History of Interior Design

THREE YEAR DEGREE IN INTERIOR DESIGN

B.Sc - First Year

Art and Architecture History - IStudents’ courseware compiled by Jasveen Sahota

Interior Design Department

Paper: ID/353/12

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Free Students’ Course Material NOT FOR SALE

Index

Paper: ID/353/12_________________________________________________________1

Index___________________________________________________________________2

Unit – I_________________________________________________________________4

Lesson – 1: Mesopotamia - The Cradle Of Civilization___________________________5

Lesson – 2: Chinese Civilization____________________________________________16

Lesson – 3: History of Chinese Antique Furniture_____________________________21

Lesson – 4: Egyptian Civilization___________________________________________30

Lesson – 5 : Egyptian Furniture____________________________________________33

Review Questions________________________________________________________37

Unit – II_______________________________________________________________38

Lesson – 6: Greek Period__________________________________________________39

Lesson – 7: The Classical Greek Orders______________________________________41

Lesson – 8: Greek Furniture_______________________________________________44

Lesson – 9: Roman Civilisation_____________________________________________47

Lesson – 10: Roman Furniture_____________________________________________55


Unit – III______________________________________________________________58

Lesson – 11: Gothic Architecture___________________________________________59

Lesson – 12: Renaissance Architecture______________________________________67

Lesson – 13: Italian Renaissance___________________________________________70

Lesson – 14: Renaissance in France________________________________________77

Lesson – 15: The English Renaissance______________________________________81


Unit – IV_______________________________________________________________89

Lesson – 16: English Baroque – The Restoration Period________________________90

Lesson – 17: The Queen Anne Period – 1702-1714_____________________________96

Lesson – 18: The Georgian Periods - 1714-1811______________________________102

Lesson – 19: The Neoclassical Periods______________________________________107

Review Questions_______________________________________________________115

Unit – V______________________________________________________________116

Free Students’ Course Material NOT FOR SALE AAH1/SCM/ 2

Lesson – 20: The Industrial Revolution_____________________________________117

Lesson – 21: Modernist Architecture Period_________________________________121

Review Questions_______________________________________________________125

Books for Further Reference_____________________________________________126


Unit – I

Mesopotamia - The Cradle Of Civilization Sumerian Period Babylonian Period Assyrian Period Persian Period

Chinese Civilization Chinese Architecture Architecture Styles

History of Chinese Antique Furniture Cultural Context Chinese Furniture

Egyptian Civilization Egyptian Architecture

Egyptian Furniture Characteristics Major Forms


Lesson – 1: Mesopotamia - The Cradle Of Civilization

Formation and development The land between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers, it is said, hosted the

legendary Garden of Eden - if it existed anywhere. To emphasize this the ancient village of Al-Qurna singled out a tree ("Adam's tree") with a sign - in Arabic and English. On this holy spot where the Tigris meets the Euphrates this holy tree of our father Adam grew symbolizing the Garden of Eden. Abraham prayed here 2,000 years B.C. Throughout Iraq loom ziggurat temples dating from 3,000 B.C. which recall the story of the Tower of Babel. One such ziggurat is Aqar-Quf (a suburb of present day Baghdad) marking the capital of the Cassites. In the south lie the ruins of Sumer where were found tens of thousands of stone tablets from the incredible Sumerian culture which flourished 5,000 years ago. On some of these tablets, which were used for teaching children, are found fascinating descriptions of everyday life, including the first organized and detailed set of instructions on when to plant and when to harvest.

Also in the south lie the ruins of Ur from which at God's prodding Abraham set out for the promised land. Here the Akkadians introduced chariots to warfare. Nearby on the west bank of the Shatt-el-Arab lies Basra which later became the home port of Sindbad the Sailor. The Marsh Arabs (Ma'dan) are found at the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates in the south. In the north of Iraq the gates of Ninevah the Assyrian capital with their imaginative stone winged-bulls mark the place where the prophet Jonah is said to have preached penance to the wicked inhabitants, all of whom repented, much to Jonah's chagrin. Later neighbouring Mosul became the crossroads of the great caravan routes. Kirkuk is the oil center of the north and boasts of the tomb of the Old Testament prophet Daniel. The city of Mosul has given us the cloth that bears its name "muslin" as well as building materials, alabaster and gypsum cement with its remarkable strength and rapid-drying properties.

Historical condition. The ancient architecture of West-Asiatic developed from 3000 B.C. to 330 B.C. in

the following period.


1. Early Sumerian (3000-2000 B.C.)

2. Old Babylonian (2016-1595 B.C.)-Neo Babylonian (626-539 B.C.)

3. Assyrian (1859-626 B.C.)

4. Persian (750-330 B.C.)

Sumerian PeriodSumer (4000 - 2000 BC) southern region of ancient Mesopotamia, and later

southern part of Babylon, now south central Iraq. An agricultural civilization flourished here during the third and fourth millennia BC. The Sumerians built canals, established an irrigation system, and were skilled In the use of metals (silver, gold, copper) to make pottery, jewellery, and weapons. They invented the cuneiform system of writing. Various kings founded dynasties at Kish, Erech, and Ur. King Sargon of Agade brought the region under the Semites (c. 2600 BC), who blended their culture with the Sumerians The final Sumerian civilization at Ur fell to Elam, and when Semitic Babyloma under Hammurabi (c 2000 BC) controlled the land the Sumerian nation vanished.

Ur (3000 - 250 BC) ancient Babylonian city and birthplace of Abraham. Settled in the fourth millennium BC it prospered during its First Dynasty (3000-2600 BC), and during its Third Dynasty, it became the richest City In Mesopotamia. A century later it was destroyed by the Elamites only to be rebuilt and destroyed again by the Babylonians. After Babylonia came under the control of Persia the city was abandoned (third cent. BC).

Babylonian Period The Babylonian civilisation mainly developed in the central region of the

Mesopotamia. At the beginning of 19th century B.C. the Amorites, a nomadic people from Syrian desert founded their first royal dynasty in Babylon (old Babila), bab meaning 'gate' and 'ili' of the god.

Babylon (2000 - 323 BC), an ancient city of Mesopotamia located on the Euphrates River about 55mi (89km) south of present day Baghdad. Settled since prehistoric times, it was made the capital of Babylonia by Hammurabi (1792 1750 BC) in the 18th century BC. The city was completely destroyed in 689 BC by the Assyrians under Sennacherib. After restoration it flourished and became noted for its hanging gardens, one of the seven wonders of the world. In 275 BC the city was abandoned when the Seleucid dynasty built a new capital at Seleucia.

Assyrian Period The Assyrians were originally Semitic Akkadians. They were warriors and

huntsmen. Their campaigns ranged all throughout the Middle East. They founded their capital at Ashur (named after the God), a city on the bank of Tigris. Because of their land lock position, they kept fighting wars to keep their trade routes open. In the beginning they were opposed by Hittite empire but after its fall in 1200 B.C. their empire spread rapidly.


Assyria (1530 - 612 BC) reached its greatest extent in the 7th century BC. during Ashurbanipal's reign He subjected its people to merciless repression inflicted by his army in whose ruthlessness he gloried and ruled through an efficient administrative system supervised by the central government. Assyrian rule collapsed and was followed by a brief resurgence of Babylonian rule.

Persian PeriodIn about 1000 B.C. Aryans from Caucasus region settled in Medes and Persia.

The founder of this empire, Cyrus the Great (559-530 B.C.) captured Medians and -Assyrians and there was a new Persian upsurge. He also captured Sardis in 546 B.C. After conquering the Greek colonies of western Asia Minor, he next subjugated Babylon in 539 B.C. and gave freedom to 40,000 Jews and permitted them to return to Palestine to rebuild the temple of Solomon.

Sassanids, or Sassanians, last native dynasty of Persian kings founded by Ardashiric AD 226. There were approximately 25 Sassanid rulers the most important after Ardashir being Shapur II (309-79): Khosrau I (531-79), who invaded Syria: and Khosrau 11 (590-628) whose conquest of Egypt marks the height of the dynasty's power. The line ended when Persia fell to the Arabs in 641 AD.

Characteristic Features In the alluvial plains of twin rivers Tigris and Euphrates rich clay was available in

abundance. Hence the Mesopotamians made use of the clay in all of their buildings. Naturally they took great interest in the manufacture of bricks. Crude sun dried bricks were used for ordinary works, and kiln burnt bricks for important works. For decorative works they used bricks glazed in different colours. This polychrome ornamental brickwork is a special feature of this style and was largely used in the palace decoration.

The abundance, of clay also helped them to construct the imposing towers and artificial mountains called 'Ziggurat' the other outstanding feature of west Asiatic style.

In Babylon, due to the absence of stone, the brick construction led to the evolution of arch, vault and dome unlike simple trabeated style of Egypt. Semi and double circular arches were rarely used. The arch was formed by corbelled horizontal courses or with radiating bricks. The main arch entrance of the palace courts was flanked by great imposing towers about 24 m. to 28 m. high guarded by horned dragons, the symbol of warrior God Marduk to frighten the enemies.

The high plinths or dadoes of Ishtar Gate were usually covered with low relief work in coloured glazed bricks. Lions walking beneath a row of trees shown on relief work were associated with warrior Goddess Ishtar.

The Assyrians unlike the Babylonians produced mural decoration. Often the gates of the palaces such as palaces of Sargon at Khorsabad and Nimrud were flanked by imposing "towers and guarded by man-headed winged bulls, the symbol of Adad, the God of Thunder to strike terror into the hearts of enemies. The walls were covered with


alabaster slabs on which they provided bas-relief showing scenes of fighting, hunting and ceremonies of states.

The chief form of ornamentation was lotus flowers, buds and band of rosettes.

The temples, houses had rectangular plan and were built on high platforms or dadoes to protect them from heavy floods. The walls were provided with typical cresting at the top. The roofs were barrel vault type whereas the Babylonian roofs were flat.

Typical Examples

Sumerian Architecture.

1. The City of Ur:

On the north Mesopotamia, excavations were carried out and exciting finds were made casting dramatic light on the Mesopotamian kings mentioned in the Old Testament. It was disclosed that the city of Ur, a city known to Abraham, another Prophet who lived long before Mohammad, was founded on the river Euphrates which had astonishing progress in civilisation. It was here that the Mesopotamian king Ur-Nammu had erected the famous 'Ziggurat' the holy mountain.

Temples were found with storehouses and workshops. A number of mud brick vaults were uncovered to possess valuable materials in silver, and gold which were much older 'than the Egyptian culture. The royal tombs discovered throw light on mass sacrifice that was carried out as a religious function.

A canal acting as a moat surrounded the entire city. The streets of Ur were narrow. The houses were fairly good with single storey with a central courtyard. The rich had double storied houses. The upper class of scribes formed the top administrators headed by the king himself. The city of Ur had its trade links from Arabia to the Indus Valley. It was an important warehousing centre.

In about 2350 B.C. the Semitic king Sargon's reign started. Under its Third Dynasty king Ur-Nammu, the city of Ur achieved the: highest glory and was the 'light' of the known world. But this did not last for a long. Meanwhile the river Euphrates which had brought so much glory, prosperity to Ur, suddenly changed its course and started running some 14 km. east of the city. As a result the canals became dry, lost its shipping trades and ultimately the city lost its value.


Ur at peace: one side ot the Standard of Ur found in the Royal Cemetery at Ur

2. Ziggurat of Ur-Namnlu (2125 B.C.):

This Ziggurat or holy mountain was erected by the Mesopotamian king Ur-Nammu, a founder of Third Dynasty of Ur. It is dedicated to the moon-god Nanna, the patron deity of the city of Ur.

It was a man-made mountain where the plain dwellers could be brought closer to their gods. It was therefore the link between the earth and heaven.

It stood on rectangular plan 60 m x 45 m and 17 m high. The whole mass was solid, with a core of sun-dried bricks and outer covering of burnt-bricks of 2.5m. thick cemented with bitumen. The main lines of the Ziggurat were built with slight curves to correct illusion of bend in the middle. But the credit of this technique usually goes to the Greeks who were to use it only twenty centuries later. It had three terraces and the ascent was made from one of the larger sides by three steep stair - ways, two at the sides and one in the middle, all meeting at a common landing.

These terraces were once hung with plants which probably gave rise to the legend of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. At the top stood the temple dedicated to the moon-god Nanna where sacred ceremony took place annually.


Model of the zigurat at Ur

There was a large courtyard around its base and surrounded by shrines for cult worship, amongst which one was dedicated to the goddess Ningal, the wife of Nanna.

The temple had inner courtyard surrounded by a number of rooms which included rooms of animal sacrifice, cooking places, work-shops, store-rooms for grain, oil, fruits and cattle for the tribute to the moon god. There was also a palace within the courtyard

where the king and his family members would live on ceremonial days.

Babylonian Architecture

1. The city of Babylon: At the beginning of 19th century B.C. Amorites a nomadic tribe from Syrian

Desert founded their first Dynasty in Babylon-'gateway of the God' (Old Babila), 'bab' meaning 'gate' and 'ili' of the god. The city had a circumference of at least 18 km. and the river Euphrates was once running through it. The city was destroyed by the Assyrians once in 13th century B.C. and then in 7th century B.C. But the governor Nabopolassar defeated them in 612 B.C. His son Nebuchadnezzar mounted the throne in 605 B.C. and the city once again re-emerged as the queen of the civilised world. The city was surrounded by a canal acting as a moat. It was also protected by huge rampart walls which were more than 86 km. in length, and provided with hundred bronze gateways. Different gods protected each of its eight gateways; the main palace and gate were


Drawing of the zigurat at Ur: the moon-god Nanna

dedicated to Ishtar, the goddess of love and battle. The Ishtar Gate was patterned by horned dragons; yellow and white bulls in relief on a blue background. The Horned Dragon the symbol of Warrior-the God Marduk, worshipped in t he temple of Esagila.


