HISTORY OF LATVIA

A brief survey

History is one of the cornerstones of Latvian identity. Latvians take pride in their

history, although it is filled with such contrasting experiences – bright periods of peace,

prosperity and joy, as well as dark times of war and conflict, when the territory of

Latvia was devastated and the Latvian people faced the brink of annihilation. Latvia’s

history is an integral part of world history, because Latvians alone did not shape the

events that affected their lives. Latvia’s strategic geopolitical situation and its location

along important trading routes by the Baltic Sea have always made it an object of keen

interest to foreign peoples and powers.

In this richly illustrated booklet you will find a brief, but fact-filled look into the

most important periods of Latvia’s history – from the Ice Age and the first settler’s of

Latvian land, to the beginning of the 21st century, when Latvia became an inseparable

part of European and global socio-economic processes. You will learn how the German

Crusaders, the Swedish, Polish and Russian empires, the German Third Reich and the

Soviet occupation influenced Latvia. You will also gain insights into Latvia’s first period

of independence, from 1918 until 1940, as well as the end of the Soviet occupation and

restoration of sovereignty in 1991.

9000 BC-13th century Ancient History of the Latvians

12th century-1914 The Age of German, Polish, Swedish, and Russian Rule in Latvia

1914-1939 The Fight for Independence and the Republic of Latvia

1939-1980s The Loss of Independence, Second World War and Soviet Era in Latvia Loss of Independence The Second World War in Latvia The Soviet Era in Latvia

From the 1980s Reinstating Independence and Modern Latvia

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Ancient History

of the Latvians9000 BC-13th century

Amber — long ago this was considered

to be ‘Baltic gold’.

Pots from Sārnate, Middle Neolithic,

reconstruction.

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Bone arrowheads from the Middle

Neolithic settlement on an island in

Lake Lubāns, 3500-2000 BC. Since then,

the geography of lakes and rivers has

changed.

A Neolithic wooden sculpture — an

anthropomorphic god of the ancient Balts.

The territory known today as Latvia has been inhabited since 9000 BC. In the first half of 2000 BC, the proto-Balts or early Baltic peoples arrived. They were the forefathers of the Latvian people. At the time when the proto-Balts arrived on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, ancient Finnic peoples had already long inhabited this territory. They are considered to be the early ancestors of contemporary Estonians, Finns and Livs.

At the beginning of this era the territory known today as Latvia became famous as a trading crossroads. The famous ‘route from the Vikings to the Greeks’ mentioned in ancient chronicles stretched from Scandinavia, through Latvian territory along the river Daugava to ancient Russia and the Byzantine Empire. The Balts of this time actively participated in this trading network. Across the European continent, Latvia’s coast was renowned as a place for obtaining amber. Up to and during the Middle Ages, amber was more valuable than gold in many places. Amber from the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea was known as far away as ancient Greece and the Roman Empire.

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Ancient Latgallians and their clothing, 11-13th centuries.

In the AD 900s, the ancient Balts began to establish definable tribal realms. Gradually, four individual Baltic tribal cultures developed: Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, Semigallians (kurši, latgaļi, sēļi, and zemgaļi). The largest of them was the Latgallian tribe, which had the most advanced socio-political development.

In the 1100s and 1200s, the Couronians were aggressive people, engaged in raiding, looting and pillaging. Located on the west coast of the Baltic, they became known as the ‘Baltic Vikings’. Their contemporaries, the inland Latgallians, Selonians and Semigallians, were known as peace-loving and prosperous farmers. The Latgallians had the most advanced state-like formations (civitates in medieval Latin chronicles): Atzele, Jersika, Koknese and Tālava.

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RIGA

LATGALLIANS

SELIANSSEMIGALLIANS

BALTS

COURO

NIANS

LIVSLIVS

EASTERN SLAVS

FINNO-UGRIANS

GULF OF FINLAND

Most people worked the land and supplemented their diet through hunting, fishing, and bee-keeping.

Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, and Semigallians all spoke Baltic languages that belonged to the family of Indo-European languages. Livs (lībieši), who spoke a Finno-Ugric language, and lived in the territories adjoining today’s Gulf of Rīga, were linguistically unique in this otherwise Baltic region.

The beliefs of the ancient Latvians included a heavenly father called Dievs (God). The word Dievs has Indo-European connections, since similar words can be found in other Indo-European languages (Dyaus in Indo-Aryan, Zeus in Greek, Deus in Latin, etc.) There were other mythological figures as well, for example: Pērkons (Thunder), Dieva

Bronze jewellery of ancient Balts,

10th-12th centuries, reconstruction.

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A Namejs ring, named after the

legendary 13th century Semigallian

leader, Namejs. Historical information

suggests that this identifying symbol

was worn by ancient Semigallian

nobility. Today it is worn as an assertion

of Latvian identity.

Jewellery of the ancient Balts, 6-11th

centuries: crossbow brooches, bracelet.

Āraiši – a reconstructed lake-dwelling

settlement of ancient Balts, 9th century.

dēli (Sons of God), Laima (Fate or Fortune) and other deities, mainly maternal figures — female patronesses of some specific activities or places (Mother of the Sea, Mother of the Forests etc.). One of the most important gods was the god of thunder and storms, Pērkons, who fertilised the earth and cleared it of the power of evil. Pērkons was imagined as a stern, bearded and powerfully built man who traversed the sky in a fiery chariot drawn by swift horses, or as riding a fiery horse. His head was crowned with a wreath of flames. In one hand he held lightning bolts, and in the other, a heavy stone axe. Historical records and Baltic folklore have preserved the names and functions of about 200 Baltic gods and goddesses.

Written sources of the 13th century list the names of some of the greatest leaders or kings of the Baltic and Finno-Ugrian tribes: Lamekins among the Couronians, Tālivaldis among the Latgallians, Namejs (Nameisis) and Viestarts among the Semigallians, and Ako and Kaupo among the Livs. The most renowned leader was Semigallian Namejs, almost a mythical figure in modern Latvian literature. He is believed to have attempted a significant military campaign in 1286, of allied Baltic tribes against the invading German military contingent known as the Livonian Order (Latin: Fratres militiae Christi de Livonia).

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A village of the 11-13th centuries (reconstruction).

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12th century-1914

The Age of

German, Polish,

Swedish, and Russian

Rule in LatviaBecause of its strategic geographic location, the Latvian territory was frequently invaded by neighbouring nations, largely defining the fate of Latvia and its people. By the late 12th century, Latvia was increasingly visited by traders from Western Europe who used Latvia’s longest river, the Daugava, as a trade route to Russia.

Compared with other countries around Europe, Christianity arrived in the territory of Latvia relatively late. German traders appeared at the close of the 12th century, bringing with them missionaries who attempted to convert the pagan Baltic and Finno-Ugrian tribes to the Christian faith. Out of loyalty to their ancient pantheistic beliefs, the Balts resisted the imposition of a foreign religion, especially the ritual of christening.

In 1198 Pope Innocent III proclaimed a crusade against the Baltic peoples, without any significant results. In 1199 Albert of Buxhoeveden (c.1165-1229) was named as a Bishop of Ikšķile — also where the first western church in the territory of Latvia was located. He convinced Innocent III to proclaim a second Baltic crusade. In the spring of 1200, twenty-three

A fragment of the Latin text of the

‘Heinricus’ Livonian Chronicle’ (Heinrici

Chronicon Livoniae), which depicted

events in the territory of Latvia between

1180 and 1227. In this fragment, from a

17th century copy of the chronicle, the

foundation of Rīga in 1201 is described.

The emblem of the Livonian Brothers

of the Sword, later called the Livonian

Order.

The seal of Bishop Albert, the founder

of Rīga, 1225.

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ships and five hundred armed German soldiers were hired to assist the Christian missionaries in a campaign to forcibly convert the people of the region. In 1201 Bishop Albert began building the city of Rīga near the mouth of the river Daugava, where Liv villages were located on the Rīdzene River. Rīga became the largest and most powerful city on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. The founding of Rīga was the beginning of urban history in the whole Baltic area.

