths that are determined are called soundings. The first to do this was “Sir James Clark

Ross” in 1840.Sir James Clark Ross

First deep soundings and sampling in South Atlantic in 1840 shown to be at a

depth of 4433 & 4893 m

History of Marine Science…the magnetic north at the South Pole in Antarctica in 1840.

Mt. Erebus,southerly most volcano on Earth.

McMurdo Sound, edge of the continent.

“Great Ice Barrier”, edge of Antarctica ice sheet, 55 m high.

Side Note:These were the last sail powered ships to explore the South Pole.

History of Marine ScienceSide Note:

The “Ross Ice Shelf” is being looked at very closely today. Being over the ocean water, it is very venerable to melting as ocean temperatures rise.

Influx of melt water in Antarctica could raise ocean levels by meters.

Deep crevices where the ice shelf meets land

A

B

FYI

History of Marine ScienceThe first US Government marine science vessel, “USS Vincennnes” and 5 other vessels, were launched in

1838 and carried the “US Exploring Expedition”.Lt. Charles Wilkes

History of Marine Science

The US Exploring Expedition team’s goals:• Circumnavigate the globe showing the flag• Whale scouting and mineral gathering• Observing and charting (241 in all)

• Disprove Hollow Earth Theory with holes at poles• Confirm Antarctica was a landmass continent• Confirm Charles Darwin’s theory of coral atolls

• Collect specimens and artifacts.

The landmark American final report was contained in 19 volumes of maps, charts, text and illustrations.

History of Marine ScienceIn 1842, “Matthew

Maury”, the Father of Physical Oceanography, had meticulously gone through the US Navy’s ship logs and compiled

coherent wind and ocean current charts worldwide. His charts

significantly decreased ocean voyage times.

History of Marine ScienceIn 1859, “Charles Darwin”, made detailed observations about the different characteristics of organisms living in isolation on the Galapagos Islands. He theorized that evolution (change in organisms) is affected by natural selection (survival of the fittest), adaptation and selective breeding.

History of Marine ScienceAs far as notes on marine life, “Charles Darwin” had drag nets for collecting and observing krill. He studied lagoon, estuaries and sea shores.He was actually an expert on barnacles before his voyage on the Beagle.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=03YKT7ytJdE

History of Marine ScienceThe longest purely scientific expedition ever (4 years), “Challenger Expedition”, got underway in 1872. The

HMS Challenger was a Royal Navy steam corvette vessel run by university trained scientists, who coined

the word Oceanography, their enterprise at hand.

History of Marine Science…one major goal was to determine if life existed below 549 m, the depth upon which no life was

thought to exist due to extreme pressure and absence of light. They resoundingly showed that it does.

Deep dredge,492 total sounding and grabs uncovered 4717 new species.

The deepest sounding was 8185 m, near the Marianas Trench north of the Philippians .

History of Marine ScienceChallenger Expedition:

• Took salinity, temperature, density readings• 151 open water trawls to collect samples

• Stored 77 deep water samples• Collected information on ocean currents, meteorology and sediments.

• 1000’s pounds of specimens• Collected sea floor magnesium nodules and minerals (sparking

interest in marine mining)• Stimulated a new area of study, “Marine Biology”

The final 50 volume report was a foundation for the new science of “Oceanography” and spinoffs from their research

findings proved that natural science research could be a good investment.

Modern Marine ScienceA Norwegian, “Fridtjof Nansen”, allowed his ship to be

trapped in Artic ice for four years (1893-96) and drifted during that time with the ice 1650 km. He took numerous soundings

and proved that there was no continent at the North Pole.

FYI

Modern Marine ScienceAnother Norwegian, “Roald Amundsen”, was the first to reach

the geographic South Pole in 1911.

FYI

Modern Marine ScienceIn 1925, the German expedition, “Meteor”, crisscrossed the

South Atlantic for two years with and electronic echo sounder and demonstrated the ocean bottom was rugged and not a

flat (ocean) floor.

67,000 soundings made

Modern Marine ScienceIn 1947, the Norwegian explorer, “Thor Heyerdahl” sailed the raft, “Kon-Tiki” from S. America to Easter Island to show that

S. Americans could have peopled the island. Later in 2011 tests showed that Easter island inhabitants do have some

S. American DNA.101 day trip

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yS2AquqLU-g

Modern Marine ScienceIn 1951, a new “HMS Challenger II” used new precise high-

tech echo sounders to take soundings of Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea.

When it found the deepest part of the oceans in the Western Pacific, they named it “Challenger Deep” after their first

namesake.

Side Note: what the first “Challenger” took four hours to do, the new “Challenger” could do in seconds.

Modern Marine ScienceIn 1958, the US nuclear submarine, “Nautilus”, sailed from

Alaska to Norway underneath the North Pole Artic ice.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHfx8iT_1Qs

FYI

Modern Marine ScienceIn 1960, at the “Marianas Trench”, US Navy Lt. “Don Walsh”

and Swiss engineer “Jacques Piccard” set a record for the deepest manned dive in the bathyscaph, “Trieste”.

Descent: 4 ft/s for 5 hr to 35,800 ft. Pressure is 6 tons/in2

Verified life exists at that depthDiscovered sea cucumber

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MXgqqmc1l8

Modern Marine ScienceIn 1968 through the present, deep ocean floor drilling

technology was able to collect cores samples of the ocean floor which were used as strong evidence of

sea floor spreading and plate tectonics.