Plan of the palace at Babylon centering at the Ishtar gate

Ishtar gate of Babylon built by Nebuchadnezzar II

(604 - 562 BC)

Model of the city of Babylon

The 'Hanging Gardens' (600 B. C.) built by King Nebuchadnezzar, according to one story, to please his Persian wife, who was home sick for the hills and woodlands of her native country. They occupied an area of 275 m x 183 m and situated near the Euphrates River, in the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar, 96 km south of present city of Baghdad. According to Diodorus of Sicily, they were an annexe to the palace, a series of terraces supported by arcades to the height of the city wall from the bank of Euphrates. The arcades were constructed with bricks and bitumen. The walls were about 6 to 7 m thick with passages between them about 3 m wide.

The terraced gardens planted with flowers and trees, with the beautiful fountains were 25 m to 100m above the ground. Water was stored in the reservoir on the top and supplied through pipes to the gardens. The Greeks described them as one of seven wonders of the ancient world.

Assyrian Architecture:

1. The city of Khorsabad Sargon II founded the great capital city of Khorsabad. The city stood on a

rectangular plan 2.6 km. sq. There were several office buildings including a temple. But the palace of Sargon II was the most splendid structure, occupying an area of nearly twenty-three acres. It had large and small courts, corridors and rooms and was approached by a broad ramp. The main gateway to the grand court was flanked by imposing towers and guarded by the man-headed winged bulls as a symbol to Adad, the god of thunder. These bulls supported the thick semi-circular arch opening which was lavishly decorated with bricks glazed in different colours.

The palace was divided intro three parts. On its left wing were six temples, three large and three small; and on its right wing were service rooms and administrative offices, and on its opposite wings, were residential quarters which were followed by royal apartments. The royal apartments had dadoes nearly 2 m. high on which the king and his


Plan of the Hanging gardens of Babylon Wall of Hanging gardens of Babylon still standing

courtiers were shown in high relief. At the end was the throne room about 49 m x 11 m. Terracotta gutters for drainage were provided under the palace paving.

Plan of Khorsabad under Sargon (721 - 705 BC)

Khorsabad palace in the middle of the picture

The winged Bull of Khorsabad


Persian Architecture

1. The Palace of PersepolisDarius I founded a capital city at Persepolis, where he built his famous palace.

Persepolis was used as a showpiece of imperial grandeur of his empire and was used for coronations of the kings in a grand scale. It was also executed by Xerxes I (486-465 B.C.) and completed in 460 B.C. by Arta-Xerxes I. The entire building stood on a rectangular plan 460 m x 275 m over a rising terrace of 15 m above the ground. The approach was provided at north-west by magnificent steps 6.7 m wide and shallow enough for the horses to ascend. The two gateways on the north and one on the south were flanked by imposing towers and guarded by man-headed winged bulls. The gateways on the south opened onto the' Apadana' or audience hall nearly 76 m. square with 36 slender columns, 20 m. high, 1.5 m in diameter and placed at 6 m centre to centre. The Apadana rested on its own terrace 3 m high, with the stairways on the north and east sides.

To its south side was the 'Palace of Darius'. The terraced 'Tripylon' placed centrally along the palace building was used as a reception hall. The stairway of the 'Tripylon' as well as that of Apadana has bas-relief showing the delegates, nobles, advancing in dignified procession. People of thirty-one nations are seen paying homage. These include Cilicians, Hibyans, Thracians and the citizens of Cyprus. The delegates can be easily identified from their national costumes. The local offerings consisted of


humped bull from Babylon, elephant tusk from Ethopia, rams from Cilicia and fabrics from the Greece. Darius also built a 'Treasury' lying in South-East end.

Next his son Xerxes I added his palace together with the women's quarters -harem on the south end.

The throne room-the famous 'Hall of Hundred Columns' situated on the east end was commenced by Xerxes I and completed by Arta-Xerxes I (465-424 B.C.). The throne-room nearly 68 m square was set up on a high platform with columns 11 m high supporting the flat roof. The columns had moulded base, fluted shaft and decorative capitals with continuous vertical scrolls. The top brackets of the columns were in the form of twin bulls, or dragons the symbol of power. The columns were made of wood mounted on fluted stone bases. The wooden shafts were quickly plastered and painted in different colours. In 331 B.C. Alexander the Great defeated the last king Darius III and put the city including the palace, to the torch.


Lesson – 2: Chinese Civilization

Chinese ArchitectureAncient Chinese architecture enjoys a long history and great achievements, and

created many architectural miracles such as the Great Wall. In the process of its development, superior architectural techniques and artistic design were combined to make unique Chinese architecture be one of the three greatest architectural systems.

Ancient Chinese architecture features unique timber framework that clearly identifies supporting structure and bonding structure. The top load of a structure will be transferred to its foundations through its posts, beams, lintels and joists. Walls bear no loading and separate space only so that windows and walls will not be restricted to certain locations on the walls.

Timber framework decides that colour is the main ornament used on ancient Chinese architecture. In the beginning, paint was used on wood for antisepsis while later painting became an architectural ornament. In the feudal society, the use of colour was restricted according to strict social status classification. Since yellow was deemed noblest colour and green the second, they were often applied on palace painting, which was called Hexicaihua (a kind of Chinese colour painting) in Chinese. Usually, dragon or phoenix was painted on green background with mass gold powder or gold foil. The painting will give the structure a clear-cut and a magnificent noble image under the background of white granite basement. It is unique that such sharp colour can achieve artistic effects.

Architecture Styles

Imperial Architecture Imperial mausoleum architecture: Imperial mausoleum architecture accounts

for a major part in ancient Chinese architecture since they usually stand for the highest architectural techniques of the time. Emperors would often force thousands of the nations best architects to build these structures. They would withdraw millions, even billions from the exchequer to fund their tombs. These tombs were always magnificently deluxe and consisted of finest structures of the period. In vicissitude of the history, imperial mausoleums scattered around places, which used to be capitals of different dynasties. These mausoleums were usually built against hills or mountains and facing plains. Most


imperial mausoleums have broad ways called Shendao (the Sacred Way) at the entrance. Along both sides of the Shendao, there are stone sculptures of men and animals, which guard the tombs. Other imperial structures were also built beside the tomb. Under huge hills of clay, splendid and superior structures were constructed with fine facilities such as drainage systems.

Imperial palace: During the long Chinese history, emperors of different dynasties kept building palaces. Since palaces are where emperors live and practice their reign, palaces of different dynasties integrates essences of Chinese architecture. The famous palace complex, Efanggong built by and for Qin Shi Huang Emperor. Can you imagine that its Front Palace, built more than 2,000 years ago, covered 80,000 square meters and could hold 10,000 people? The Weiyanggong of the Western Han Dynasty had more than 40 palaces within a periphery of 11 kilometres. The Forbidden City, also called the Imperial Palace, which was set up under the reign of the Ming dynasty and still stands intact, covers an area of 720,000 square meters and consists of more than 9900 palaces and other structures. It is the grandest and biggest palace in the world.

The Number "Nine" and Imperial architecture: Nine carried a special meaning in ancient China when it was deemed that odd numbers represent Yang while even numbers Yin. Since nine is the largest odd number under ten, it was regarded the extremely lucky number. So, emperors liked to monopolize it to symbolize their superiority. Designs related with nine appeared almost on every imperial structure such as palace. For example, on gates of the Forbidden City, there are 81 gold-plating bronze studs which were arranged in nine columns and nine rows. Ancient palaces usually were designed to be nine-section architectural complex. Based on the same reason, number or size concerning imperial architecture often equals or multiples nine.

Dragon and Phoenix: Dragon and phoenix, called Long and Feng in Chinese respectively, are totems of Chinese people. They were used to represent emperors and their consorts and were the main decorative patterns to be seen on various imperial structures. Palaces, columns, pathways and screen walls were all inscribed or carved or painted with their images.

Buddhist Architecture Chinese Buddhist architecture consists of temple, pagoda and grotto. Localization

starts right after Buddhist architecture was introduced into China with Buddhism during the Han dynasty, interpreting Chinese architectural aesthetics and culture.

As the central structure of spreading Buddhism in China, the temple is where coenobites preceding their religious life. Since emperors of dynasties believed in Buddhism, temples erected like mushrooms, usually splendid like palaces, for many were built under imperial orders. In the Northern Wei Dynasty, there were more than 30,000 temples scattered in the country. Later as architectural techniques improved, glazed tiles, exquisite engravings and delicate paintings were applied in the construction of temples, which came to be more magnificent and splendid.


Chinese Buddhist architecture follows symmetric style strictly. Usually main buildings will be set on the central axis, facing the south. Annexe structures will be on the west and east flanks. Temple gate, Heavenly King Hall, the Main Hall and Sutra Library successively stands on the axis. Dorm, kitchen, dinning hall, storehouse and antechamber usually cluster on the right side while left side remains for the visitors.

Pagoda is also the main integrating part of the Buddhist architecture, with varied styles and strong local flavours. Pagoda followed Buddhism into China around the first century, and developed into pavilion-like pagoda on which one can view scenery after immediate combination with traditional Chinese architecture. Now the highest pagoda existing stands 40 meters high and enjoys a 1400-year lifespan after survival of several earthquakes. Among the 3000 existing pagodas, there are all-timber pagoda, brick pagoda, stone pagoda, bronze pagoda and iron pagoda.

Most Chinese pagodas are multi-storeyed ones. Early pagodas were usually wooden and had quadrangle, hexagonal, octagonal and twelve sided ichnographies. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, pagodas tended to be stone and brick. In the Liao Dynasty, solid pagoda appeared. After, in the Song, Liao and Jin dynasties, flower pagodas were introduced which were decorated with assorted carved flowers, honeycombed shrines, animals and Buddha and disciple sculptures, looked like flowers. Generally speaking, pagodas became more and more decorative.

Though there are various types of pagodas, they have a common structure, a palace underground. The most famous palace underground lies at the Famen Temple in Xi'an, Shaanxi.

Another Buddhist architecture is grotto complex which is caves hewn on cliff walls, usually huge projects and with exquisite engravings. It came from India with Buddhism too and boomed during the Northern and Southern dynasty. The famous Mogao Caves, Yungang Grottoes and Longmen Grottoes were all carved then.

Taoist Architecture Taoist architecture includes various structures according to different functions,

categorized as palace for oblation and sacrifice, altar for praying and offering, cubby for religious service, residence for Taoist abbes and garden for visitors.

During the last period of the East Han Dynasty when Taoism was introduced, Taoist ascetics mostly lived in huts and even caves in remote mountains under guidance of their philosophy of nature.

Early Taoist architectures were all traditional.

During the Jin dynasty and the Northern and Southern dynasty, Taoism experienced reforms and was accepted by the rulers. Many Taoist temples were set up in the capital under imperial orders. Taoist architecture reached a rather large scale then.


Taoism reached its peak during the Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty, when Chinese timber framed architecture, characterized by high base, broad roof and perfect integration of decoration and function, matured in all aspects. There were strict regulations on size, structure, decoration and use of colour. For the 660 years, Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism influenced each other, so that certain structures in Buddhism and Confucianism architectures were transformed into Taoism architecture. As a result, there remained similarities in designing and grouping among the three systems.

Taoist architecture applies two architectural styles - traditional style and Bagua style.

In the former style, traditional architectural layout, which is symmetric, will be applied. Main halls will be set up on the central axis, while other religious structures on the two sides. Usually, on the northwest corner of the complex, Lucky Land to Meet God will be located. Annexes like dining hall and accommodation will locate at the back or the flank of the complex.

The second is the Bagua style in which all structures surround the Danlu (stove to make pills of immortality) in the centre according to Bagua's position request. The centre axis from the south to the north is very long and structures flank the axis. The style reflects Taoist philosophy that the human cosmos follows the natural cosmos to integrate energy, qi and spirit.

Most Taoist architectures resort to nature topography to build towers, pavilions, lobbies and other garden structural units, decorated with murals, sculptures and steles to entertain people, fully interpreting Taoist philosophy of nature.

Taoist architectural decoration reflects Taoist pursuit of luck and fulfilment, long lifespan, and eclosion into the fairyland. Taoist architectural motifs are all meaningful. Celestial bodies mean brightness shining everywhere while landscape and rocks immortality. Folding fan, fish, narcissus, bat and deer are used to imply beneficence, wealth, celestial being, fortune and official position, while pine and cypress stand for affection, tortoise for longevity, crane for man of honour. There are many other symbols very traditional and Taoist decorations root deep in Chinese folk residential houses.

Garden Architecture He who builds a garden builds happiness.

Garden architecture, an important part of ancient Chinese architecture is a combination of structures and man-made landscape with natural scenery. It does not only provide lodging but also landscaping with architecture, environment and human in full harmony.

HistoryThe ancient Chinese garden originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, when

monarchs began to build parks for their own leisure and pleasure. During the spring and autumn period and the Warring States period, it was a fashion to build gardens. Until the


Han dynasty private gardens appeared. After the Jin, and Northern and Southern dynasties, private gardens came into vogue as the rich and powerful sought to express their sentiment in landscaping. During the Tang and Song dynasties, a poetic touch was added to the layout and scenes of a garden, and became a general feature. In the Qing dynasty, garden architecture reached its peak.

Classification There are many classifications according to different criteria. Herein garden

architecture falls into four categories.

Imperial gardens: These gardens, usually spacious, exquisite and grandiose, were built for royal families by thousands people. Images of these gardens will linger in one's mind forever. Now most former imperial gardens are in Beijing.

Private gardens: These gardens are usually built in urban areas, neighboured with residences. Since land is expensive in cities private gardens are generally small and simple but delicate and look tasteful and play multiple functions. Most famous private gardens are situated in Suzhou, Jiangsu.

Monastic gardens: These gardens are commonly found in monasteries against quite and verdant mountains. With natural beauty, these gardens are solemn within the sacred atmosphere.

Garden architecture in scenic resorts: These gardens usually occupy large public areas since they are based on the combination of natural scenes and man-made landscape and structures in suburb area or mountains.


Lesson – 3: History of Chinese Antique Furniture

Cultural ContextChina is a country with a long history and developed civilisation. The models,

colours and craft of the carved ancient furniture have their specific oriental and Asian national style.