As the German soldiers of the Livonian Order seized control of the region, the development of separate tribal realms and state-like formations in ancient Latvia came to an end.

Among religious orders, Cistercians and Dominicans played the most important role in Livonia. The Cistercians established the first monastery in Daugavgrīva (German: Dünamünde) in 1205-1207 which became a sort of Western diplomatic centre in the Baltics. In the1200s, a confederation of feudal nations was developed under German rule and named Livonia. The territory included today’s Latvia and Estonia. The confederation of Livonia remained an important factor in the politics of Northern Europe until the second half of the 16th century. Livonia was the part of a mainly Germanic conglomeration of lands of the Holy Roman Empire.

Structure of the Holy Roman Empire.

Illustrations from the Nuremberg

Chronicle (Die Schedelsche Weltchronik),

by Hartmann Schedel (1440-1514).

An image of Pope Innocent III (who

was Pope 1198-1216) from a medieval

document. A papal bull issued by

Innocent III began the second crusade in

the Baltic territory.

The stamp of Rīga city in 1225.

A battle between the Couronians and the German crusaders near

the coast of Gotland in the Baltic Sea, 18 April 1210. It was the

greatest victory of the ancient Latvians over the crusaders in the

Baltic Sea.

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A map of Hansa cities from 1539 (Carta

marina et Descriptio septemtrionalium

terrarum ac mirabilium rerum in eis

contentarum, diligentissime elaborata

Anno Domini 1539 Veneciis liberalitate

Reverendissimi Domini Ieronimi Quirini).

Walter von Plettenberg (c.1450-1535),

Master of the Livonian Order (1494–

1535) and one of the greatest leaders of

the Livonian knights.

In 1282, Rīga and later Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese, Kuldīga, and Valmiera were included in the northern German trading organisation, the Hanseatic League (Hansa). Rīga subsequently became an important centre not only for east-west trade, but for the entire eastern Baltic region, developing close cultural contacts with Western Europe.

The 16th century was a time of great change for the inhabitants of Latvia, notable for the Reformation and the collapse of the Livonian nation.

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, relations with Russia became strained. In 1501 Walter von Plettenberg (c.1450-1535), the Master of the Livonian Order, managed to gather the forces of Livonia to successfully fight the invading Russians. He captured several Russian strongholds, including Pskov, Ostrov, Izborsk and Ivangorod, and besieged Novgorod, but failed to protect Livonia against devastating Russian raids. Plettenberg made an alliance with the Lithuanian Grand Prince Alexander against the Russians. He even tried to convince the

The coat of arms of Rīga 1349.

The stamp of Rīga city in 1368.

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Pope Alexander VI to issue a crusading bull against the Russians. Finally he made peace with Grand Prince Ivan III of Muscovy in Pskov in 1503, but with no territorial changes. Plettenberg can be considered one of the most gifted political leaders of Livonia.

After Martin Luther posted his theses in 1517, Lutheran ideas began to emerge in Livonia. In the early 1520s Rīga became an important centre of Reformation ideas in Northern Europe. By the mid-16th century Lutheranism had become dominant among ruling elites.

After the so-called Livonian War (1558-1583) — a lengthy military conflict between Russia and its western neighbours for control of present-day Latvia and Estonia — Latvian territory came under Polish-Lithuanian rule. The confederation of Livonia ceased to exist. The ones to benefit most from the new political situation were the knights of the of the Livonian Order. In 1562 the Order was secularised, and its last master Gotthard Kettler (1517-1587) became the duke of a new province called Courland-Semigallia (abbreviated Courland, today Kurzeme-Zemgale).

An old map of Livonia, first

published in 1573.

The coat of arms of Rīga, 1586.

Free city of Rīga 1 Schilling, 1570.

An old map of Livonia, first

published in 1573.

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The Lutheran Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation in Livonia stimulated the consolidation of the Latvian nation and emergence of the written Latvian language. The first books in the Latvian language were published. The two churches competed for membership by publishing texts in Latvian. Following the Catholics’ printing of the Cathechismus Catholicorum in 1585, the Lutheran church printed its own catechism, the Enchiridion, in 1586. The Lutheran faith was accepted in Kurzeme (Courland), Zemgale (Semigallia) and Vidzeme (Livland), but the Roman Catholic faith maintained its dominance in the eastern territory of Latvia — Latgale (Inflanty or Polish Latgale, Latgallia). It remains so to this day.

In the 1600s, the Duchy of Courland, once a part of

Luther’s Small Catechism (Enchiridion),

published in Latvian in 1586 — one

of the first books to be published in

Latvian.

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Livonia experienced a notable economic boom. The most successful ruler in the Duchy was Duke Jacob Kettler (1610-1682). During the period of his rule (1642-1682) Kurzeme became a regional power to be reckoned with. He established two colonies: an island in the estuary of the Gambia River in Africa and Tobago Island in the Caribbean Sea. Both were successful ventures until the end of Jacob’s reign, when the Duchy’s navy fell apart, but the Couronian place names from this period are still evident there today.

The economy of Courland flourished,

especially in ship-building and

metallurgy, under the rule of Jacob

Kettler in the mid-1600s.

Jacob Kettler (1610-1682), the Duke of

Courland (Kurzeme).

A map of James Island in the Gambia

River estuary and Tobago Island —

colonies of Courland in the 17th

century.

The naval flag of the Duchy of Courland

with the Duchy’s symbol — a lobster.

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However, during this time, the Duchy of Courland remained an object of interest for both Sweden and Poland. In 1621, during the Polish-Swedish war (1600-1629), Latgale remained under Polish control, but Vidzeme and Rīga came under Swedish rule, overshadowing Stockholm as the largest and most developed city in the Swedish kingdom. Rīga was economically and culturally part of a growing urban network linking the major states and cultures of Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. During this period the region of Vidzeme was known as the ‘Swedish bread basket’ because it supplied the larger part of the Swedish kingdom with wheat.

Awareness of the Latvian identity began in the 17th century. The Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, Semigallians and part of the Livs began to identify as a culturally unified nation — the Latvians (latvieši). Most of the Latvian population were farmers and by the second half of the 17th century, most of them were serfs.

In the early 18th century, the Great Northern War broke out, largely as a result of the Russian Empire’s desire to expand its territorial claims to the strategically important territory of Latvia. One of its key goals was to secure and control the wealthy and prestigious city of Rīga.

Rīga in 1612.

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The Port of Rīga in 1650 — loading of

herring.

The Great Northern War in the territory

of Latvia. The King of Sweden, Karl XII,

and his army fording the Daugava River

near Rīga, July 1701.

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In 1710, the Russian Tsar, Peter I, conquered Vidzeme. The combination of Vidzeme and Rīga provided Russia with a clear passage to Europe via the Baltic Sea. In 1772 the Russian Empire as a result of First Polish partition gained Latgale. In reorganising its new territories, the Russian government abolished Latgale as a separate unit and divided it into separate districts in the Russian-dominated Polotsk province. After the Great Northern War the Russian imperial influence steadily grew in the Duchy of Courland. By the end of the 18th century, all of Latvia’s territory was under Russian rule — Courland became part of the Russian Empire in 1795.

Dome Cathedral in Rīga, 1780s.

The first Bible in the Latvian

language (New and Old Testaments)

was translated by Johann Ernst Glück

(1654-1705), a Lutheran priest of

German origin, and was published in

Rīga in 1689.

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Latvian celebration of wedding (18th century drawing),

which since ancient times has been associated with an

abundance of food and drink. It is hard to imagine a

Latvian wedding without the ancient festive dishes —

pīrāgi (bacon rolls), sweet platter breads and beer.

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Industry spread quickly in the late 1700s, bringing with it a major population growth. Vidzeme and Kurzeme became Russia’s most developed provinces, but conditions for peasants became worse: they were poor, and noblemen’s power was unlimited after the annexation to the Russian Empire. Despite this, however, political preconditions and the developing economy caused serfdom to be abolished in Vidzeme in 1817, in Kurzeme in 1819, and in Latgale in 1861.