“D/V Chikyu” (Earth)

• Japan’s D/V Chikyu drills to the seismogenic zone to install monitoring devices to obtain earthquake information.

• Drills into Earth’s mantel to obtain information its effect on global environmental changes.

Modern Marine ScienceAs the demands of oceanography increases beyond what can be learned in a single voyage, oceanographic institutes began to be established in the twentieth century. The most famous

alumnus of the first institute, “Prince Albert Institute of Oceanography” in Monaco (est. 1906) was “Jacques

Cousteau”. Jacques was the co-inventor of the SCUBA tank.

RV Calypso 1950-1997

aqualungJacques Cousteau1910-1997

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KdSipdXBStA

1942

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BgvzrVD6xww

Modern Marine ScienceThe three main US marine institutes are:“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT) 1871

“Scripps Institution of Oceanography” La Jolla, Calf. (UC) 1903“Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory” (Columbia U.) 1949

Modern Marine Science“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)

Goals:• UNDERSTAND the ocean and its importance to

Earth and humanity• EXPLORE the ocean in all its depth and

complexity• EDUCATE scientists, students, decision-makers,

and the public

Modern Marine Science“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)

Fleet of 4 ships

R/V Atlantis R/V Knorr R/V Tioga R/V Neil Armstrong

FYI

Modern Marine Science“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)

And many submersibles, including “Alvin” 1964, one of the first manned deep diving submersible. Many updates has kept it state of the art.A list of accomplishments:• Located lost hydrogen bomb in 1966• Explored first hydrothermal vent in 1970’s• Surveyed Titanic wreck in 1986• Many other discoveries

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pho8VwUXHs8

Modern Marine Science“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)

An unmanned submersible, “Jason ROV” 1988, is tethered to a ship that is locating the ROB by a dynamic positioning system. The ROV collects all kinds of scientific measurements, has a manipulated arm and a sample collection tray.Jason was replaced by Jason II in early 2000’s.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rMzyleoQZpw

Modern Marine Science“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)

Film maker, James Cameron, rode HOV “Deep Sea Challenger” to the deepest part of the ocean in 2012 with several HD cameras aboard.The pilot’s steel sphere is 2.5 inches thick and withstands Challenger Deep’s 16,500 lb/in2.

http://www.deepseachallenge.com/

FYI

Modern Marine ScienceThe three main US marine institutes are:

“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)“Scripts Institution of Oceanography” La Jolla, Calf. (UC)

“Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory” (Columbia U.)

“Flip” (floating instrument platform) 1964 is a stationary 355 foot long 700 ton research ship. Once flipped, the majority of

the ship is beneath the wave action. Most of its research centers around ocean acoustics.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQxQfQU_hsk

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r25dZFgZ14c

Modern Marine ScienceThe three main US marine institutes are:

“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)“Scripts Institution of Oceanography” La Jolla, Calf. (UC)

“Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory” (Columbia U.)

Mission statement: To seek fundamental knowledge about the origin, evolution and future of the natural world. Its

scientists study the planet from its deepest interior to the outer reaches of its atmosphere, on every continent and in

every ocean, providing a rational basis for the difficult choices facing humanity.

FYI

Modern Marine ScienceThe three main US marine institutes are:

“Woods Hole” on Cape Cod (MIT)“Scripts Institution of Oceanography” La Jolla, Calf. (UC)

“Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory” (Columbia U.)

Over five decades, they have shed light on how natural climate cycles work; the central role of atmospheric carbon dioxide; the hidden role of oceans; the potential effects on

nature and on human societies; and, most recently, potential ways to address human-influenced climate change.

FYI

Modern Marine ScienceOther US government agencies involved:

“Department of the Navy” – interested in research of oceans related to national defense

“National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration” (NOAA) 1807 – facilitates commercial uses of the oceans:

• National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service• National Marine Fisheries Service• National Ocean Service• National Weather Service• Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research

FYI

Modern Marine Science“NASA” launched the first marine science satellite, “Seasat”,

in 1978. Marine scientists use data from this satellite to determine ocean wave heights by the use of radar, ocean

surface temperatures, amount other things.

Joint NASA and French Space agencies launched “TOPEX/Poseidon” (topography experiment) in 1995 that

orbits the oceans in a short time and can locate the center of the Earth to within 1 cm and therefore know the height of the oceans with high accuracy. Others satellites can plot wind and

ocean currents speeds and directions very accurately.

FYI

History of Marine ScienceThe twentieth century would bring about contemporary oceanography that would be technically ambitious and

expensive. In this age the deep ocean floor is coming into reach.Some big questions and challenges in Marine Science:

• Human activity impact on the oceans• Monitoring of large amounts of data in a complex ocean systems

• What processes affect sea ice changes in artic regions• Predicting underwater disasters and developing warning system

• How can paleo-oceanography records predict the future• How will climate change affect ocean chemistry and life

• How do changes in marine species affect overall ecosystems• How are invasive species affecting ecosystems

• How does the influx of artic meltwater affect southern currents• How is overfishing by humans affecting ocean overall health• How can world governments work together in developing plans

• …..