The Chinese Antique Furniture of the Ming and Qing Dynasties is made of selected excellent wood, which is based on both popular and imperial use, handed down from the previous dynasties Tang, Song, Yuan et Ming.

The medicine cabinets and tables make your life easier, while baskets and vases decorate pleasantly your inner rooms.

The Chinese antique furniture has two characteristics.

The work is always executed with the greatest care. The structure is strict and tight; the line is smooth. The splendour and emitted light are realized by deep-carving and hollow carving, and by repeating varnishing: 7 times in all.

The forms and varieties of models cannot be equalled by any other country. There are more than 100 variations, such as a palace bed which was done by a thousand days of work, different kinds of dinner tables, desks, chairs, cupboards, screens, dressing tables, barrels and benches. They are really precious arts and displays, which are greatly appreciated by foreign friends all over the world.

Chinese FurnitureAncient Chinese furniture has a fine reputation in modern China and the West

alike, Chinese ancient furniture features profound cultural facts and superb craftsmanship. The furniture was mostly made from precious wood, in the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1616-1911) dynasties. It is widely recognized as the best, because furniture before the Ming Dynasty did not survive wars and time, traditional Chinese furniture craftsmanship did not reach its zenith until the Ming Dynasty. Demand for fine furniture greatly increased due to prosperity of cities and development of the economy and growing marine trade, precious timber could be more easily obtained from southern China and Southeast Asia. It reached a high level of aesthetic success and could even claim a place in the history of world furniture.

Chinese furniture was usually lacquered red or black and then painted, and often carved and sometimes inlaid with other materials such as precious stones, etc.

Ming furniture is known for its simplicity with sparse lines and little decoration while Qing furniture emphasizes detail and extravagance. Furniture from southern China tends to be very elaborate whereas northern furniture is big, heavy and grand.


Ming Dynasty Furniture: Ming furniture is simple with sparse lines and little decoration. It usually features fine and durable precious woods, such as mahogany, sandalwood, rose wood etc. In the Ming Dynasty, the demand for fine furniture, the ample supply of wood and the highly developed tenon-mortise technology all facilitated the success of the Ming furniture. Craftsmen of the Ming Dynasty used the succinct language of art to express their inner feelings, and combined ingeniously with the beauty of simplicity and quietness. So the Ming furniture usually has simple structures, unique shapes and minimal decorations that would reserve the natural beauty of the wood. Lines were ingeniously applied to emphasize details such as the back of an armchair and the legs and resting bars of chairs and tables. Main emphasis was placed on the application of the natural beauty of the wood texture and adopting latticework and openwork carving. On eye-striking places such as the backs of armchairs, there would be simple patterns by relief engraving or openwork carving.

Qing Dynasty Furniture: In the early Qing Dynasty, furniture inherited characteristics of the Ming Dynasty, from the reign of Emperor Yongzheng to Emperor Jiaqing. After political power was stabilized and the economy improved, people began to pay more attention to more material things in there lives, and demanded decorative and luxurious furnishings, gaudiness and sumptuousness were a basic features of Qing furniture which was usually heavy and sizable, featuring exquisitely carved patterns. Some pieces were carved from head to foot and had inlays of stone, mother-of-pearl, porcelain, metal, and enamel. Qing furniture had curved decorations and exaggerated shapes that demanded attention. In the late Qing Dynasty, antique Chinese furniture waned.

Chinese traditional furniture has a strong aesthetic appeal due to its apparently simple lines and the fact that it makes use of "natural materials" such as the finest hardwoods-no fusty stuffed couches here. Ready comparisons can be made to Danish furniture, with its sparse lines.

With Chinese furniture, you see what you get. Nothing is hidden, and the wood is polished, stained or lacquered to evoke its natural earthiness and grainy patterns.

Despite the appeal of this simplicity, scholars of Chinese taste inform us that in many cases, those minimalist chairs and side tables were draped in sumptuous brocades and embroideries, as their Chinese owners in days of yore had a strong distaste for whatever was plain and simple. And thus to some degree, modern connoisseurs have mistakenly assumed that they are the inheritors of the refined taste of the classical Chinese scholar.

Chinese furniture uses a number of types of wood the two most valued types of wood are huali and zitan. The former is a tropical hardwood that grows in China, and has a wide range of colours. In its lighter variations, it is called huang (yellow) huali, and in its darker manifestations, lao (old) huali.


itan, with its purplish brown colour, can be considered the most precious type of timber, and its expense and rarity are related to the fact that it was imported. More common timber types are oak, elm, maple, chestnut, poplar, birch, hongmu and nanmu.

No one knows why the Chinese gave up their habit of sitting on mats and begin sitting on chairs around the year 1000, during the Song dynasty. But early literary evidence suggests that the chair and the bed were clearly recognized as foreign inventions. Archaeological excavations have produced many examples of wooden furniture from the Song (960-1279), but the real heyday of furniture making, and the period that provides us with most of the examples found in museums and private collections today, is the 16th to 19th century, from the late Ming to the late Qing dynasty.

The fact that most early chairs come in sets of two suggests that Chinese furniture was customarily arranged symmetrically in rooms, but there is little evidence to back this up. Here again, the Western mind seems to want to impose order where no order was originally intended.

Chinese furniture reached a pinnacle of fine design and workmanship during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the later part of the Ming period (1368 - 1644). Fine furniture of this period is characterized by restrained and elegant designs, hardwoods imported from Southeast Asia, and complex joinery that held the furniture together without glue or nails.

Bed

Platforms Low platforms, which were used as honorific seats, were the earliest type of

raised seating furniture to appear in China. Sitting platforms were called ta; the relatively longer chuang was used both for sitting and reclining. By the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD), the platform had increased in height with decorative panels or kunmen-shaped openings decorating the sides.

"When daybeds (ta) were made in ancient times, although the length and width were not standardized, they were invariably antique, elegant and delightful when placed in a studio or room. There was no way in which they were not convenient, whether for sitting up, lying down or reclining. In moments of pleasant relaxation they would spread out classic or historical texts, examine works of calligraphy or painting, display ancient bronze vessels, arrange dishes of food and fruit, or set out a pillow and woven mat."

During the late Ming, some sophisticated connoisseurs preferred the archaic style of the box-style platform over the modern daybeds with free-standing legs. Although the old tradition gave way to popular fashion, some limited use continued throughout the Qing dynasty (1644-1912).


Daybeds Open-frame daybeds were popularised during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644),

and their use gradually eclipsed the old, box-style platform. Traditional styles included simianping and waisted forms with cabriole legs or horsefeet.

A miniature wooden daybed found in the tomb of Pan Yunzheng (d. 1589) near Shanghai reflects a classical 'waisted corner-leg' -style typical of the late Ming period.

Daybeds of 'recessed-leg' style were also typical of the late Ming period, including both those of round-leg style as well a those with mitered bridle joints and legs shaped with flanges.

Being relatively lightweight, the daybed was well-suited for impromptu gatherings, and was often arranged with other furnishings on a terrace or in the garden where fresh air and natural impressions could be enjoyed.

In a makeshift study arranged on a garden terrace, the daybed served as a place for quiet relaxation and contemplative meditation or as a platform from which to engage in lofty conversation. Such tented arrangements also provided a comfortable place to sleep during the hot summers nights.

The refined gentleman also found idle pleasure playing the qin while seated upon a daybed arranged in a garden pavilion.

Writing in the early 17th century, Wen Zhenheng recommended a simple daybed (ta) for a gentleman's sleeping quarters; his suggested arrangement—with a couple of stools and a small table set to the side—corresponds closely to scene painted by Qiu Ying some 50 years earlier.

Therein, a gentleman relaxes leisurely upon on a simianping daybed, and while reclining against a backrest, looks out upon an enclosed private garden.

Couches Although the use was similar to the daybed, the couch bed (chuang, luohan

chuang) is distinguished by railings, which render it as a more formal piece of furniture. The development of railings may be related with the early placement of screen panels around the back and sides of the platform, which enhanced the sitter as well as provided privacy and protection from drafts.

This practice gradually gave rise to decorative railings attached to the seat frame of the platform.

By the Ming dynasty, the box-style platform had developed into the more sophisticated open-structured, corner-leg form.


Railings were made in various styles; those configured as throne-like stepped panels are evident from the early Ming period. Literary references also record use of decorative stone for couch bed railings during this time.

Railings were frequently decorated with carving, inlays, or painted lacquer. By the late Ming period, advanced joinery techniques permitted the abandonment of the reinforcing floor stretcher.

Contemporary to the fashion for hardwood furniture during the late Ming and Qing dynasties, the couch bed was frequently made with plain solid panels of naturally figured wood or with intricate lattice patterns displaying auspicious wanzi, jingzi, or 'carpenter's square' motifs.

Bamboo was also a favourite material of construction for couch beds—especially the prized speckled bamboo.

Couch beds contrived from roots also appeared during the late Ming and Qing dynasties, at a time when Daoist traditions—expressed through rusticity and humble natural materials—became fashionable for those with leisurely lifestyles.

Canopy Beds The platform bed was naturally extended with surrounding screen panels or

tented awnings to provide nighttime enclosure. The canopy bed is thus characterized by a super structure fitted to the top of the bed, which was enclosed with panels and/or hung with draperies. This room within a room provided private space that was further insulated from drafty quarters.

Four-post canopy beds, which were common during the Ming period, were typically draped with fabric around the outside of the frame that suited to the season. Pongee silk or thick cotton provided insulated during the cold winters; gauze netting, provided relief was from annoying insects during the summer without diminishing the refreshingly cool evening breezes. Silk curtains for a lady's bed were often finely embroidered with decorative and auspicious patterns.

Curtains were drawn back during the day with curtain hooks, and the cosy cubicle continued to be utilized for dining, socializing, and other daily activities.

Six post canopy beds exhibit a somewhat more architectural style. The curtains were generally hung on the inside of these beds so as to reveal its decorative latticework and/or open-carved panels. Those decorated with marble panels were highly prized during the late Ming period.

The alcove bed is yet a larger piece of furniture that fits upon base with floorboards. An extension in front provides space for a small table, cabinet, and/or stool. The alcove bed is described in the Ming carpenters manual Lu Ban jing, and a miniature wood model illustrated below was discovered in a tomb near Shanghai dated to the late


16th century. A similar full-sized example made from huanghuali wood is exhibited at the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City.

Wood Used In Chinese Antique FurnitureVery precious woods such as Huang hua li, teakwood, tieli or jichimu were

imported from the southern Asia countries today known as Burma, Vietnam, Indonesia and Malaysia. These tropical weather type woods have been imported into China for more than 2000 years. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, wealthy inland provinces like Shanxi would deliver these woods by river barge.

Oakwood grows in the northern part of China and Korea, hence the name Gaoli mu (‘Korean Wood’). Zuomu is from Liaoning and Jilin, formerly Manchuria. Native Chinese woods are primarily Elmwood, Beechwood, Pine and Fir, with some Mahogany and Walnut.

Poorer provinces developed the lacquer technique to copy the dark colour and style of the Zitan, or dark red Sandalwood, furniture. Lacquered furniture became very popular and eventually overtook the importance of the original wood grain; we sometimes find beautiful natural wood under old worn-off lacquer. Shanxi province developed the best quality lacquer furniture, especially during the reign of Emperor Qian Long (1760 - 1795), and can now be found in the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace.

The Southern provinces used bright red lacquer for decoration and wedding cabinets, red being the colour of marriage. The often used it to cover bamboo and soft woods like pine, fir and willow.

Glossary Apron: A skirt of wood running between the legs of a chair or cabinet.

Cabriole leg: A leg that is curved in an ogee shape.

Caning: Weaving with split rattan or bamboo fibre for seats or beds of Chinese antique furniture.

Carcass: The main body or under structure of a piece of furniture, onto which a veneer or other covering is laid.

Case furniture: Furniture — cabinets, chests and cupboards — made for storing objects.

Chinoiserie: Western decorative imitations of Asian designs found mainly in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Chinese lattice or fretwork: A type of openwork pattern originating in Chinese art of Chinese antique furniture.

Dowel: A wooden peg used to hold early mortise-and-tenon joints in place.


Frieze: A horizontal ornamental strip.

Feng Shui: Chinese practice of arranging elements to achieve the greatest harmony and balance

Gilding: Coating of gold leaf or gold dust.

Grain: A pattern that is formed in wood by its fibers.

Hardwood: Timber from any tree that is not a conifer; wood known for its strength and durability.

Horsehoof: Style of table or chair leg that resembles the hoof of a horse of Chinese antique furniture.

Inlay: Decorative design set into the surface of a piece of furniture.

Japanning: Western method of imitating Asian lacquering techniques.

Joints: mitre: a corner joint in which two pieces of wood are cut so that when joined they form a right angle before being nailed or glued in place.

Mortise-and-tenon: a joint formed by hollowing out a hole (mortise) in one piece of wood and inserting a second, projecting piece (tenon); sometimes glued or held in place with a dowel.

Dovetail: a refinement of the mortise-and-tenon joint; a right-angled joint secured by interlocking, fan-shaped tenons.

Joinery: Constructed with dovetail or other joints instead of nails of Chinese antique furniture.

Lacquer: Asian varnish made from tree gum. Red or black coating that imparts a high gloss to surfaces of Chinese antique furniture.

Low -relief engraving: Decoration made by carving away the surrounding wood of Chinese antique furniture.

Marquetry: Use of veneer and other wooden inlays to make decorative patterns featuring naturalistic motifs.

Motif: A distinctive feature or theme in a composition.

Mount: A decorative fitting attached to furniture (often of metal, ormolu or ceramic).

Mortise and tenon structure: A type of joinery which connects furniture components with an extended tongue (tenon) fitted precisely into a cut-out (mortise) of Chinese antique furniture.


Moulding: Decorative pieces of wood, often carved, attached by joinery to the joints of a piece of Chinese antique furniture.

Patina: Surface texture of furniture that develops with age.