In the mid-19th century, with the rise of national consciousness throughout Europe, ethnic Latvians experienced a powerful ‘awakening’ of national identity. The first newspapers in the Latvian language were printed, and active cultural development took place. The first Latvian National Song Festival was held in 1873 — the beginning of a long-standing tradition with strong national overtones.

The latter half of the 19th century marked a period of national rebirth — the most active members of Latvian social and cultural life, the so-called New-Latvians (jaunlatvieši), demanded the same rights long-enjoyed by other nations. Starting from 1862, the weekly Latvian language newspaper Peterburgas Awizes parodied and criticised Baltic German claims to cultural and political superiority.

Krišjānis Barons (1835-1923), promoter

of the Latvian national awakening of the

19th century; collector, compiler and

researcher of Latvian folksongs (dainas)

— some dating back hundreds of years;

editor of the newspaper Peterburgas

Awizes.

Krišjānis Valdemārs (1825-1891), main ideologue of

the New Latvian movement and the most prominent

social and political figure of the time; publicist,

editor of the Peterburgas Awizes. Valdemārs’ ideas

have been very influential in the development of

national romanticism and the history of Latvian

public opinion. He also played a large role in the the

development of Latvian seafaring.

The first newspapers printed in the

Latvian language from the 1800s:

Latweeschu Awizes (‘Latvian Newspaper’,

est. 1824), Peterburgas Awizes

(‘St Petersburg Newspaper’, est. 1862) and

literary magazine Austrums (est. 1885).

Barquentine Anna Wictoria, built in 1878 in Ainaži. The first

two Latvian peasant-built ships were built in 1857: the Peter

Sofia in Mangaļi and the Victoria in Pabaži.

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At the end of the 19th century, Riga’s appearance was dominated by the expressive,

colourful and imaginative flourishes of Jugendstil (Art Noveau) architecture. Many of Rīga’s

most impressive Jugendstil buildings can be found in the city centre. Today, Rīga is looked

upon as Europe’s distinctive Jugendstil metropolis.

Rīga — the most modern city of the Russian Empire. Industry

in the Latvian territory flourished rapidly at the turn of the

20th century.

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New political undercurrents penetrated Latvian society in the late 19th century and became increasingly distinct at the beginning of the 20th century. Latvia was introduced to Marxism in the 1890s, which was propagated by the socialist movement New Current (Jaunā strāva). The New Current is considered the predecessor of the Latvian Social Democrats. The movement’s political activities were associated with protests against ‘capitalistic exploitation’, general demands for democratisation of the political establishment and belief in the victory of the working class, which would lead to general prosperity for the people. The first Latvian political party, the Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party (Latvijas Sociāldemokrātiskā strādnieku partija or LSDSP), was founded in Rīga in 1904. The newly founded party began to demand improvements in workers’ social conditions and turned against the existing social order in the Baltic provinces of the Russian Empire. At that time, rights for the people were still embedded in a range of duties and rules which were rigidly structured by social class.

The constant curtailment of civic rights and freedoms in Russia, the landless condition of the peasants, the privileges of the landed gentry and attempts to Russify the local population all led Latvians to be dissatisfied with the

Rainis (real name Jānis Pliekšāns,

1865-1929) and his wife Aspazija (real

name Elza Rozenberga, 1865-1943).

Rainis was New Current activist and

the most prominent Latvian Social

Democrat. Rainis is considered the most

distinguished Latvian writer and poet of

the 20th century. Aspazija is considered

one of the most popular female writers

in Latvia.

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social and political situation. On 13 January 1905, the LSDSP declared a general strike. About 20,000 factory workers participated in a demonstration on the streets of Rīga. A widespread movement took hold, and demands were made for improved social conditions and more political rights. In rural areas the movement was aimed against the local aristocrats — the German landed gentry — who owned most of the land and who had usurped local power. In the eyes of many Latvians the 1905 Revolution was largely directed against the Baltic German aristocracy, and many manors in the countryside were destroyed, prompting the government authorities to send punitive expeditions to Baltic provinces.

Later, in history books, these events of 1905 were called the ‘Latvian Revolution’. During this revolution several nationally oriented Latvian Social Democrats publicly voiced, for the first time, the necessity to unite all Latvian-inhabited regions into an autonomous state — Latvia. This idea was especially popularised by Miķelis Valters (1874-1968), the nationally oriented leading ideologue of the Social Democratic Union, who opposed the lack of rights and undemocratic socio-political order of the Russian Empire.

The decade after the 1905 Revolution displayed a mix of old and new political realities. The Baltic German aristocracy agreed to a modest reform of their self-government, but it was already too late. Many Latvians now called for democratisation and the idea of national autonomy arose.

Miķelis Valters (1874-1968), originator

of the idea of independent Latvian

statehood and one of the founders of

the Republic of Latvia.

A rally in Dundaga (western Latvia) in October 1905.

A monument dedicated to

the 1905 Revolution.

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The Fight for

Independence and

the Republic of Latvia

1914-1939

In the early 20th century and up until the First World War (1914-1918), the conditions were not favourable for Latvians to establish their own independent country. Latvians were also not convinced that this was possible. The territory of present-day Latvia was divided into a number of provinces that belonged to the Russian Empire. The Latvian people lived in the Russian provinces (gubernia in Russian) of Kurzeme (Courland), Vidzeme (Livonia) and Vitebsk. The Baltic German aristocracy had traditionally made up the political and economic ruling class in this region. Latvian participation in the political process was restricted.

The First World War caused significant events with far-reaching consequences in Baltic area. As the First World War spread to the Latvian territory in the spring of 1915 and directly affected the entire Latvian population, a powerful pro-autonomy movement developed. The Latvian intelligentsia supported the Russian war effort, grouping local Baltic Germans with Germany, as enemies of the Empire.

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The First World War in Latvia. The Latvian

Riflemen positioned in Latvian and Russian

territory, 1915-1916.

Courageous Latvian Riflemen (latviešu strēlnieki) fought on the Tsarist Russian side during the war, and earned recognition for their bravery across Europe. The notion that the Latvian Riflemen would be fighting in the name of the Latvian people and for their future freedom had become widespread. The biggest and bloodiest battles of the Latvian Riflemen took place on the outskirts of Rīga on 23 December 1916 (Old Style calendar). The battles began shortly before Christmas, and have thus entered history as the ‘Christmas Battles’. During these battles the Latvian Riflemen displayed tremendous courage, which was widely reflected in the foreign press.

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The Act of the Proclamation of

Independence, Rīga, 18 November

1918.

German army in Rīga, autumn 1917.

In September 1917 in German-occupied Rīga, Latvian political parties formed a coalition, the Democratic Bloc (Demokrātiskais bloks). At the beginning of December in Valka, northern Latvia, Latvian organisations finished forming the Latvian Provisional National Council (Latviešu pagaidu nacionālā padome), which at that time became the most extensive representative institution of the Latvian people. At a session on 30 January 1918, the Latvian Provisional National Council decided to establish a sovereign and democratic Latvia that would encompass all Latvian-inhabited regions. Post-war confusion enabled pro-independence forces to consolidate their efforts and pursue their dream.

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Article announcing the Proclamation

of Independence on the front page of

the largest Latvian daily newspaper

Jaunākās Ziņas, 19 November 1918.

Jānis Čakste, President of the

Constitutional Assembly (1920-1922)

and first President of Latvia (1922-1927).

The first Cabinet of Ministers of

independent Latvia headed by Kārlis

Ulmanis, November 1918.

The national coat of arms of the Republic of Latvia

was affirmed in this format on June 15, 1921. The

national coat of arms combines symbols of Latvian

national statehood as well as symbols of ancient

historical districts. The sun in the upper part of the

coat of arms symbolises Latvian national statehood.

A stylised depiction of the sun was used as a symbol

of distinction and national identity by Latvian

Riflemen recruited into the Russian imperial army

during the First World War. The three stars above the

coat of arms embody the idea of the inclusion of

historical districts (Vidzeme, Latgale and combined

Kurzeme-Zemgale) into a united Latvia.

Kārlis Ulmanis, the Prime Minister of

Latvia (1918-1921; 1931; 1934-1940),

and the President of Latvia (1936-1940)

before the Soviet occupation.