Plain hardwood: Furniture made of woods such as hua li, which are waxed but left unlacquered of Chinese antique furniture.

Rail: A horizontal bar running between the legs or uprights of a piece.

Softwood: Timber of coniferous trees; wood that is easy to cut.

Spandrel: Corner support between top or seat and legs of Chinese antique furniture.

Splat: The central upright of a chair back.

Stretcher: The horizontal bar joining and stabilizing the legs of a chair or table. Supports between legs of chairs, tables or benches - shape is straight or Humpback of Chinese antique furniture.

Veneer: Thin sheets of wood laid on top of a piece's carcass for decorative purposes.

Waisted: The indentation just below the top of a table, stool or bench of Chinese antique furniture.

Construction Techniques: Classic Chinese furniture is unique for many reasons, including its exquisite

carvings, rare woods and joinery. Each type has joints that are suited for the particular strains and stresses that will be placed on it. Understanding joinery and construction further enhances the connoisseurship of Chinese hardwood furniture.

An almost infinite combination of joints is possible in Chinese furniture. Familiarity with the major types and typical applications is essential for anyone interested in Chinese furniture. It is important to remember that joinery should be consistent, and construction logical. If it is not, there is a good possibility that the object is a copy or that it has been altered.


The most basic joint in Chinese cabinet making is the mortise and tenon. A mortise is a cut-out receptacle. A projection from the piece to be attached fits into the mortise.

There are many types of mortise-and-tenon joints. In the most basic - the butt-joined mortise and tenon - the ends of both the members to be joined are squared. If the ends are cut at an angle, it is called a mitered joint. A joint can be mitered on only one side or on both sides.

To the aesthetically inclined observer, the study of joinery may seem at first an unusual approach, yet the techniques employed play an important part in the overall effect. The animation and harmony experienced when viewing masterpieces is often the result of a unity that lies beneath the surface members are not only connected together to form a functional object, but also manifest integrated conceptualisation. Techniques of wood joinery were born from an ancient technological culture and developed through continuous evolution of timber architectural systems.

Further heights of sophistication and refinement were reached during the Ming and early Qing dynasties along with the manufacture of hardwood furniture.

The 'frame-and-panel' evolved as a more efficient use of material, and is typical of most panels in Chinese furniture, whether tabletop, door, or cabinet panel. The frame is joined with mitered, mortise-and-tenon joints. A groove is cut around the upper, inside edge of the frame, while the panel is shaped with a corresponding tongue around its outside edge.

This 'tongue-and-groove' system

secures the panel within the frame without glue or nails and permits the panel to float within the frame to accommodate its slight expansion and contraction due to changes in humidity. Additionally, transverse braces—whose number depends on the length of the panel—slide into shallow dovetail housings cut into the bottom of the panel, both supporting the thin panel and preventing its warping.


Lesson – 4: Egyptian Civilization

Egyptian Architecture: The principle architecture of ancient Egypt was developed mainly on post and

lintel construction. This system of columns and lintels is known as Trabeated Construction and is one of the most characteristic feature of Egyptian architecture. Excavations show that Egyptian houses were two or three stories high, often with arched ceilings and were constructed from sun-dried brick called adobe. As these bricks were not very strong the walls were built in a slanting form i.e. the walls were thicker at the base and narrowed as the height increased. With the invention of stone cutting tools, the slanting walls were imitated in granite. In wide rooms numerous columns had to be placed in the interior to support the short stone beams. These columns were arranged in long rows and were richly decorated with carvings.

The Egyptians believed that the spirits of the dead lived on in an after life. The

stone pyramids were built as the last resting-place of their kings. These tombs were lavishly outfitted to ensure a good after life. Probably the most famous structure in all of Egypt, the Pyramids are still on of the world’s best architectural achievement, even though they were built many centuries ago. These structures can be as tall as 482 feet (147 m) high. The Pyramid towers over many other famous landmarks, including the Statue of Liberty.


Example of trabeated form of architecture. Temple of Luxor, Thebes.

The first true pyramid was build at Saqqara for the King Zoser. It was called a step pyramid because of its step shape. The later pyramids were smooth sided, like the Great Pyramid at Giza, built for the king Khufu about 4,500 years ago.

The smooth sided pyramid was built from the Dynasty IV and on. They were built by first having men chisel the block of granite the way that they wanted it. The stonemasons used special rods to check that a stone block was cut accurately. Next, the blocks stayed in the quarry until the flood season. They did this so they could use barges to haul over the heavy granite blocks. Once the boast had arrived near the pyramid and unloaded the blocks, they were hauled up a ramp. Then, ropes and levers were used to maneuver the huge blocks into position. The overseer checked that every block was laid correctly. Once all of the granite blocks were placed in place, laborers rubbed the casing blocks with polishing stones until they would shine in the sun. The overseers used plump lines to check that the angle of the slope was correct.

As for the finishing touches, workers placed hieroglyphics around the pyramid as well as many statues. There were also a lot of bright and vibrant colored columns. There were also one or two large boats buried near the tomb so the king to have a peaceful sail over to the Next World.

As for the path that leads up to the pyramid, there was first the Valley Temple. When the king died, his body was first rowed across the Nile to the Valley Temple to be mummified. Next, there was the causeway. This was a covered processional way which came from the Valley Temple. The walls on the inside were decorated many times, and there were holes in the roof to provide light. At the end of the Causeway, there was the Mortuary Temple. This was built against the side of the pyramid. The Mortuary Temple was the place where priests made offerings to the king's spirit every day for eternity. To


Pyramid Saqqara built for King Zoser

Entrance to a Pyramid.

the left of the Mortuary Temple, can be found the queen's pyramid. Much smaller than the kings pyramid, this was where the king would bury his wife.

The number of granite blocks was enormous. There had to be a huge quarry to supply the huge demand. And of course, there were many accidents at the construction site. There were doctors on the site, but little helped for sprained or broken body parts. Eventually, the whole pyramid was built, and all of the sweat and toil paid off.

Before the pyramid, the kings used to be buried inside of tombs. The tomb itself was usually composed of two distinct parts: the chapel and crypt. The highly decorated walls of the funerary chapel accommodated a false door. This was the symbol linking the living with the dead, and there was a carved image of the tomb owner. The halls were flanked by several smaller rooms housing the deceased's provisions such as furniture, offerings, sacred text, victuals, etc.

The original Early Dynastic shape of the royal funerary monument evolved to a 'true' pyramid in a couple of steps. To the left, Netjerikhet's Step Pyramid at Saqqara represents the earliest type of pyramid-shaped monument. The pyramid at Meidum (to the right of Netjerikhet's) was apparently originally built to be a Step Pyramid, but its shape was altered to correspond to the Old Kingdom standard, before it collapsed. The Bent Pyramid at Dashur represents the first attempt to build a 'true' pyramid. The final outcome is best demonstrated by the pyramids at Giza.

In the rear, there was a burial shaft below ground which led to the actual crypt. Although it was walled in or dissimulated by all sorts of subterfuges-fits, snares, booby traps, and false galleries- the storerooms and chapel were devoted to the cult which remained accessible to the deceased's family and friends and to the priests who continued rituals. The crypt was highly decorated with carved reliefs and wall paintings which described the truths expected to exist for eternity and depicting the figures of priests and servants. They would accompany the deceased and his retinue to his afterlife.


Stages of Development of Egyptian Pyramids.

Lesson – 5 : Egyptian Furniture

Egyptians made their homes from bricks of dried mud because wood was scarce. The poorest Egyptians often lived in one-room huts. The typical middle-class Egyptian home was a one- or two-story house with at least three rooms. Many of the wealthiest Egyptians lived in houses with dozens of rooms. The windows and doors of most homes were covered with mats to keep out the flies, dust, and heat. Many people slept on the roof during the summer to stay cool.

Ancient Egyptian furniture included wooden stools, chairs, beds, and chests. Leather wall hangings were often used for decoration. Candles and oil lamps provided lighting.

Ancient Egyptian furniture makers displayed some particularly advanced techniques in their craft. As well as their well documented ability with working precious metals and inlays, they were also skilled wood workers.

A good example of the range of this skill survived in the tomb of Tutankhamun where an amazing range of beds, chests, stools and thrones were found. Many of these displayed a quality of construction which today’s craftsmen would have difficulty matching.

The antechamber of Tutankhamun's tomb as originally discovered. In the background is the magnificent Canopic Chest. Also among the jumble can be seen fine chests and ornate model boats.

There were a number of boxes and chests found in Tutankhamun's tomb. Among them this example really stands out because of its ornate construction, and also it's 'modern' appearance.

The framework of this chest is made of Ebony, with the insert panels probably of Cedar. The lid is hinged in bronze along the back edge and folds down the back of the chest. Internally the chest is divided into compartments, and below the box there is an elaborate openwork area incorporating the 'ankh' hieroglyph.


This stool was found in the Antechamber of the tomb. It is notable in it's construction as it is fitted together with mortise and tenon joints strengthened with metal pegs. In fact it survived 3000 years jammed between a bedstead and the wall of the tomb where it had been thrown when the tomb was raided.

This bed is made of wood coated with gesso. It is constructed of four distinct parts, the two sides in the form of cows, a baseboard and a string mesh mattress joined to the footboard.

The typical Egyptian house had sparse furnishings by modern standards. Wood was quite scarce, so large furniture items were not common. By far the most common pieces of furniture were small 3 and 4 leg stools and flycatchers. Stools have been found in common houses as well as in Pharaohs’ tombs. Other items of utilitarian furniture include clay ovens, jars, pots, plates, beds, oil lamps, and small boxes or chests for storing things.

The ever present stool was made from wood, and had a padded leather or woven rush seat. The stools’ 3 or 4 legs were very often carved to look like animal legs. Wealthy people had their stools and all furniture in general was richly decorated with gold or silver leaf. The more common people would have things painted to look more expensive than they were.

The Egyptian bed was a rectangular wooden frame with a mat of woven cords. Instead of using pillows, the Egyptians used a crescent-shaped headrest at one end of the bed. Cylindrical clay ovens were found in almost every kitchen, and the food was stored in large wheel-made clay pots and jars. For common people, food was eaten from clay plates, while the rich could afford bronze, silver, or gold plates. The ruling class also commonly had a throne chair with a square back inlaid with ebony and ivory. Almost everyone also had a chest for storing clothing and a small box for jewellery and cosmetics. Walls were painted, and leather wall hangings were also used. Floors were usually decorated with clay tiles.

Egyptian FurnitureMuch of the oldest surviving furniture in the world is that which was found in the

tombs of the Ancient Egyptians and which is now preserved and displayed in museums around the world. In addition to these surviving relics, much has also been learned from the paintings depicting Egyptian life with which these tombs were decorated, and from the accounts and descriptions written by the classical historians.


Egyptian dwellings were sparsely furnished by modern standards and the Egyptians abhorred regularity, which they regarded as monotonous and fatiguing to the eye. They preferred variety, both in the character of their furniture and the arrangements of their rooms. For the poorer classes furniture was very basic and they would commonly sleep on the ground and sit cross-legged on the floor. For the ruling classes however, furniture was highly ornate and sophisticated (and sometimes surprisingly delicate).

Furniture making was a respected craft in Ancient Egypt and skilled artisans were highly regarded. The Egyptian furniture makers displayed some particularly advanced techniques in their craft. They were skilled woodworkers and their ability with working precious metals and inlays showed a skill, which would be difficult to match even today. These artisans most commonly worked in shops close to the palace of the pharaoh or on the estates of the priests and nobles. Cabinetmakers worked closely with other craftsmen who would beautifully decorate their creations with gildings of precious metals or inlays of ebony or ivory. Leatherworkers would provide cushions for the chairs and couches. All of these professions were hereditary, passed down from father to son.

Then, as now, wood was in short supply in Egypt and most of the raw materials required by the cabinetmakers had to be imported - cedar and cypress came from Lebanon and tropical woods from Nubia. Ornamentation, like all Egyptian art, was strongly influenced by their religious beliefs. Images of Egyptians gods Animal motifs featured strongly and pieces often also had legs and feet carved to resemble animal legs. Moreover, such was the skill of the cabinetmakers that strengthening the legs with cross braces was rarely necessary. Components were often fitted together with mortise and tenon joints strengthened with metal pegs. Gold and/or silver foil or leaf was commonly used in their decoration of the most expensive furniture, while less costly items would be painted to imitate more valuable materials.

Major Forms Beds: Egyptian beds usually consisted of a simple, rectangular frame with

short legs that supported a framework of woven cord. Sometimes they employed a kind of wickerwork bedstead of palm branches. Crescent-shaped headrests were used in place of pillows. The poorer types were plain and made of pottery or stone. The richer forms were made of oriental alabaster, fine woods or glass, and decorated with hieroglyphs. The Egyptian bed was a rectangular wooden frame with a mat of woven cords. Instead of using pillows, the Egyptians used a crescent-shaped headrest at one end of the bed.

This bed is made of wood coated with gesso. It is constructed of four distinct parts, the two sides in the form of cows, a baseboard and a string mesh mattress joined to the footboard.

Couches: The Egyptians did not recline at meals, as did the Romans but couches and ottomans still figured strongly in their furnishings. They were generally of wood with one end raised and the remainder receding in a graceful curve. Ottomans were simple square sofa, with a flat seat and boxlike


base. The upper parts of these constructions were generally of leather or richly coloured cotton fabric.

Chairs: Chairs invariably figured in the homes of the wealthy, the most common types being the square backed single or double chair - the latter usually being occupied by a married couple. These varied in quality according to the means of the owners, the better types being inlaid with ebony and ivory, and having seats of leather or woven cord. Most impressive were the fauteuils or throne chairs reserved for individuals of great importance.

Stools: Stools were common in the homes of those families of humbler means. The seat was generally raised no more than 8 to 14 inches from the floor and commonly comprised of leather straps or woven thongs. Folding varieties on the principal of modern camp-stools were a common form. The ever-present stool was made from wood, and had a padded leather or woven rush seat. The stools’ 3 or 4 legs were very often carved to look like animal legs. Wealthy people had their stools and all furniture in general was richly decorated with gold or silver leaf. The more common people would have things painted to look more expensive than they were

This stool was found in the Antechamber of the tomb. It is notable in it's construction as it is fitted together with mortise and tenon joints strengthened with metal pegs. In fact it survived 3000 years jammed between a bedstead and the wall of the tomb where it had been thrown when the tomb was raided.

Tables: Egyptian tables varied in shape and size according to purpose. Those used in serving food were commonly round supported by single column in the centre (sometimes carved in the image of a servant or slave). Large tables were square or oblong, with three or four legs or sometimes even with solid sides like an altar. They were most commonly of wood although metal and even stone were sometimes employed for the tops.

Chests: Boxes and chests were used for storage. They commonly had lids that slid or lifted off, or sometimes hinged in bronze along the back edge. Inside they were frequently divided up into compartments. Decoration was commonly of inlaid ebony, gilded or painted scenes.

The framework of this chest is made of Ebony, with the insert panels probably of Cedar. The lid is hinged in bronze along the back edge and folds down the back of the chest. Internally the chest is divided into compartments, and below the box there is an elaborate openwork area incorporating the 'ankh' hieroglyph.


Review Questions

1. Write a detailed note on Sumerian Architecture.

2. What were the main features of Babylonian Architecture? Explain with the help of examples.

3. Explain in detail the various architectural styles of Chinese Architecture.

4. What were the main features of Chinese furniture? Discuss in detail with reference to the furniture made during the various Chinese dynasties.

5. Write a detailed account of the Pyramid architecture of Ancient Egypt.

6. What were the main pieces of furniture used during the Egyptian period? Explain with the help of sketches.

7. Write short notes on the following:

a. Trabeated construction

b. Use of joints in Chinese furniture

c. Wood used for making furniture in China


Unit – II

Greek Period Architecture

The Classical Greek Orders Doric Order Ionic Order Corinthian Style

Greek Furniture Types of Furniture Materials And Decoration

Roman Civilisation Architecture

Roman Furniture Major Forms


Lesson – 6: Greek Period

The first inhabitants of the Greek peninsula, who are believed to be Neolithic, built very primitive and basic structures. The houses were mainly built with a circular, oval, apsidal, or rectangular shape. The rectangular house was mostly square, but some were oblong, and had the entrance at one of the short ends. They used mud bricks and stones in the mud with reeds or brush to help build the house. Most of the houses had one room, there were very rarely two.

The next group of settlers were the Minoan architects. Their towns were mostly residential with little or no temples and public places. Unlike earlier people, their houses were private and had many rooms. However, to separate rooms, they would use only pillars. Thus, the house was very open. The stairways were a very prominent feature for these massive homes. This began a whole new era for the Greeks dealing with architecture.

The architecture of ancient Greece ranges from the remains of small Dark Age temples built of wood and mud-brick to the colossal marble Archaic and Classical temples and magnificent public buildings of the Hellenistic period. Even in the case of stone buildings, however, the effects of earthquakes and general neglect or abuse mean that these now survive only in more or less ruined states, and many aspects of their original appearance are thus conjectural.

In the Bronze Age Mediterranean civilisations of Crete and Mycenaean Greece the most important buildings had been royal palaces and tombs. By contrast, the history of Greek architecture before the Hellenistic period is dominated by the development of the temple. The political organisation of Archaic and Classical Greece on the basis of the polis (city state) rather than the kingdom also meant that temples and other types of

buildings, both sacred and secular, were state-financed and essentially public projects.

More than the architecture of any other ancient civilisation, ancient Greek architecture has profoundly influenced later styles in the Western world. The elaborate aesthetic rules and the range of building types established by the Greeks were taken up by Roman architects and thus diffused throughout the Empire. Later still, the architects of


the Renaissance and of the Neo-classical revival returned to Greek forms and concepts, which have continued to be adapted and used in buildings up to the present day.

The main building style used in this period was that of Trabeated construction i.e. a structural system based on the use of columns or posts and beams. It played a particularly important role in the architecture of ancient Greece, where it was directly related to the development of the architectural orders, a system in which the columns surrounding temples and other public buildings were surmounted by an entablature formed by rectangular architrave blocks, a frieze and cornice. It was also the usual type of structure in the architecture of both ancient Egypt, where columns or piers were crowned by rectangular blocks.

In Greek architecture the use of the trabeated system was appropriate to the local limestone, as in the temples of Hera and Zeus at Olympia, or later to marble, as in the Parthenon and Erechtheion on the Acropolis at Athens. It also reflected an approach to architecture in which there was no break between structure and appearance: loads were clearly carried by carefully proportioned columns and rectangular entablature blocks, while non-structural and other architectural elements, including pilasters, were rarely introduced. The plans of buildings were usually rectangular to fit the principles of trabeated construction, and the use of arches in Greek architecture above ground was rare.


Lesson – 7: The Classical Greek Orders

During the Classical Greek architecture period, the Greeks made up three different orders that are most commonly seen in their temples. These three orders were the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The orders are also known for their columns style. The Corinthian order was not used as widely as the Doric of Ionic. The reason being, is that the Corinthian order was fancier than the others, and had a lot more detail.

Doric Order

The most basic order for their temples would be the Doric order. Doric architecture was known for being used by the Spartans. It all starts with some wood shafts, which latter was replaced by stone. On the top of the shaft, were circular pads with a square block of wood over it. The vertical columns were used to support the beams called architraves. In order to form the ceiling, other beams were laid across the building with their ends on these architraves. On the end of these beams, they could be channelled to make a triglyph. On the top of a triglyph there would be another beam which would be placed for the overhanging rafters. These type of beams were referred as to a mutules. The finishing touches for the roof had to have a flat gables called pediments. The gutter ran along the top of the pediments and ended at a lion's mouth. This acted like a drain. The materials that were used for the roofs were thatch and the terra-cotta and marble. The of Doric temples were similar to those of the Ionic order in lay out and design.

Ionic Order

The second order would be the Ionic order. Their columns were more slender than those of the Doric order. Their dimensions were eight to nine meters high, instead of four to five. The columns had a moulded base which was placed under them and then sculpted figures on the lower part of the shaft were added. At the top of these shafts, were rectangular blocks of stone, which were carved in the shape of hair or other wave and line shapes.


Corinthian StyleThe Corinthian columns are the most

decorative and usually the most appealing to the modern eye. They too use entasis to correct the optical illusions of the massive Greek structures. The Corinthian capitals have flowering, leaf-like structures below a lesser scroll design than that of Ionian capitals. The shaft has indented sides and the base is a more refined version of the Ionian. Unlike the Doric and Ionian roofs, which are at a slant, the Corinthian roofs are flat. The Corinthian frieze is the same as the Ionic frieze, but on a smaller scale.

The buildings of Ancient Greece can be sub divided into mainly the following categories:

Temple Architecture: Temples were sporadically located and were mostly a small altar, but larger temples called sanctuaries were being created. These consisted of altars and assembly halls for political or religious needs or events.

The most famous example of temple architecture of this period is the Parthenon located in Athens, Greece and built during B.C -477 to –438. It enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. The materials used in this building are bearing masonry, and cut stone, the ceiling is of wood, with painted and gilded decoration.

Civic Architecture : Greek public buildings types occurred in both state-run religious sanctuaries and agoras. The latter were the civic and commercial centres of the polis (city state) and developed with the rise of the polis as a place of assembly for the people.

Among the most important civic building types was the Bouleuterion (council house). This was an enclosed hall for meetings of city officials, and it often contained an altar of Hestia, goddess of the hearth, a religious aspect that reveals the original link between the bouleuterion and the Prytaneion. The latter was used for entertaining city guests and traditionally contained the city’s sacred hearth.


Domestic Architecture : Standard house types evolved comparatively late in ancient Greek architecture. Dwellings with apsidal, round or rectangular plans existed in prehistoric times. Of these, the megaron type, rectangular in plan with a porch in front, survives from the 8th century BC at Zagora, and the apsidal plan is found at Emporio on Chios in houses of the 7th century BC. Here also square and rectangular forms occur. From these rather hazy beginnings emerged two main types of house: the megaron or prostas type, typical of the houses in Priene; and the pastas type, best exemplified in the houses of Olynthos.


Lesson – 8: Greek Furniture

Most ancient Greek furniture was made of wood, a perishable material that has seldom survived. However, despite the lack of substantial remains, a basic picture of Greek furniture can be pieced together from descriptions in literary sources, as well as from surviving pieces of stone furniture and from contemporary representations and imitations of furniture in other art forms.

Types of Furniture:1. Seats.

Among the best-documented items of Greek furniture is the throne, which occurred in four distinctive forms. An early variety, typical of the 6th century BC, had a back-rest with a top that curved backwards, often terminating in the head of a goose or a duck, and front and back pairs of clawed feet, facing either in the same or in opposite directions. A second type, attested from the Archaic period onwards, had cylindrical legs, often made of several turned sections. Occasionally there were armrests supported by small sculpted figures, and the increasingly ornate Hellenistic examples sometimes had figured inlays. Another form, mainly used in the 6th century BC though again continuing into Hellenistic times, had sawn legs of rectangular section, sometimes decorated with cut-out designs, carved volutes and painted palmettes. The fourth type, represented by the stone seats for dignitaries in Hellenistic theatres, consisted of a massive, block like substructure supporting a backrest, which was sometimes curved. Some were decorated at the front with lion heads on the armrest ends and with pairs of clawed feet.

The klismos was another type of easy chair, with legs that curved outwards and a sweeping concave back-rest. It was a distinctively Greek form of furniture, known from the Late Archaic period onwards and particularly popular in the Classical period. The diphros was a simpler chair without a back-rest. Its use was widespread from the Archaic period onwards, and its variants included diphroi with straight legs either of round or rectangular cross section, with more complex turned legs, or with sawn legs, often ending in club like feet. The diphros okladias was a folding version with legs that crossed beneath the seat and were often curved. The legs might end in animal

feet facing inwards or outwards. Known from the Minoan–Mycenaean era, the diphros okladias was widely used from the 6th century BC to the Hellenistic period. It later developed into the Roman official sella curulis. There were also simple seats in block and benches, which could be blocklike or have either curved supports or straight legs with animal feet. Footstools were mostly used under couches or thrones and took the same three basic forms.


2. Couches.

The Greeks used the couch (kline) chiefly for sleeping and dining but also for laying out the dead during ritual mourning and in their tombs. The earliest depictions of klinai, in funerary scenes on Geometric vases, are rather distorted by efforts to combine views from different angles. However, two forms of legs are already apparent: one with thickened jamb-capitals at the top; another with a concave curved profile. From the 6th century BC onwards these were replaced by several other varieties, including a rare type with animal legs. A much more common form had turned, multi-member legs of circular cross-section, which were even decorated with figured inlays in the Hellenistic period. The raised head end of the couch often had a curved head-rest, which might be decorated with bronze fulcra. A further variety had sawn legs of rectangular cross-section. This form, particularly popular in the Archaic period, continued as late as the Hellenistic period. The legs generally had characteristic cut-out decoration, carved volutes and painted palmettes. Representations of couches with inlaid decoration or supports in the form of sculpted figures show that many had double frames. A simplified version (5th century BC onwards) had plain sawn legs that generally tapered towards the ground.


3. Tables and chests.

The standard ancient Greek form of table (trapeza) used for dining had a rectangular top and three legs, though versions with four legs are known. Depicted from the Archaic period onwards, it was generally shown in conjunction with couches, laid out with food and drink. Circular tables with three legs, sometimes carved in animal form, are reproduced in small-scale Minoan–Mycenaean terracotta models, but this type was most widespread in Hellenistic and Roman times. Stone tables with rectangular tops supported by upright slabs, which might be decorated at the sides with carved animal protomes, were used in villas and gardens in Hellenistic and Roman times.

In the absence of cupboards or wardrobes, chests (kibotoi) served to store garments, toilet items and valuables. From the Archaic period onwards, chests can be divided into three main types, depending on whether the lid is flat or has a gabled or a semicircular end. Some had animal feet or intricate inlaid panels. The sideboards occasionally represented were mainly used to store vessels, tools and other utensils.

Materials and DecorationAlthough most furniture was wooden, especially precious pieces were sometimes

decorated with animal feet or inlaid panels of ivory and bone, bronze and even precious metals. Painted decoration was common and frequently included palmettes, rosettes and stars. Stone, particularly marble, was used primarily for outdoor benches and thrones in theatres, sanctuaries and gardens. Wooden items were often sprung with wickerwork or leather and lavishly covered. The couches depicted in use at aristocratic banquets on Attic vases are frequently adorned with ornately decorated mattresses, coverlets and cushions, though only occasional fragmentary remains of fabric have survived. There were clearly considerable differences in the quality of the material, the accessories and the workmanship, so that an intricate piece of furniture, particularly a throne or couch, could easily be a status symbol. The work of the specialised craftsmen who produced such pieces is documented only by workshop scenes on painted vases. The decorative components made of bronze and ivory, as well as the textiles, were, of course, produced by specialists in the appropriate craft.


Lesson – 9: Roman Civilisation

It is said about Roman Architecture that "architecture of the Romans was, from first to last, an art of shaping space around ritual". In other words, Ancient Roman architecture was regulated by their custom of a system of rites. The first Roman architects were priests. The religious leaders wanted a location were they could say that "whatever happens here is a sign from the gods". However, the first tangible buildings were small huts for the family. For the most part, the Romans were taught to build with solid materials during this primitive stage to form their visions.