On 17 November 1918, the Latvian Provisional National Council and the Democratic Bloc agreed to jointly form a provisional parliament, the Latvian People’s Council (Tautas padome), which resolved to found an independent and democratic republic. On the following day, 18 November 1918, on the basis of the previous day’s resolutions, the independent Republic of Latvia was proclaimed at a ceremonious meeting at the National Theatre in Rīga. The lawyer Jānis Čakste (1859-1927) was elected chairman of the Latvian People’s Council, and the agronomist Kārlis Ulmanis (1877-1942) became leader of the government.

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Unfortunately, the end of the war did not bring long-awaited peace for Latvia. At the end of 1918 the existence of the newly established government of independent Latvia was threatened with attack by the Russian Red Army, which also included conscripted Latvian Riflemen. Within a short span of time, the Bolsheviks succeeded in conquering almost the entire territory of Latvia, thereby leaving only a small area around Liepāja under the control of the Ulmanis government. The Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Pēteris Stučka (1865-1932), declared Soviet rule in the occupied territory of Latvia.

The government, headed by Ulmanis, rushed to form a national army in order to recapture the lost territory. Meanwhile, the position held by the Latvian government in Liepāja was threatened by remaining German militarists and the local Baltic Germans, who had established their own armed formation (Landeswehr in German). They deposed the Ulmanis government, which they considered anti-German, and created a cabinet under the leadership of the pastor Andrievs Niedra (1872-1942). Headed by local Germans and volunteers from the German army, this government recaptured Rīga from the Bolsheviks on 22 May 1919.

After capturing Rīga, the German military and political leadership saw an opportunity to establish a more German-oriented political regime in Latvia, and they turned their weapons against the Latvian national armed forces. Nevertheless, Estonian national armed forces together with Latvians gained victory over the Germans on 23 June 1919, near by Cēsis, and the Latvian-founded Ulmanis government was able to return to Rīga. However, German ambitions in the Baltics did not diminish. In the autumn, volunteers from the German army united under the leadership of the Russian adventurer Pavel Bermont-Avalov, whose intent was to renew the Russian Empire. Independent Latvia was their first object of attack. In early

Article on the front page of the Latvian

daily newspaper Brīvā Zeme ('Free

Land') announcing the victory over the

Bermont-Avalov’s troops, 11 November

1919.

A unit of Latvian independence fighters

in mid-1919.

A fragment of the Freedom Monument

in Rīga, which depicts Independence

War in Latvia (1918-1920). The Freedom

Monument, or Brīvības piemineklis, in

the capital city Rīga has become an

undisputed symbol of independence.

It was built from 1931 until 1935 from

donated funds.

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October 1919 Bermont-Avalov’s troops attacked Rīga. The Latvians thwarted this intrusion on the banks of the Daugava River, and by 11 November the Bermontians were driven out of Rīga. By the end of November they had been expelled from the Latvian territory altogether.

At the beginning of 1920, Bolshevik armed forces were forced from the area around Latvia’s eastern border. On 11 August 1920, Latvia signed a peace treaty with Soviet Russia, in which Russia acknowledged Latvia’s sovereignty and willingly gave up claims to the Latvian territory for all time. Soviet Russia was the first to recognise Latvia’s independence. However, future actions proved that these had been empty promises.

Peace, for which Latvia had waited so long, had finally arrived, and the work of building a new nation could begin. Deeply disillusioned by the Bolshevik totalitarian regime, Latvian refugees who had fled to Russia during the First World War continued to return to Latvia until 1927. Repatriates included Latvian Riflemen and former opponents of Latvian independence — more than 200,000 people overall.

On 26 January 1921, the victors of the First World War (Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, collectively known as the Allies) officially recognised Latvia’s independence. This was also a signal to other countries to recognise Latvia’s sovereignty. On 22 September 1921, Latvia and the other two Baltic countries were admitted to the most prominent international organisation of that time — the League of Nations. In the period between the world wars Latvia endeavoured to pursue a neutral foreign policy which was oriented toward close mutual co-operation between the Baltic countries and the League of Nations.

The Independence Battles. A unit of

the Latvian National Army in Rīga’s Old

Town, autumn 1919.

The Lāčplēsis Military Order

(established in 1919) is the first and

highest military award in the Republic

of Latvia. The military award was

conferred on soldiers of Latvia’s Army

and the former Latvian Riflemen

Regiments for merit in military action

as well as on foreigners who had

taken part in the struggle for the

liberation of Latvia or given other type

of contribution to the founding and

development of the state of Latvia. Over

nine years (since 1919) 2146 Lāčplēsis

Military Orders of all three classes were

awarded.

27

Once the situation stabilised and the country was liberated from foreign troops, the Constitutional Assembly (Satversmes Sapulce) convened and on 15 February 1922, adopted the Constitution of the Republic of Latvia. From here on the Constitution accorded the highest power in Latvia to the parliament, the Saeima, which was to elect the president and approve the Cabinet of Ministers. Jānis Čakste was elected first President of Latvia. The most influential political parties in Latvia after the war were the LSDSP and the civic-oriented Latvian Farmers’ Union (Latviešu Zemnieku savienība). National minorities in Latvia (Germans,

Jews and Russians) were also actively involved in the political process.

One of the most important tasks now was the revival of the economy, which had suffered tremendously during the war. The Latvian national monetary unit, the lat, was issued

in 1922. That same year the state began to implement agrarian reform, which called for the distribution of state property and land that had once been held by the Baltic

German landed gentry. Agrarian changes averted social tension in the country by making land available to former landless peasants and small farmers. This was a return to historic justice, as now the land belonged to those who actually lived

and farmed on it. Latvian agriculture was fully able to supply the country with food, and also introduced wide possibilities for the export of agricultural products (butter, bacon, flax, etc.) Agriculture was the largest sector of the economy, and it employed about two-thirds of the work force.

The Latvian national currency, a twenty

lat bill, 1925.

A scene from the film ‘Latvian Wedding in Nīca’ (Latviešu kāzas Nīcā), produced in 1931.

28

Latvian production in the late 1930s — the

VEF Minox photo camera, the smallest

photo camera in the world at that time; a

Latvian-produced aeroplanes, cars, and a

radio receiver.

Latvian industry rapidly revived and was oriented chiefly towards food production, textile manufacturing and timber processing. The electronics sector developed in the 1930s. Latvia’s largest electronics factory, VEF, manufactured modern radios, photo cameras and even aeroplanes. In the second half of the 1930s Latvia began to produce automobiles and trucks. With the help of foreign investment, Latvia built a modern high-voltage hydroelectric power plant.

29

In the 1930s Latvia achieved one of the highest standards of living in Europe. The country adopted a progressive social insurance system. Already in the 1920s, Latvia became known throughout the world as a country that took special care of the rights of national minorities. With financial support from the government, Latvia’s national minorities created their own autonomous school system. Latvia was often mentioned abroad as an example to other countries of the protection of minority rights.

The worldwide economic crisis of the early 1930s did not leave Latvia unscathed. The global crisis created political and economic tension in Latvian society. More radically inclined political circles thought that under these circumstances, the constitutionally defined party system was not sufficiently effective. The Latvian Farmers’ Union began drafting a bill to amend the Constitution, although the changes received no support from the other political parties. A coup d’etat took place on 15 May 1934. Parliament was dismissed and the activities of the political parties were suspended. Power was seized by the Prime Minister and member of the Latvian Farmers’ Union, Kārlis Ulmanis (who had also been leader of Latvia’s first government). By then, similar coups had already taken place in the majority of European countries, including the other two Baltic countries — Lithuania (December 1926) and Estonia (March 1934).

30

Virsaitis, flagship of the Latvian Navy

and submarines Spīdola and Ronis (early

1930s). During the Second World War, all

warships of independent Latvia that were

taken over by Soviet occupation forces

were destroyed.

The opening ceremony of the Brothers'

Cemetery (Military Cemetery) in Rīga

in 1936. The Brothers' Cemetery (Brāļu

kapi) is a memorial to and burial ground

for thousands of Latvian soldiers

who were killed between 1915 and

1920 in the First World War and the

Independence War.

Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics (1887-1925) —

first Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs

since proclamation of independence

until 1925. He had to overcome western

government’s desires that Russia should

remain undivided and originated idea

of the Union of the Baltic States.

Due to increased prosperity during the second half of the 1930s, there was little public opposition to the authoritarian rule of Kārlis Ulmanis, although the political parties that had gone underground were devising plans to bring back a parliamentary republic. During this time, international tension increased, and Latvia’s national security was weakening. The League of Nations demonstrated its inability to prevent international conflicts, and Germany was becoming more powerful. The leader of the German National Socialists, Adolph Hitler, had been plotting vague plans to annex the Baltic territory to the Third Reich. The USSR and its communist dictator, Stalin (Josif Dzhugashvili), were also scheming to get the Baltic countries under their control. The interests of Moscow and Berlin intersected in the Baltic States and momentarily united these ideological opponents.

The colour photo of the President of

Latvia Kārlis Ulmanis during the Latvian

Song Festival in 1938 (the German Agfa

became the first company to market in

Latvia colour film since 1937).

31

German Minister of Foreign Affairs,

Joachim von Ribbentrop, Soviet leader

Joseph Stalin and Soviet Commissar for

Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov after

the signing of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop’

pact in Moscow on 23 August 1939.

1939-1980sThe Loss of Independence, Second World War and Soviet Era in Latvia

Loss of IndependenceOn 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union and the German Third Reich signed a treaty of non-aggression, which contained a secret protocol concerning the division of Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. This treaty is usually referred to as the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’ after the two statesmen who signed it. As a result of this criminal treaty and other documents that were later signed between Moscow and Berlin, Latvia and the other Baltic countries became part of the Soviet sphere of influence. The 23 August treaty provided Germany with a chance to commence aggression against Poland on 1 September, which triggered the Second World War, while the Soviet Union found an opportunity to subdue the Baltic States.

On 5 October Moscow presented Latvia with an ultimatum, thereby forcing Latvian statesmen to sign the so-called treaty of ‘mutual assistance’, which called for the deployment of Soviet military bases in Latvia (a treaty of this nature had already been signed by Estonia on 28 September and would be signed by Lithuania on 10 October). Approximately 30 000 Red Army soldiers were garrisoned in ten army bases in Latvia, which was equivalent to the total number of troops in the Latvian Army at the time. In addition, ships from the Russian fleet were stationed in the ports of Ventspils and Liepāja. As a result, the total number of foreign troops in Latvia exceeded the number of soldiers in the Latvian Armed Forces. Latvia found itself in a very difficult situation. The government’s freedom to act was severely restricted, and Latvia’s independence was threatened.

32

The Loss of Independence, Second World War and Soviet Era in LatviaIn response to an incentive from the German Third Reich, about 80% of Latvia’s German minority (the Baltic Germans) moved to German territory in late 1939 and early 1940. At that point in time, Germans constituted the third-largest national minority in Latvia, after Russians and Jews, and made up more than 3% of the total population.

The Latvian government discerned a threat to its independence and empowered the Latvian ambassador in London with special authority to represent the country in case Latvia’s sovereignty was lost.

In May 1940 the Soviet press in Russia began to voice regular unsubstantiated accusations against the Baltic countries regarding alleged activities against Moscow. On 16 June 1940, an official memorandum was issued to Latvia by the Soviet Union, in which Moscow demanded the formation of a new government and the stationing of additional Soviet military units. The memorandum was a continuation of the Soviet Union’s illegal actions against the Baltic countries, which began on 23 August 1939. This was an act of blatant interference in the internal affairs of a sovereign country, and its goal was the dissolution of Latvia’s independence.

Unfortunately, Western countries showed no desire to assist the Baltic countries in averting their dismal fate. Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were left under the domination of the USSR’s aggressive tendencies. In an attempt to avoid bloodshed (war against the USSR), the Latvian government decided to fulfil Moscow’s peremptory demands. As a result, 100 000 Soviet Army troops occupied Latvia on 17 June 1940. Red Army units immediately seized control of all strategically important positions, thereby taking control of the entire country.

The secret protocol of the ‘Molotov-

Ribbentrop Pact’, which determined the

tragic fate of the Baltic countries.

33

With the help of various agents and the Red Army, Moscow introduced political changes that were favourable to the Soviet regime immediately after Latvia’s occupation. The

formation of a new government was announced on 20 June. A government was assembled of social and political activists who were favourably inclined toward Moscow, led by Professor Augusts Kirhenšteins (1872-1963). A political charade was organised on 14 and 15 July 1940 — elections were held for the new parliament

(the so-called ‘people’s parliament’), in which the Soviet regime allowed only pro-communist candidates to run for office. As a result, on 21 July the newly elected Soviet puppet parliament voted to make Latvia a part of the USSR.

The Sovietisation of Latvia began rapidly. Unlawful resolutions were adopted regarding the nationalisation (confiscation from its owners) of land, buildings, banks, and various types of commercial and

industrial enterprises. Moscow began to terrorise those Latvian social strata that it considered threatening to Soviet power. Thus, the period from the

summer of 1940 until June 1941 has entered history as the ‘Year of Terror’. On 14 June 1941, over 15 000 Latvians were deported in cattle cars to Siberia, where most of them perished. Those deported constituted Latvia’s elite: teachers, scientists, the intelligentsia, businessmen, politicians, and army officers.

Occupation of Latvia by the Soviet forces —

Russian tanks in Rīga on 17 June 1940.

Soviet government headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins

led Latvia into the USSR. The annexation was

formalized on 5 August 1940.

The Soviet occupation regime regularly

used a variety of propaganda techniques

to influence society. Depicted here

is a Soviet poster that was produced

immediately after the occupation in 1941

– ‘Proletariat of the world unite! Stand

proud beneath the international flags of

Marx-Engels and Lenin-Stalin!’.

Soviet repressions against Latvian

citizens — deportation of a Latvian

family. Large-scale deportations were

carried out in all three Baltic States

simultaneously on 13-17 June 1941.

34

The Second World War in LatviaSoviet subjugation of Latvia was interrupted by the beginning of the German-Soviet War and the rapid invasion of the Latvian territory by Nazi Germany’s armed forces. By 10 July 1941, German armed forces had occupied all of Latvia’s territory. Latvia became a part of Germany’s Reichskomissariat Ostland — the Province General of Latvia. Just as during the year under Soviet rule, Latvia was again an occupied territory. Anyone who disobeyed the German occupation regime, as well as those who had cooperated with the Soviet regime, were killed or sent to concentration camps. German authorities did not permit Latvia’s sovereignty or even the possibility of autonomy.

In violation of international rights, both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union unlawfully conscripted Latvians into their armed forces. During the Second World War more than 200 000 Latvian soldiers ended up in the rank and file of both occupation forces; approximately half of them were killed on the battlefield.

The Soviet Union included in its army some former military units of independent Latvia, as well as those Latvians who had ended up in Russia as a result of warfare or those who had formerly lived there. The authorities of Nazi Germany also mobilised former soldiers of the independent Latvian army. Initially, German authorities organised volunteer recruitment campaigns, but when the desired results were not obtained, soldiers were forcefully conscripted into the so-called ‘Latvian SS Volunteer Legion’ from 1943.

After the withdrawal of Russian troops

— a destroyed Russian BT-7 tank in Rīga,

1 July 1941.

The German occupation forces enter

Rīga on 1 July 1941. A painting from

that period accurately depicts the

march of German troops through a

devastated Rīga (in the background,

St Peter’s church in flames).

35

The first 1000 Latvian men conscripted for military service in the German army (Latvian Legion) on

29 March 1943.

A draft order into the so-called ‘Latvian

SS Volunteer Legion’, summer of 1943.

Latvia’s population perished not only on the battlefield. During the years of Nazi occupation, special campaigns exterminated approximately 70 000 Jews, 18 000 Latvians and 2 000 Roma — in total about 90 000 people. In the case of the Latvians, these were mostly civilians whose political convictions were unacceptable to the German occupation force. Jewish and Roma civilians were eliminated as a result of the inhuman Nazi theory of racial purity. A majority of Latvian Jewry had been murdered by late 1941, when it is estimated that there were only around 6000 Jews remaining in Latvia.