By the 2nd century B.C. Roman architecture had emerged as an adaptation of Greek and also Etruscan traditions and was becoming a major style in its own right. The multiplicity of its origins can perhaps be seen as a reflection of the multiplicity of culture and society in the unified Roman dominions. The Greek-inspired systems of the orders were adapted to Roman methods of construction with a new reliance on the arch and vault, and although even this may have been derived from buildings in the Greek East, Roman architecture soon developed its own character and cannot be mistaken for that of any other period. Roman buildings range from the unambiguously practical (bridges,

aqueducts, warehouses etc) to the various interpretations of Greek or Etruscan prototypes (temples, theatres, fountains etc). By the end of the 1st century B.C. new building types had appeared, most notably amphitheatres and honorific arches, and Roman architects and builders also abandoned tradition when they created the multi-storey apartment block (as at Rome and Ostia), or the grand bath complex. Although famous buildings were never copied and free interpretation seems to have been the rule, Rome undoubtedly provided the inspiration for many of the buildings erected in the provinces. This applies especially to the great temple and forum complexes laid out in Rome in the late Republican and early Imperial periods (late 1st century B.C.–early 2nd century A.D), and to the enormous bath complexes built in Rome during the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D.


The Romans learned most of their architectural techniques by the Etruscans and the Greeks. From their education, they had two major architectural advances. The first advance was that the temple, though still open space, took shape: stairs led to an elevated floor, lots of columns were added to support a roof, and decorative colours were included. The second advance was that the huts were transformed into larger and more permanent houses. With these advancements, the Romans utilised natural materials to form plaster and brick to make their structures. This mixture of natural materials was called pozzolana, which is partly volcanic rock and partly rubble. The Romans also connected each building with a network of streets.

Once Ancient Rome became a dominating world power, a revolution in architecture began. It was the explosion of being freed from customs that brought this architectural rebirth and was inspired by Greece. The rebirth of architecture challenged Romans to build with more imagination and freedom. One of the architectural techniques that came into use by experimentation was the arch and vault. Later, the Ancient Romans applied these techniques tremendously to their structures of art. This renewed architecture art also was the origin of the amphitheatre, monumental avenue, and public baths.

During the first years of the Roman Empire architecture relaxed, and became calmer. During this time period the theatre, Colosseum, and the racetrack was constructed.

The Ancient Romans used tools that helped them obtain a more perfect structure. Such tools include the plumb bob to make things vertically straight, squares that could measure 45° and 90° angles, and chisels that carved wood for roof frames. These are some of the tools that modern construction workers use.

The Colosseum The greatest of all

amphitheatres, the Colosseum is a massive Ancient Roman structure. It was designed to serve as a location for bloodshed shows. The Ancient Roman community would travel to the enormous amphitheatre to be spectators of battles between gladiators, combats between men and vicious animals, and mock naval battles.

For the time period the Colosseum was constructed in, its dimensions were immense. Reaching four stories high (approximately 157 feet) and shaped in an


Vault: Vatican Rome.

enormous oval, the Colosseum could seat about 50,000 spectators on marble and wooden benches. Although the overall structure measured 620 feet long and 510 feet wide, its centre arena calculated to be 285 feet long and 180 feet wide. To separate the spectators from the entertainment, a wall about 15 feet high was included. Under the arena, a maze of corridors, cells, and equipment was built. It also held trap doors and hidden elevators to allow animals and men to go up or down.

The structure itself carried a particular characteristic of Ancient Roman architecture: arches. The Colosseum's first three stories were basically arches and columns. The decoration on these walls were more elaborate than the ones on the fourth story which was added later on. The first story was mainly entrances, but the second and third stories were decorated with a statue in each arch. An interesting fact about the building is that the fourth-story walls held poles that contained awnings to shade from the sun and guard from the rain. The entire structure was formed by brick and concrete, a typical ingredient in Ancient Roman architecture. The Colosseum had 78 entrances for the plebeians and two reserved for the emperor, giving a total of 80 entrances.

The Pantheon The Pantheon, its name

meaning place for all gods, is a temple built during the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. Hadrian dedicated the temple to the Roman gods after it was completed. The temple served as a Christian church after a few hundred years from its completion for a long period of time.

Constructed from brick and concrete, the Pantheon is a circular building. It measures 142 feet in diameter and has a gigantic dome 142 feet above the floor to its highest point. The roof of the rectangular porch, which extends from the building's entrance, is triangular and supported by eight Corinthian columns. The emphasised interior of the Pantheon is a major characteristic of the building, which is decorated by marble and lit by an opening in the top of the dome.

The Aqueducts Aqueducts are channels

constructed of brick or stone designed to carry water to a location in which it can be used. Although Rome didn't have the first aqueduct of the world, it was the only major city reasonably supplied with


The interior of the Pantheon

Typical aqueducts

water and therefore most famous for them. By A.D. 97, a water commissioner named Marcus Agrippa supplied Rome with 85 million gallons of water from a mountain spring through nine different aqueducts. Other Roman colonies that were deprived of a water source soon had aqueducts to supply them with the "source of life".

One very famous aqueduct was the Pont du Gard. The aqueduct carried water from about 30 miles away and supplied the city of Nîmes with 22,000 tons of water each day.

Typical Houses In the city of Ancient Rome, only

the wealthy citizens could afford a house. The houses had different-purposed small windowless rooms surrounding a large reception room called an atrium. The atrium would be brilliantly coloured with wall hangings, paintings, and floor tiles. The colour would be lit with an opening in the roof and also aired by this same opening. More valuable houses had a second courtyard called a peristyle. It was planted with natural art of trees, flowers, small shrubs, and a pond. Some houses, interesting enough, had small shops on the exterior of the house facing the road.


The peristyle of a Roman house.

The Legacy of Roman Architecture

Arches The architectural technique of

the arch is a trademark of Ancient Rome. The Romans applied the arch to many of their buildings for two reasons: support for the weight above it and decoration. Two of the first structures to carry arches are bridges and aqueducts. Triumphal arches were later constructed to honour their leaders, and vaults came into practice, which are arched roofs.

Columns Although not the only empire to practice the architectural legacy of the column,

Ancient Rome was still a major user for them. The columns were utilised as support for the weight above it and decoration. The Ancient Roman came up with five different types of columns, which are the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Most of these, however, were adopted from Greek columns.

The column and colonnade constituted the basic components of building design, especially for temples, which throughout the period retained their basic layout of a cella (central sanctuary) with a frontal or peripheral colonnade. One of the chief accomplishments of architects in Roman times was the marrying of the traditional orders, augmented by the Roman Composite, to the pier and arch constructional system. There were also developments in the application of the traditional colonnades, increasingly used to line streets, while ever more elaborate column compositions were employed not only for the stage buildings of theatres but also for the showpiece façades of fountain buildings and bath complexes. The peristyle, a rectangular court lined with columns, was used in a


A Roman Arch

variety of constructions ranging from the large paved city forum to the public courtyards attached to entertainment complexes, and to the gardens of modest houses. With a roof carried from the columns to the perimeter walls, the peristyle was adaptable to both moderate and hot climates and was soon used throughout the Empire. Other features of Roman architecture less dependent on

Mosaic WorkThe houses in the ancient settlement of Olynthus near the Gulf of Toroni, (mostly

of the 5th century B.C.) are our principle source of information about Roman interiors. At Olynthus, many of the features later to distinguish all Classical houses are found in embryo. While it appears to have been considered acceptable even in quite grand interiors to have floors of beaten earth (possibly even coloured), proto-mosaics in the form of rounded pebbles in simple patterns are found at Olynthus. From these originate the complex later mosaics which were the glory of Imperial Roman floors, walls and vaults, being composed not of pebbles, but of thousands of tooth-shaped tesserae, (of marble, clay or glass) whose visible surfaces were often brilliantly coloured, glazed and gilded. Pliny's description of Greek floors is interesting: he notes that they introduced the idea to replace painted floors, and describes the famous floor of the Ùnswept House' at Pergamum, where mosaic trompe l'oeil gave the impression of the debris of a dinner party. Such decoration reached its apogee in Roman and Hellenistic times, and Julius Caesar actually travelled on his campaigns with a portable floor of this type.

There were three main varieties of mosaic: the coarse opus segmentatum; the widely-used medium-sized opus tessellatum; and the minute opus vermiculatum, permitting the realisation of refined design. We know that mosaicists were often commissioned to produce versions of celebrated paintings of the day. Vitruvius also describes more durable flooring made of bricks laid in a herring-bone pattern.

In the atrium of the House of the Bicentenary at Herculaneum we find red walls coupled with a black-and-white floor mosaic, which was undoubtedly a common combination. Elaborate combinations of wall painting in bands of colour, with fine floor mosaics, survive at Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli. We believe that the Greeks painted their walls with tempera on plaster, with a binding medium whose exact nature is unknown; other fine examples of Greek interior decoration, on the Sicilian mainland, are the series of town houses at Solunto in Sicily. We are told by Pliny (see below) that the famous court painter to Alexander the Great, Apelles, limited himself to four colours only -"White from Melos, Attic yellow, red from Sinope on the Black Sea, and the black called àtramentum'".


Composite Columns.

Floor Mosaic

Wall TreatmentIn addition to painted and mosaic-decorated surfaces, marble became increasingly

fashionable for wall and floor revetment (surfacing). Although the saying that Augustus "found Rome all brick and left it all marble" refers more to exterior architecture, the

later Imperial period is distinguished by the importation into Rome of countless new marble types from all over the Empire, particularly the Aegean area and Egypt. Not only were surfaces decorated with sheets of plain marble, whether white (possibly from the new quarries at Carrara) or coloured, but elaborate geometric patterns and pictorial inlays were common; the edges of marble sheeting were often treated with complex carved repeat borders.

Walls were often decorated with combinations of materials, including marble sheeting into which mural painting or pictorial marbles could be set in elaborate stucco frames; all of this was assisted by the introduction of the new material of the Roman world - concrete. Concrete made its earliest appearance in small-scale constructions, and in Rome, brick-faced concrete became the norm for most major building. The correct term for the material was opus

caementicium, which consisted of lumps of aggregate mixed with mortar and laid in horizontal courses. Because of the high quality mortar, Roman concrete construction permitted ambitious building forms, regardless of the final facing hiding the underlying structure. The great advances of the Augustan and early Julio-Claudian periods are entirely due to the new material. Whereas the architecture (and thus interiors) of Greece were logically based on the system of fairly rigid wall areas and column supports, Roman architecture after the acceptance of concrete often came more to resemble sculpture. Because the basic substance of a building could now be created in virtually any form by adding tier to tier of concrete, almost all ambitions of shape and scale could be realised, and the final outline dressed in other, more glamorous materials. It was in this period that the play of convex and concave form, solids and voids, came into its own, to be rediscovered by Baroque architects like Borromini in the 17th century.

One of the first major experiments in this genre was Nero's so-called Domus Aurea or Golden House in Rome, of 64-68 AD, enough of which survives to reveal its daring inventiveness. Its novel room shapes permitted surprising effects of space, light and colour, and mechanical devices were introduced to blur divisions further between real and illusion. No expense was spared to make it the most shamelessly luxurious and best-known domestic building of its day, and it is said that Nero declared on its completion, "At last I can begin to live like a human being". Mosaic now transcended its humble origins, and pieces of glass of all colours, pumice stone, marble chips, painted plaster, shells and other fantastic elements all appeared to cover every conceivable space


where marble or mural painting did not. Many of Nero's experiments there were followed up less than twenty five years later in the great palace of Domitian, on a much more daring scale. Here, a device was introduced which was to be of the greatest importance for subsequent Roman interiors, and later for the world of Neo-Classicism - the use of widely varying inter-related room shapes and dramatic vistas and lighting: the final conclusion of such tendencies are seen in the major Roman public baths.

The glory of grand Roman houses was probably always their mural paintings: the easel pictures which were regarded by Pliny and others as the summit of achievement in painting have all perished, although their compositions are often recorded in fixed, mural copies. By the date of the decoration of Nero's Golden House, what we now refer to as the four `Pompeiian' styles of painting had been evolved. It is often impossible to know whether Roman mural decorations were carried out by peripatetic Greek or Italian artists.

The First Style (or ìncrustation' style) derives from the Greek ‘masonry’ style already developed by the 4th century B.C., which often consisted of flat colour washes. The Second, or ‘Architectural’ style of around 80 B.C. introduced such elements as fictive ashlar and columns. The Third rejected representational trompe l'oeil in favour of combinations of fantastic decorative elements conceived as the setting for mural panels containing pictures. The Fourth (the one favoured in Pompeii at the time of its destruction by Vesuvius in 79 AD), which we now admire for its sophistication and joyfully complex mingling of elements, consisted of a juxtaposition of the preceding styles. Its immensely inventive repertoire of pictorial devices includes faux marbre (false marble) dadoes surmounted by panels of solid colour with inset figure or landscape scenes, `glimpses' of a fragile, fantastic architecture including columns, pedicules with or without figures, canopies, garlands, geometrical friezes, grilles, tripods and trellises. Among the best-known examples of Roman mural paintings are those in the Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii, the decorations of the House of the Vetii, Pompeii, the Boscoreale room now in the Metropolitan Museum and, as an example of the Roman love of landscape murals, the delightful Garden Room from the House of Livia, the Emperor Augustus's wife, now in the Museo Nazionale, Rome.

In addition to flat, painted decorations in brilliant colour, one of the most significant contributions of Roman designers was to the evolution of stucco, or plaster decoration, in shallow relief. This was perfected during the first two centuries AD, and contributed greatly to the luxury of the Roman interior. With an understructure of brick or concrete, complete internal transformations were rendered possible with stucco-work, easily and cheaply adding pilasters and other architectural elements to walls, and coffering and other decoration to vaults. Partly because of later periods' greater knowledge of such decorations in all Roman building types (such as the many surviving tombs and other underground chambers or grotte, from which our word `grotesques' derives) stuccoes exercised much greater influence on both the Renaissance and subsequent periods than Roman mural paintings. Their effect is at once crisper, more elegant and richer than even the most elaborate two-dimensional painting, and their presence lends liveliness to any interior.


Lesson – 10: Roman Furniture

Roman furniture continued the traditions of the Hellenistic world, although new types appeared, among them a couch with an elaborate head-piece (fulcrum) often terminating on each side with the head of an ass; a three-legged table, each leg being embellished with zoomorphic ornament; and an armchair (in north-western Europe often of basketwork). Remains of wooden furniture are naturally rare and only occasionally qualify as works of art, but it is clear from these fragments and from representations of carpenters at work that a high level of skill in turning and joinery was available. Moreover, colossal sums were sometimes paid for items of furniture, especially when made of citrus wood or even veneered in citrus.

The best evidence for the furniture that the Romans had in their houses is provided by tombstones found throughout the Empire showing banquet scenes. Related to these is the unique early 3rd-century ad sarcophagus from Simpelveld which bears on its interior faces reliefs including all the main categories of furniture to be seen in a wealthy provincial house. The deceased reclines on a couch with a high back and turned legs. Beside it, against one of the short sides of the coffin, is a basket-chair upholstered with a cushion. A larger example of such a chair carved at full size was found in a tomb at Weyden outside Cologne, a remarkable skeuomorph. On the opposite long side of the Simpelveld sarcophagus are a dresser, a cupboard with panelled doors and a three-legged table with lion-head protomes and claw-feet. The three-legged table is the most decorative item on the Simpelveld sarcophagus and the easiest to parallel from surviving material. Three cypress wood table legs from Kerch in the Crimea have protomes in the form of hounds emerging from calyxes (St Petersburg, Hermitage), while another wooden table of the Roman period from Luxor in Egypt has legs with swan-head protomes (Brussels). Most surviving examples are sculpted from marble, such as the table outside the House of the Deer at, though in Roman Dorset striking variants were carved skilfully from Kimmeridge shale and have griffin-head protomes.

Couches were employed for diners in triclinia (dining-rooms). They


Marble Table

High Couch

were frequently set with plaques of bone or ivory and sometimes inlaid with glass, tortoiseshell or even gems. The richest embellishments are clearly outside the normal range of decoration, such as the tortoiseshell to which Pliny referred and the amethysts, garnets, citrines, cornelians, lapis lazuli and other stones in rich gilt settings from the imperial palace in the Lamian Gardens on the Esquiline Hill at Rome which must come from elaborate furniture if not actually set in the walls of the room. The finely carved bone fittings of a north Italian couch (early 1st century ad; Cambridge, Fitzwilliam) display dazzling artistry in the elegant forms of the winged female deities (the Etruscan goddess Turan rather than the Roman Venus is shown) that comprise one element of the legs, the plaques of Apollo playing the lyre at the corners of the frame and the cupid tondi at the base of the fulcrum. Other couches were constructed with metal frames and fulcra, frequently inlaid (intarsia work). The lovely bronze fulcrum from Amiternum (Rome) is inlaid with a vintage scene in copper and silver while at its base is a tondo in high relief showing a satyr. Appliqués of similar quality and high relief to those found on these couches were also attached to chests, which were generally of wood, sheathed with bronze sheet; a fine example has been found at Pompeii (Naples). Similar boxes on a much smaller scale and set with studs in the form of lion heads served Roman matrons as jewel- or work-boxes and are quite often recovered from burials.

Among the most accomplished examples of metal furniture are the tripods bearing table-tops for food or drink or mixing bowls for wine. These were portable objects that could be folded away when not required. An example in silver of the Augustan age (27 BC–ad 14) from the Hildesheim Treasure (Berlin, Antikenmus.) is very simple; the tray is supported on finials sprouting from the heads of Ammon and the long straight legs end in claw. Later tripods are more elaborate: examples from the high Empire in bronze from Bavay in France and Augst in Switzerland incorporate both busts of satyrs and panther-head protomes. The best tripod of all is one in silver from Polgárdi in Hungary (Budapest), a work of the greatest delicacy and charm. It is surmounted by three groups of a nereid on a triton and has a cupid on a dolphin at each foot; its pièce de résistance is a Rococo griffin protome in the centre of each leg.


Review Questions

1. Write in detail about the different stages of architectural development in Greece.

2. Explain with the help of sketches the various architectural orders developed by the Greeks.

3. Explain in detail the types of furniture used by the Greeks.

4. Give a detailed account of the material and decorations used by the Greeks in their furniture.

5. What were the influences of the Greek architectural style on the Romans? Discuss with the help of examples.

6. Explain in detail with the help of sketches the legacies of the Roman Empire.

7. Give a detailed account of the furniture used by the Romans.


a. Colosseum

b. Pantheon

c. Roman vaults.


Unit – III

Gothic Architecture

Renaissance Architecture

Italian Renaissance

Renaissance in France

The English Renaissance The Tudor Period Elizabethan Period


Lesson – 11: Gothic Architecture

During the middle of the twelfth century, in the region surrounding Paris, several innovative art and craft forms began to coalesce within the renovations of existing church structures. Initially consisting of hybrid elements within earlier buildings, primarily the Romanesque abbeys, the new style soon accentuated its own merits. Before passing from favour, the expression we know today as Gothic Art would dominate European architectural development for the nearly four hundred years.

In the middle of the 12th century BC builders were working using the Romanesque style of art. The Gothic style, as we know it today, was originally called the modern style, and its appearance coincided with the emergence of the monarchy as a powerful centralising force in France. Giorgio Vasari, an Italian artist and historian, introduced the term "Gothic" in the 16th century. He attributed the style to that of the Goths who were Germanic northerners that had destroyed the classical civilisation of the Roman Empire that he and his contemporaries so admired.

The term was first used during the later Renaissance, and as a term of contempt. Says Vasari, "Then arose new architects who after the manner of their barbarous nations erected buildings in that style which we call Gothic". For the first time, an attempt was made to destroy an instinctive and, as far as Europe was concerned, an almost universal form of art, and to substitute in its place another built up by artificial rules and premeditated theories. As ignorant of the true habitat of the style as they were of its nature, the Italians of the Renaissance called it the "maniera Tedesca", and since to them the word Goth implied the perfection of barbarism, it is but natural that they should have applied it to a style they desired to destroy. The style ceased, for the particular type of civilisation it expressed had come to an end; but the name remained, and when, early in the nineteenth century, the beginnings of a new epoch brought new apologists, the old title was taken over as the only one available, and since then constant efforts have been made to define it more exactly, to give it a new significance, or to substitute in its place a term more expressive of the idea to be conveyed.


A Gothic Builder

The first forms of Gothic architecture arise within the 12th century, seemingly from the very heart of their Romanesque forebears. As the paramount builder of the Middle Age centuries, the church provided this new creative/technical form with its greatest avenue of manifestation. It would not be until the 'Neo-Gothic' era of the nineteenth century that the style would make an expression through secular structures on any broad scale.Contrary to popular perception, Gothic style

refers to more than cathedral structures. The label applies to art, sculpture, glass works, decorative pieces and illuminated manuscripts from the mid 12th through the early 16th century.

The accepted Gothic period spans some four hundred years, from the twelfth century through the early decades of the sixteenth. This fact alone argues against a consistent method and style. During the Gothic age communication of craft and style was limited by the physical travel of small guilds of craftsmen. Over time, original ideas imported from earlier sites evolved into new forms which reflected refined technique and regional influence.

The distinctions between French, English, Italian, German and Spanish Gothic are defined by more than mere geography. Over time, a dedicated study will reveal the variety of distinctions. The sincere student will soon enough 'pierce the veil' and come within the treasure house of artistic and spiritual intent contained in unique forms at each and every structure. These treasures still beckon powerfully to those of yearning mind and spirit. Their legacy challenges personal experience and innovative interpretation.

In this form of architecture the whole scheme of the building is determined by, and its whole strength is made to reside in a finely organised and frankly confessed framework rather than in walls. This framework, made up of piers, arches and buttresses, is freed from every unnecessary encumbrance of wall and is rendered as light in all its parts as is compatible with strength. It is thus a system of balanced thrusts in


contradistinction to the ancient system of inert stability. Gothic architecture is such a system carried out in a finely artistic spirit.

Gothic architecture is absolutely beautiful. The characteristics that are attributed to it are astounding. The elegant interiors, the light, colour, and sense of transparency produced by the stained glass, and its linear qualities are just some of the many unique characteristics of gothic architecture. There are all types of gothic architecture: town halls, meeting houses, market buildings, residences, churches, and palaces…just to name a few.

Gothic architecture and Gothic art are the aesthetic expression of that epoch of European history when paganism had been extinguished, the traditions of classical civilisation destroyed, the hordes of barbarian invaders beaten back, or Christianised and assimilated; and when the Catholic Church had established itself not only as the sole spiritual power, supreme and almost unquestioned in authority, but also as the arbiter of the destinies of sovereigns and of peoples.

Most large Gothic churches in western Europe were built on the Latin-cross plan, with a projecting transept marking the transition from nave to sanctuary. The main entrance portal was generally on the west, the choir and apse on the east. A narthex led to the nave and side aisles. An amulatory with radiating chapels circled the apse and facilitated the movement of worshipers through the church. Above the nave were a triforium passageway and windowed clerestory. Narthex, side aisles, ambulatory, and nave usually had rib vaults in the Gothic period. Church walls were decorated inside out with arcades of round and pointed arches, engaged columns, and colonnettes, and horizontal mouldings called stringcourses. The roof was supported by a wooden framework. A spire or crossing tower above the junction of the transept and nave was usually planned, though often never finished. The apsidal chapels ringing the apse were often visible on the exterior, as were the buttress piers and flying buttresses that countered the outward thrusts of the interior vaults. Portal facades were customarily marked by high, flanking towers or gabled porches ornamented with pinnacles or finials. Architectural sculpture covered each portal's tympanum, archivolts, and jambs. A magnificent stained-glass rose window typically formed the centrepiece of the portal facades. Stained glass filled the tall, pointed lancets.


The windows were sub-divided by strong grates of wrought-iron, some of the horizontal bars of which ran on through the piers continuously. At the Sainte Chapelle a chain was imbedded in the walls right round the building, and the stone vaulting ribs were reinforced by curved bands of iron placed on each side and bolted to them.

The end of Gothic architecture and of all Catholic art came with varying degrees of rapidity and at different times as between the several schools of Europe. Generally speaking, its death-knell was sounded when the work of St. Gregory the Great, St. Gregory VII, and St. Innocent III was temporarily undone, and the French Crown established a temporal control over the papacy. Many political and social reasons such as - the Black Death, which scourged all Europe, and the Hundred Years War in France brought down from its high estate the civilization that had flowered at Chartres, and Reims, and Amiens, and when architecture began to recover itself in France after the return of peace, its advance was on lines suggested by the fourteenth century Gothic of England, which had continued to grow rich and fertile, the most vital school of Gothic art of the time.

The end now came rapidly. In Italy Gothic feeling as well as Gothic forms had disappeared altogether by the end of the fifteenth century. In France something of Gothic romance and intrinsic beauty continued down to 1550 in the manoirs and châteaux, while in Germany it dragged along a few decades longer in some isolated instances. In Spain the superb central tower of Burgos was built as late as 1567, though already full-fledged Renaissance work was in process in other parts of the Peninsula. In England the sumptuous Perpendicular of the Chapel of Henry VII at Westminster hardened rapidly into the formalities of later Tudor when, and ceased wholly as a definite style when the suppression of the monasteries, the separation of the English Church from the Roman obedience and the imposition of the principles of the dogmatic Reformation of Germany on the English people brought church-building to an end.

Structural Features of a Gothic Cathedral:Ambulatory: A continuous isle which wraps a circular

structure or an apse at its base. Designed for use in Processions.

Choir: The section of a Cruciform Cathedral located between the Nave and the main Altar. The exact perimeter of the Choir is often disputable from cathedral to cathedral. By definition: the place where the psalms are sung. Loosely used to define the whole East end of a cathedral, and as a synonym for Chancel. Traditionally inaccessible to the public, reserved for the clergy or members of the choir

Flying Buttress: A masonry support branching from the sturdy piers and vertical Standing buttresses. Their role is


Flying buttress

to transfer the great weight of the vaulted roofs off to this more solid support of the firmly set abutments. In French: "arc-boutant."

Lady Chapel: The Lady Chapel will be found in all the Notre Dames, as well as many of the Great Gothic Cathedrals. Usually located behind the Sanctuary, these spaces are dedicated to - sometimes set aside for the use of - the Blessed Virgin.

Pier: Without piers there would be no Great Cathedrals to speak of. The solid standing piers serve as the main support to the heavy strain of the Gothics vertical aspirations. The piers take on many column shapes (rounded, cross and rectangular) but will also take the form of a segment of wall. The term derives from the Norman French: piere or pere.

Rose Window: Arguably one of finest developments in the history of Western art. Evolving from the simple round windows of the Romanesque period these intricate works of glass, metal and stone literally flowered into holistic representations of the known Universe. While glass windows were used in cathedrals of other countries, the Rose Window was initially a French creation, first appearing at St. Denis.

Sexpartite Vault: Essentially a four part (Quadripartite) vault to which an additional transverse rib has been incorporated which divides the vault into six segments. This is yet another form which remained distinct to the Gothic period.

Tracery: Located throughout Gothic cathedrals, tracery adds much to the distinctive style of Gothic ornament. The variety of Tracery patterns within these cathedrals is nearly endless. Their interlacing lines are incorporated into vaults, walls, columns, windows and the woodwork of the screens.

Structural Components of Gothic Churches and Cathedrals:

Aisle: Passageways of a church or cathedral, separated from the Nave by rows of pillars; generally running along the north and south sides.

Apse: A vaulted element in a church or cathedral which serves to terminate a semicircular Aisle or Chapel. The Apse, generally domed, will often form the Altar. The term is derived from the Medieval Latin: absis or apsis. Particular to the East end of Cathedrals, the Apse is a semicircular form serving as a culmination.

Basilica: A term sometimes used in reference to a cathedral for ceremonial reasons, although traditionally denoting an earlier form of structure. The Basilica is the archetype of succeeding cathedral forms, the most famous of which is the early Saint Peter's in Rome. A Basilica consists of a Nave bordered along its side by Aisles with a Clerestory and an Apse.

Chancel: Altar space reserved for the clergy or choir, bordered by railings.