Many Latvians were actively involved in a resistance movement against the persecutions of the German occupation regime. For instance, Žanis Lipke (1900-1987) risked his life to save more than 50 Jews. Civic circles in Latvia were also dissatisfied with the German occupation regime and secretly plotted to reinstate a democracy. In order to carry out the plan for independence, an underground organisation was established, the Latvian Central Council, which published the outlawed publication Brīvā Latvija (‘Free Latvia’). This notably democratic periodical propagated the idea of renewing democracy in Latvia after the war.

Nazi Germany began to suffer regular defeats on the eastern front and was pushed back to the west. In mid-July 1944, the Soviet Army once again crossed Latvia’s pre-war eastern border, and by 13 October had already invaded Rīga. In mid-October the German army, which partly also included former soldiers from the Latvian Legion, was besieged in Kurzeme. At that time, Kurzeme was flooded with refugees from eastern Latvia who were fleeing Soviet rule, the Red Army and persecution. With no other reprieve in sight, many fled in fishermen’s boats and ships to Sweden and Germany, from where they drifted to various parts of the Western world (mainly North America and Australia). Approximately 150 000 Latvians ended up in exile in the West.

Žanis Lipke (1900-1987)

36

Soviet occupation forces re-entering

Jelgava and Rīga, 1944.

According to estimates, the population of Latvia decreased by half a million (25% less than in 1939) as a result of the war. The war also inflicted heavy losses on the economy — many historic cities were destroyed, as well as industry and infrastructure.

As of 1940, most of the democratic countries around the world did not recognise the incorporation of Latvia and the other Baltic States into the Soviet Union. The exception was Sweden, which surrendered to Moscow the members of the Latvian Legion who had ended up in Sweden at the end of the war, and handed over to the Soviets the diplomatic representative offices of the Baltic countries in Stockholm. In contrast, after the war, the United States of America became the most consistent defender of the Baltic people’s aspirations for renewed independence. Throughout the entire period of occupation, the diplomatic mission of independent Latvia continued to function in Washington, DC.

After the war, Latvian exiles founded several organisations, including the World Federation of Free Latvians in 1955 and represented the Latvian people to foreign governments and international organisations. During the following period of Soviet occupation, the World Federation of Free Latvians seized every opportunity to remind the world of the need to end Latvia’s occupation.

37

Propaganda poster of Stalin’s

totalitarian regime, 1950. Slogan on the

flag: ‘Onward towards Communism!’.

Fighters of the national resistance

movement — national partisans (late 40s-

early 50s).

The Soviet Era in LatviaWhereas the end of the Second World War brought freedom for many countries throughout the world, for Latvia it brought half a century of Soviet occupation. By 1945, Latvia was once again under total Soviet occupation and pre-war Soviet rule was reinstated. After the war, Moscow did everything in its power to quickly establish Russian law and order and to fully subjugate the population. Immediately following the re-occupation of Latvian territory, Moscow authorities began to persecute those who had cooperated with German Nazi forces. People were also arrested for activities during the period of independence, for their participation in or support for the resistance movement against the Soviet regime, for being suspected of being politically unreliable, for free thought, etc. The Russification of Latvian society began.

The forests of Latvia were full of fighters from the national resistance movement (including former members of the Latvian Legion) who believed that Western countries would come to Latvia’s aid and free the country from Soviet oppression. The national partisans, 20 000 in total, continued to actively resist Soviet rule long after the war had ended, until they were eliminated by the local Soviet armed forces. The final unit of national partisans surrendered only in 1956, which marked the end of military resistance to the Soviet regime.

38

Rīga in the 1950s.

Forced collectivisation. A single-house

farm being included in the collective

farm (kolhoz) in Zemgale, 1951.

During the post-war occupation period, Latvia was one of fifteen Soviet republics. Power in Latvia belonged entirely to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which also included the Communist Party of Latvia (Latvijas Komunistiskā partija). Other political parties or movements were prohibited. The first leader of the Communist Party of Latvia during the post-war period was Jānis Kalnbērziņš (1893-1986). Shortly after the end of the Second World War, the Communist Party and its structures gained control over all of Latvia. No important official could be confirmed in office without the approval of the communists.

On 25 March 1949, more than 44 000 people mostly rural residents were deported to Siberia in a sweeping repressive action. Deportees included people who were considered too wealthy for the Soviet regime, and those who had supported the anti-Soviet resistance movement — the national partisans. Their property was confiscated, which in many cases was a simple case of plunder.

Sources of Soviet history, including documents from the USSR Ministry for State Security (KGB) suggest that around 190 000 people suffered reprisals for being hostile to the Soviet regime from 1940 to 1953 (Stalin’s era), which constitutes approximately 10% of Latvia’s post-war population. The reprisals subsided following the death of Stalin, and after 1955 some of those exiled to Siberia could return to Latvia. At home, however, they were still faced with problems: they could not find work, a place to live, gain an education, or travel abroad. Generally these people were forced to live with constant insult to their reputation and dignity.

An extensive Russification campaign began in Latvia and many administrative obstacles were created to hinder the use of the Latvian language.

39

Due to its advantageous geographical location, Latvia became Russia’s military centre in the Baltic region. The USSR positioned the headquarters of the Baltic War District here: land, sea and aviation bases. In the late 1950s and early 1960s ballistic nuclear missiles were housed on Latvian soil. In turn, Soviet military figures gained a large influence in Latvian political life at the time.

Latvia was forced to adopt Soviet farming practices while the economic infrastructure that had been developed in the 1920s and 1930s was purposefully destroyed. Rural areas were forced into collectivisation. Since Latvia still had a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union’s most advanced manufacturing facilities in Latvia. To supply the large labour force needed to run these factories, Soviet workers from Russia and other Soviet republics were flooded into the country, dramatically decreasing the proportion of Latvian nationals. In 1935 Latvians made up 75.5% of the population, but according to official Soviet statistics, in 1959 Latvians comprised only 62% of the population, and the proportion of Russians in the population had increased radically. At this time, the total population of Latvia was a little more than two million (for comparison, in 1914 the population was more than 2.5 million, and in 2006 — just short of 2.3 million).

The economy in Latvia did nevertheless develop during the Soviet occupation, and a comprehensive system of education and health care existed. All health care, and education from primary school to university level was free of charge. Important achievements were attained in science. Fifteen institutes of scientific research, operating under the Academy of Science, constituted a significant research centre. Research was conducted in physics, astronomy, composite mechanics, information technology, chemistry, aquatic biology, the study of viruses and molecular biology (most of these research fields are being continued today). A quarter of all medicines that were invented in the USSR were developed in Latvia. During the Soviet period, 30 000 people (1.2%) were employed in the field of science in Latvia, which was a very high indicator on a world scale.

Forced industrialisation — large

industrial complexes in Soviet Latvia.

Propaganda poster of soviet building

industry. Text in Russian: 'We build

excellent!'.

40

Moscow issued orders for the construction of large-scale industrial plants in Latvia. Manufacturing in the chemical and electronics industries was widely developed. The necessary labour force for these enterprises was imported from Russia. Many factories manufactured material for the needs of Russia’s armed forces.

During the 1980s the inability of the Soviet planned economy to compete with the free market economy of the democratic world became progressively apparent. Thus, increasingly larger circles of the social and political elite agreed that it was necessary to convert to a Western-style economy.

Opposition to the occupation regime persisted throughout the entire post-war occupation period. There existed various outlawed groups of people who held similar views, read prohibited anti-communist literature, disseminated tracts and displayed the forbidden red-white-red Latvian national flag.

Latvian culture became a form of collective opposition. Culture and intellectuals in Latvia were apportioned unprecedented significance during the era of Soviet occupation. Official national offices were founded — creative unions — which were responsible for Latvian cultural issues. During the time of occupation, Latvian cultural traditions manifested themselves most strongly in the tradition of the Song Festival, which allowed people to feel a sense of national unity and identity. However, this tradition was also subjected to Soviet ideology.

An enormous strategic surveillance

radio telescope that was built for the

needs of the Soviet occupation army

in Irbene (near Ventspils). Following

the renewal of Latvia’s independence,

the radio telescope was donated to

Latvian science for the detection of radio

frequencies in distant galaxies.

During the Soviet occupation

schoolchildren were submitted to

ideological training. Most students were

made to join the ‘Pioneer’ movement,

which was identifiable by red kerchiefs

and school uniforms.

Propaganda poster of soviet armed forces. Text in Russian:

'Long live the armed forces of the Soviet Union!'.

The Soviet era in Latvia. The annual Soviet military power

demonstration in Rīga (held 1945-90). Soviet forces left

Latvia on 31 August 1994.

41

Reinstating Independence and Modern Latvia

From the 1980s

A liberalisation within the communist regime of the USSR, known as glasnost, began in the mid-1980s. During the latter half of the 1980s, the process of perestroika (restructuring) began in the Soviet Union, which was led by new Soviet communist leader Mikhail Gorbachev.

In 1986 it became widely known to the public that the USSR was planning to build another hydroelectric power plant on Latvia’s largest river, the Daugava, and a subway in Rīga. Both of these projects, planned by Moscow, would lead to the destruction of Latvia’s landscape, not to mention its cultural and historical wealth. These projects envisaged the importation of a huge number of foreign workers from other republics of the USSR, to provide labour for these large building works. This threatened to totally change Latvia’s already fragile demographic environment, by catastrophically reducing the proportion of Latvians to foreigners. The public reacted immediately and in response founded the Environmental Protection Club on 28 February 1987. Under the cover of environmental protection, a cause seemingly harmless to the Soviet authorities, the movement was also able to turn its attention to current political issues. During the second half of the 1980s, the Environmental Protection Club became one of the most influential of a number of mass movements, all of which simultaneously began to make demands for Latvia’s sovereignty.

Soviet soldiers preparing to pull down

a symbol of Soviet military power —

tank,1990.

Propaganda poster of

perestroika (in Russian).

Perestroika ('restructuring')

is the Russian term for the

economic reforms, infusion of

democratic elements into the

Soviet Union's single-party

government, introduced in

June 1985 by the soviet leader

Mikhail Gorbachev.

42

The mass demonstration for

independence in early 1991.

The map displays the locations of

major Soviet military-industrial plants

in the three Baltic States. Almost every

large city had such plants, which

manufactured equipment for the Soviet

armed forces. In Latvia, most were

concentrated in Rīga and Liepāja.

On 14 June 1987, the commemorative day of the 1941 deportations, the human rights group Helsinki-86, which had been founded one year earlier, organised a flower-placing ceremony at the Freedom Monument (Latvia’s symbol of independence that was erected in 1935). This was an unprecedented event that demonstrated the rebirth of national courage and self-confidence in Latvia. A second, and even larger, demonstration took place on 23 August 1987, the anniversary of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’.

On 1 and 2 June 1988, the Writers’ Union held a congress during which the Latvian intelligentsia discussed the democratisation of society, Latvia’s economic sovereignty, ending migration from the USSR, the transformation of industry and the protection of Latvian language rights. Over the course of these days, for the first time in post-war Latvia, the secret protocol of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’, which had determined Latvia’s fate after 1939 and the decades of occupation, was publicly acknowledged.

The congress of the Writers’ Union stirred up the public and provided an additional stimulus for the general process of national revival.

In the summer of 1988 two of the most important organisations of the revival period began to organize themselves: the Latvian National Independence Movement (Latvijas Nacionālās Neatkarības Kustība or LNNK) and the Latvian People’s Front (Latvijas Tautas Fronte or LTF). Soon afterwards, the more radically inclined Citizens’ Congress (Pilsoņu Kongress) entered the political arena and called for complete non-compliance with the illicit Soviet regime. All of these organisations had a common goal — the reinstatement of democracy and independence. On 7 October 1988, there was a mass public demonstration that was dedicated to the issue of Latvia’s sovereignty and the establishment of judicial order. The first congress of the Latvian People’s Front was held on 8 and 9 October. This organisation, which united 200 000 members under the leadership of famous journalist Dainis Īvāns (b. 1955), became the guiding force of the revival movement in Latvia and the return to independence.

43

On 23 August 1989, fifty years had passed since the signing of the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’. In order to call the world’s attention to the fate of the Baltic countries, on this day the People’s Fronts of all three Baltic countries held a grandiose political demonstration —‘The Baltic Way’. The Baltic people made a 600-km-long human chain from Tallinn through Rīga to Vilnius. This was a symbolic demonstration of the Baltic peoples’ united will for independence.

New elections of the Latvian Supreme Soviet took place on 18 March 1990, in which the supporters of independence gained victory. On 4 May 1990, the new Supreme Soviet of the LSSR adopted a Declaration of Independence, which called for the renewal of pre-war Latvia and its 1922 Constitution. Moscow and USSR military circles could not come to terms with the plans to reinstate Latvia’s independence. In January 1991 pro-Moscow and pro-communist political forces launched an attack. With the use of brutal force, attempts were made to overthrow the lawfully elected government. The implementation of Moscow’s goals was thwarted by the Latvian people’s non-violent, organised resistance, which entered history as the ‘Days of the Barricades’. On 19 August 1991, an unsuccessful attempt at a coup d’etat took place in Moscow when a small group of leading Soviet functionaries tried to usurp power. This event resulted in Latvia’s moving toward independence at an even more accelerated pace. On 21 August 1991, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian Republic announced that the transition period to full independence that was declared on 4 May 1990 had come to an end. Thus, Latvia proclaimed itself a fully independent nation — a nation whose judicial foundation harked back to the statehood that existed before the occupation on 17 June 1940. Latvia, alongside the other Baltic States, demonstrated to the world that the renewal of independence of a country can be achieved in a peaceful manner, without war and bloodshed. Thus the whole process of renewing independence since the late 1980s is known as the ‘Singing Revolution’.

‘The Baltic Way’ — a human chain

that demonstrated the unity of the

Baltic nations in their aspirations for

independence. Latvia, 23 August 1989.

Latvian parliamentarians following the

decision to reinstate independence, 4

May 1990.

An article announcing the renewal of

independence was published on the

front page of the Latvian newspaper

Latvijas Jaunatne, 5 May1990.

44

‘Days of the Barricades’ in Latvia, 1991.

The renewal of independence brought swift changes in Latvia’s economic sphere. At the end of 1991, the country abandoned the planned economy of the Soviet era and switched to a free market economy. In 1993 the Latvian national currency, the lat, was brought back into circulation. Latvia became an important transit country for the export of Russia’s raw materials. Land and other real estate were returned to their rightful pre-occupation owners or their heirs.

Following the renewal of independence, Latvia rapidly returned to the international milieu. On 17 September 1991, Latvia was admitted to the United Nations, and a few days earlier Latvia had already become a member of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). In February 1995, Latvia became a member of the European Council.

The renewed Latvian parliament convened for its first session in 1993 and elected as President Guntis Ulmanis (born 1939), the grand nephew of Latvia’s pre-war President, Kārlis Ulmanis.

A system of political parties began to take shape. The Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party and the Farmers’ Union resumed activities. Today, the whole spectrum of Europe’s traditional political parties is active in Latvia (leftists, centrists, rightists, ‘greens’, etc.).

45

The removal of the Russian Armed Forces (former USSR occupation forces) from the Latvian territory was completed on 31 August 1994. The last remaining Russian military object in Latvia and the Baltic countries, the Skrunda radar station (in western Latvia), ceased operations on 31 August 1998. On 21 October 1999, this final Russian military base in the Baltic States was handed over to the jurisdiction of Latvian authorities. A total of 850 former Soviet military installations were destroyed in Latvia.

With the renewal of independence, Latvia moved consistently towards two of its most important foreign policy goals — membership in the European Union and NATO. During the 1990s, many social, economic and judicial changes were implemented in Latvia in order to prepare for admittance to these organisations. In close cooperation with the European Union, a special programme for the integration of immigrants who came to Latvia during the Soviet period has been developed and is operating successfully. At the end of 1999 in Helsinki, the heads of the European Union countries invited Latvia to begin negotiations regarding accession to the European Union.

Latvia also worked towards the privatisation of businesses and real estate. A special Privatisation Agency was established in order to transfer the large state-owned enterprises to private ownership.

The end of the 20th century in Latvia was unique in the sense that Latvia became the first country in Central and Eastern Europe to elect a woman as president. In the summer of 1999, professor of psychology Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga (born 1937) was elected President of Latvia (1999-2007) by the parliament.

Destruction of the Russian radar facility

in Skrunda, 4 May 1995.

A twenty lat bill. The Latvian national

currency was renewed in late 1992.

46

In 2004 Latvia’s most important foreign policy goals — membership in the European Union and NATO — were fulfilled. On 2 April, Latvia became a member of NATO and on 1 May, Latvia, together with other two Baltic States (Estonia and Lithuania), became a fully-fledged member of the European Union.

Since restoration of Latvia’s independence, many pre-eminent world leaders have embarked on official visits to Latvia. Due to its advantageous geographical location, Latvia has become a centre for regional integration on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. The headquarters of the united land forces of the Baltic States, the Baltic battalion (BALTBAT), is also stationed here. Latvia hosted many international events. The most major political event the country has ever staged was the NATO summit in Rīga in November 2006. By 2006, Latvia had the fastest growing economy in Europe, and along with Estonia and Lithuania, was looked upon as one of the success stories of a united Europe.

Presidents George W. Bush (USA), Vaira

Vīķe-Freiberga (Latvia) and Vladimir Putin

(Russia) during the UN General Assembly

in New York, 14 September 2005.

Latvian peacekeepers in Iraq, 2005.

47

9000 BC Arrival of the first inhabitants on Latvian soil, after the glacial retreat.

Early 2000 BC Proto-Balts (forefathers of the modern Latvians) settle Latvia’s territory.

900 AD-early 1200 AD Individual Baltic tribes (Couronians, Latgallians, Selonians, and Semigallians) start to form distinct tribal realms.

Latter half of the 1100s-1200s Arrival of German traders, missionaries and crusaders in Latvia. Tribal territories fall into the hands of the Germans. Livonia is established.

1201 City of Rīga founded.

1500s Livonian War (1558-1583). Latvian territory under Polish-Lithuanian rule. The Duchies of Courland-Semigallia and Polish Livonia (Inflanty) are formed.

1600s Polish-Swedish War (1600-1629). Vidzeme (Livland) and Rīga under Swedish rule (1629-1721). Rīga is Sweden’s largest city. Duchy of Courland experiences an economic boom.

1700s Great Northern War (1700-1721). Vidzeme and Rīga come under Russian rule. Latgale (Latgallia) and the Duchy of Courland are annexed to Russia.

1850s-1870s National awakening of the Latvian people. The New Latvians (jaunlatvieši) movement occurs.

1905-1907 Latvian Revolution.

18 November 1918 Proclamation of the independence of Latvia.

11 August 1920 Soviet Russia (later – the USSR) and the Republic of Latvia sign a peace treaty. Russia acknowledges Latvia’s independence and forever withdraws its claims to the territory of Latvia.

23 August 1939 Non-aggression pact between the USSR and Germany (so-called ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop’ pact): both totalitarian states divide Eastern Europe between them. According to the secret protocol, Latvia together with Estonia and later also Lithuania are absorbed within the Soviet sphere of influence.

5 October 1939 Threatening armed intervention, the USSR forces Latvia’s government to sign an agreement allowing Soviet army bases on Latvian territory (officially called a ‘mutual assistance agreement’).

16 June 1940 Violating all agreements and treaties between the two states, as well as the principles of international law, the USSR delivers an ultimatum to Latvia. It demands the formation of a new pro-Soviet government and announces the immediate deployment of Soviet armed forces to Latvia.

17 June 1940 Latvia occupied by USSR troops.

23 July 1940 The USA Foreign Affairs department declares that the occupation of the Baltic countries is illegal and their incorporation into the USSR is not recognised by the USA.

14 June 1941 15 424 Latvians are deported from Latvia to Siberia: the political and business elite is considered to be hostile towards the occupation regime. Among the deported are almost 100 infants under the age of 1 and more than 3000 children under the age of 16.

1941-1945 Latvia occupied by the German Third Reich.

March 1943 Germany begins compulsory recruitment of Latvian civilians into its occupation army.

1941-1944 The German occupation regime exterminates over 90 000 Latvian civilians, mainly Jews.

8 May 1945 End of the Second World War. The German occupation army capitulates and the USSR occupation power is re-established in the territory of Latvia.

1945-1956 Continuous armed struggle of Latvian national partisans against the second Soviet occupation.

25 March 1949 Over 44 000 people are labelled as enemies of the re-established Soviet regime and are deported to Siberia.

14 June and 23 August 1987 First large anti-Soviet and anti-occupation demonstrations in Rīga.

4 May 1990 Adoption of a declaration restoring independence with a transition period.

21 August 1991 Complete reinstatement of Latvia’s independence.

31 August 1994 Last troops of the Russian (former USSR) occupation army leave Latvia.

April-May 2004 Latvia becomes a member of NATO and the European Union.

28-29 November, 2006 Latvia hosts NATO summit.

Main Historical Events

48

© The Latvian Institute, Rīga 2007© Text and concept: PhD Raimonds Cerūzis

Editorial Board: M.Auliciema, R.Cerūzis, Ē.Jēkabsons, O.Kalniņš, I.Pīgozne-Brinkmane, A.Zunda.Photo credits and illustrations: Archives of Latvia, Archives of Latvian Folklore, L.Balodis, G.Binde, U.Brinkmanis, R.Cerūzis, B.Dumpe, I.Grāvlejs ‘Diena’, G.Indrēvics, V.Kleins ‘Fotobanka’, B.Koļesņikovs, P.Korsaks, J.Krūmiņš, Latvian Academic Library, The Latvian Institute, Latvian Museum of Photography, Latvian Museum of War, Latvian Railway History Museum, Literature, Theatre and Music Museum, A.Meiers, Museum of Barricades of 1991, Museum of History of Rīga and Navigation, National History Museum of Latvia, Occupation Museum of Latvia, V.Rīdzenieks, A.Tenass ‘Fotocentrs’, Ventspils Free Port, personal photo archives and collections.Original drawings: A.Alksne-Alksnīte, J.C.Brotze, O.Engelhardt-Kyffhäuser, A.Liepiņš, L.Pīgozne, S.Vidbergs, V.Vimba.

Internet resourcesInformation about Latvia – http://www.latvia.lv

Institute of History of Latvia – http://www.lvi.lv

Museums of Latvia – http://www.muzeji.lv

National Library of Latvia, electronic catalogue – http://www.lnb.lv

State Historical Archives of Latvia – http://www.arhivi.lv

The Chancery of the President and the Commission of Historians of Latvia –http://www.president.lv

University of Latvia, Faculty of History and Philosophy – http://www.lu.lv/eng/general/structure/faculties/history/index.html

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History, 1997).• The hidden and forbidden history of Latvia under Soviet and Nazi occupations, 1940-1991: selected research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia (Rīga:

Institute of the History of Latvia, 2005).• The issues of the holocaust research in Latvia: reports of an International Seminar 29 November 2001, Rīga and the Holocaust studies in Latvia in 2001-2002

(Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds, 2003).• The Sovietization of the Baltic States, 1940-1956 (Tartu: KLEIO Ajalookirjanduse Sihtasutus, 2003).• Totalitarian occupation regimes in Latvia in 1940-1964: research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia, 2003 (Rīga: Latvijas vēstures institūta apgāds,

2004).• URBAN W.L., The Livonian Crusade (Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1981).

ISBN

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Further reading on the history of Latvia in English

For further information please contact the Latvian Embassy or Consulate in your country, or the Latvian Institute:Latvijas institūts, Kaļķu iela 7, Rīga, LV 1050, Latvia.Phone: (+371) 6750-3663Fax: (+371) 6750-3669E-mail: info@li.lvInternet: www.li.lv, www.latvia.lv

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