Chantry chapel: A sub-chapel set aside for chanting of masses, often sponsored through an endowment. Prayers in the Chantry chapel are generally dedicated to the donor.

Chapter house: The administrative centre or Bishop's office, attached to a cathedral, traditionally organized for the overseeing of a cathedral's construction and maintenance.

Chevet: The extreme east of a cathedral when Chapels encircle an Apse and an Ambulatory.

Clerestory: The upper area of the Nave, Transepts and Choir. The raised passage, above the Aisles, often windowed.

Crossing: The central space of a church or cathedral. The intersection of the Nave, Transepts and Chancel.

Crypt: The rooms below the cathedral designated as burial chambers.

Image at right: The Crypt of Canterbury cathedral, England.

Cupola: The turret which serves as the crown to the dome or roof of a structure.

Garth: The garden or court within a cloister, usually attached to or near a cathedral.

Hall church: A structure which does not contain a Clerestory or Triforium, thus the Aisles and Nave will be approximately the same height.

Narthex: A ceilinged porch or vestibule situated west of the Nave and Aisles. (Sometimes referred to as a Galilee.)

Nave: The central area of the western branch of a cathedral, bordered by Aisles. The center of a church or cathedral, intended for seating of parishioners.

Oratory: A small chapel or private room set aside for individual prayer.

Parvis: An area situated before a church or cathedral, in some instances enclosed.

Porch : The reception space situated at the entrance to a church or cathedral.

Presbytery (Sanctuary): The area east of the Choir which contains or features the High Altar. The area of a church or cathedral reserved for the clergy.

Retrochoir: The space situated directly to the rear of the altar in a church or cathedral.

Sacristy: The secure storing chamber for holy relics and sacred vestments.


Spire: A tapering, often elegant, structure set atop a tower. In certain instances, the tower itself has been designed as a spire. On churches, smaller scale spires are often referred to as Steeples.

Image at right: The Spire over the crossing of the Transepts at Notre Dame de Paris.

Transepts: The north and south projecting extensions of a Cruciform style church or cathedral, crossing at right angles to the greater length.

Timonium : A walled passageway opening with arcades which run along and above the Nave, below the Clerestory.

The Rose WindowThe Rose Windows of the Gothic era exemplify the radiance of spirit perceived

by medieval architects. Among the grandest developments of the European creative mind, these elaborate craft works represent a sacred concept of completeness and balance.

The haven of stained glass development was the Île de France region. First appearing in the Church of Saint Denis, under the direction of Abbot Suger, glass designs followed at Paris and Sens and Amiens. The glass works of Chartres Cathedral are widely recognized as the finest example from the High Gothic era. Many of the more than 170 original windows remain intact.

The rose designs were a late innovation. The placement of stained glass within the Romanesque period was within the high, narrow lancet windows or in the clerestory. The vertical form of the panels lent themselves well to depictions of figures. Subjects featured were often individuals from the old testament, particularly characters from the life of Christ, the prophets and the apostles.

Rose Windows are the apex of stained glass development. These circular mandalas radiate with sacred medieval imagery. The primary subject of the great roses is the Virgin and Child. Many other themes are featured, such as the life of Christ, the apostles and tales from the Bible. Less common features are medieval heraldry and symbols of the seasons or the astrological zodiac.


The great roses which we associate with cathedrals today, did not truly flourish until the mid thirteenth century. The ability to incorporate such large glass works into the walls became possible only after structural innovations within vaulting. Transferring the task of weight support to the vaults and buttresses allowed the solid planes to be partitioned for the entry of light. The following innovations are still some of the most impressive works of European art and culture.

Illuminated Manuscripts share such elements with rose windows as: the use of elaborate imagery; symbols;

vibrant colours; biblical figures; saints and allegory.

While stained glass windows are to be found wherever the gothic style manifested, the finest exist in France. While the works of Paris and Chartres are often singled out, lesser known but equally beautiful rose windows are found throughout the country, at such sites as Rheims, Laon, Bourges, Amiens Soissons and others.

The vibrancy of an original window of the Gothic age is the feature which differentiates it from glass work of a later era. Prior to the middle of the sixteenth century, windows were illustrated with glass pieces of a solid colour. Realistic likenesses were achieved through crafted combinations of hues. By the Renaissance, many of the medieval artistic forms had been abandoned or replaced. Various techniques of painted glass replaced the elder craft and only rarely was true stained glass used in the following centuries.


Illuminated Manuscript

Lesson – 12: Renaissance Architecture

At the end of the fourteenth century, the impressiveness of gothic architecture began to wear off. Europe was coming out of the middle ages, and into the Renaissance. The architects of the time changed their architecture to fit the era. They revived many of the ideas from classical (Greek and Roman) architecture. They did, however, use materials not associated with Greek and Roman architecture such as brick, and the colour red became common. Artists and architects worked together much more, and many renaissance buildings have statues, murals, and much more artwork to go with them.

Renaissance architecture began in Florence, Italy in the early fifteenth century. Italy had never really used gothic architecture, so when gothic became less popular, Italy

had something different for the people to look to. The style spread to the area around Florence, encompassing Rome and Milan. Then it somehow got up to the Netherlands, and spread to the rest of Europe from there. Renaissance architecture was somewhat different in the rest of Europe than in Italy, but the basic principals were the same. Renaissance architecture did not get to France until nearly 125 years after it began in Florence.

The architects of the Renaissance derived their architecture in part from a revived interest in Roman and Greek ruins, from the recovery of classical texts on architecture, particularly the Roman writer Vitruvius's ten books on architecture. They also, however, invented new forms and new visual language that was not derived from the classical period. In the process, the architects, humanists, and painters of the Renaissance (for architecture was considered a universal art in the Renaissance) invented a new idea of public space in which civic pride and organisation would be organised on a city-wide scale.

In the Renaissance, architecture was seen as the supreme art. Theorists on architecture believed that architectural design


Chateau of Chambord

Nave: Sant Spirito; Italy

Dome and Chancel : Sant Spirito; Italy

arose out of human experience, like all arts, but that it also represented the highest artistic achievement a human being could attain. Architecture, though, was not considered a specialist profession, as it is now. Architectural design was carried out by professional architects, painters, sculptors (such as Michelangelo), humanists, masons, and just plain amateurs with a lot of time and money.

As in painting and sculpture, the interest in architecture and design eventually led to an architecture in which the principles and techniques of its designs became the dominant language of buildings. Mannerist architecture, roughly contemporaneous with mannerist art, draws attention to design elements themselves particularly through visual paradox and confusion. The earliest master of the mannerist style in architecture was Michelangelo Buonarotti, whose architecture is filled with confusing and contradictory devices. In the Lauentian Library, for instance, he placed columns inside recesses in the walls rather than in front of walls, where they belonged. These columns also don't go to the floor, as columns should, but stop several feet above the floor

A common feature of renaissance architecture was the dome. Almost all renaissance cathedrals had domes. Many domes had paintings or decorations on the ceilings. French renaissance architecture had outer walls, and towers, and the domes were usually only on the inside of a building. Some good examples of renaissance architecture with domes are the Duomo of Florence, and St. Peter's cathedral in Rome. Famous architects and artists such as Michelangelo Buonarroti, Leonardo Di Vinci, and Filippo Brunelleschi were shapers of renaissance architecture.

The Renaissance period saw the greatest changes in the European consciousness of our place in the cosmos, and with these, the idea of our relationship to art also altered dramatically. Obviously, this was most evident in the representational arts, painting and sculpture, but was also reflected by theorists in the new laws of architecture which were established on the basis of Classical ideals. In every respect, Renaissance man sought to ameliorate his condition in relation to his surroundings, and, not surprisingly, this was strongly evident in the art of designing domestic interiors.

Although the fixed arts of many domestic interiors of the Renaissance period survive, our understanding of these rooms' original appearance depends on reconstruction, and on the many representations of domestic interiors which occur in


Palazzo Vecchio

painting at this time. Thus, the theoretical approach to this period is in some ways similar to that of the medieval period. For the first time since ancient Rome, many interiors of the Renaissance period were decorated with what were quickly recognised as the masterpieces of art of their time, in contrast to the Middle Ages. While the great artistic masterpieces of the medieval world had been destined for ecclesiastical settings, during the Renaissance the balance was redressed. Many of the greatest paintings and sculptures of the Renaissance continued to be created for churches, but far more than ever before were now made for the domestic interior - even if these often had religious subject matter. It was such masterpieces as Botticelli's Primavera, Mantegna's frescoes in the Camera degli Sposi in Mantua or Michelangelo's uncompleted Battle of Cascina mural which decorated secular rooms, and came to be regarded as turning points in European culture.

Medieval civilisation was based mainly on urban life, since life in the countryside was hazardous. This emphasis continued during the early part of the Renaissance, but increasingly, with greater stability, the lure of country life changed approaches to architecture and the other arts. Florence's Palazzo Davanzati is a perfect example of the type of tower house which remained popular well into the 15th century, a medieval legacy of strongly protected interiors which could withstand attack and which expanded upwards rather than outwards. It is astonishing to realise that the skyline of most major Italian cities was dominated by these sometimes immensely high towers, a few of which remain in San Gimignano to indicate their former appearance in groups.

The development of the Italian villa, notably in the environs of great cities like Rome, Florence and Venice, saw many changes in the shapes and treatment of rooms. The tiny defensive windows of the Middle Ages gave way to larger openings, designed to admit air, and light to show the rich interiors. Instead of being heavily fortified, doorways also increased in size, and were best placed when they opened on to terraces or balconies commanding extensive views of landscape or gardens, as at the Palazzo Piccolomini in Pienza, or the Ducal Palace at Urbino.


Window, Palazzo Ducale

Lesson – 13: Italian Renaissance

Throughout the Gothic period in the middle ages, when architecture in France and England was dominated by architecture executed on the grandest scale in Western history, with immense and airy cathedrals representing one of the highest points of European architectural genius, Italian architecture was an uninspired and relatively small affair. Although there was Gothic architecture in Italy, the sweep, genius and grandeur seemed to have passed those city-states by. The Renaissance, however, saw the development of a new architecture from the fifteenth to the sixteenth centuries that was the first "modern" architecture. When we look at Renaissance buildings, they look familiar, almost as if they were built one hundred years ago. The architectural language invented by the Italian Renaissance architects became the dominant architectural language of the modern world, displaced only by the advent of modernist architecture in the twentieth century

The Renaissance began in Italy around the beginning of the fifteenth century and gradually spread north to France and England, then to other parts of Europe, including Germany, the Low Countries, and Spain, with a time lag roughly proportionate to the geographic distance. Art history customarily divides the Renaissance into three phases: early, middle (High), and late (Baroque and Rococo). The term Mannerism, borrowed from the history of painting, is sometimes used to describe the transition to the High to Baroque phases in Italy.

The invention of the uniquely Italian style in Renaissance architecture is typically given to Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1466), who is also credited with inventing the principles of linear perspective in drawing and painting. The fifteenth century saw a dramatic rise in architectural projects not only in the wealthiest cities such as Florence, but all over Italy. The Vitruvian principles of symmetry and order were applied in almost every building project. In addition, Brunelleschi's invention of perspective, a drawing technique, changed the way Italian architects constructed buildings. The Renaissance architecture of the fifteenth century is dominated by flat surfaces and strong lines which emphasise the principles of architecture

New types of buildings were going up. In addition to typical medieval buildings such as churches, chapels, and hospitals, Renaissance designers created two new types of buildings: the villa and the palazzo. The villa was country house that the wealthy and powerful citizens, such as the Medici, lived in. Originally fortified farms, Renaissance architects developed the villa into spacious pleasure homes. Related to the villa was the palazzo, or town house. These were the houses that the wealthy and powerful lived in


Pazzi Chapel, Interior

when they visited the city. In the thirteenth century, these palazzi were narrow and unimpressive affairs with the first floor rented out as shops. The fifteenth century saw the rise of large, square and proportionate palazzi in which all floors were dedicated to living areas. Again, the architects were interested also in the exteriors of these palazzi; they were both private and public buildings—in their public aspect, that is, in their exterior, they expressed the wealth and power of their owners.

Italy-Early Renaissance Early Renaissance work is characterised by a rather cautious application of

classical Roman detail to buildings that are largely medieval in overall concept. Symmetrical planning appears in such building as the Florentine palaces (the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi of Michelozzo di Bartolomeo or the Palazzo Strozzi of Benedetto da Maiano, for example), which displays a restrained use of classical mouldings externally but a full use of Roman orders in the interior central courtyards. The interior of the small Pazzi Chapel (begun circa 1441), usually attributed to Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), gives a clear example of the way in which the detail of rediscovered Roman classical orders was used in Renaissance design. Such cautious introduction of Roman detail appears only in exceptional (and, in their own day, trend-setting) interiors such as those of Brunelleschi.

While ordinary houses remained untouched by Renaissance ideas, the wealthy began to add decorative mouldings, doors and door frames, and other details borrowed from Roman antiquity to the interiors of their houses and palazzi. Elaborate ceilings with structural beams made into patterns of squares (coffered ceilings), painted wall decorative elements in an otherwise simple room. Ceilings frequently included paintings, perhaps by major artists.

Italy-High Renaissance The fully developed or High Renaissance moved toward a more sophisticated

understanding of the concepts of Roman architecture with such consistently classical projects as the plan for St. Peter's in Rome by Donato Bramante (1444-1514), which would be altered and expanded over the following century. Furniture was still used sparsely, in a manner reminiscent of medieval austerity, but there was a gradual increase in the variety and richness of furniture types.


Vault: Sistine Chapel

Rome.

Brunelleschi's Cupola

The clarification and near-standardisation of Renaissance design practice, as well as its geographical spread, were encouraged by architect-theorists such as Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) and Andrea Palladio (1508-1580). Both not only produced important work but also wrote illustrated books explaining their working methods. Alberti emphasised the mathematical and geometric basis of his designs, while Palladio offered practical instruction along with illustrations of his own works, such as the Villa Rotonda (or Capra) at Vicenza (begun 1550) and the "Basilica" (begun 1549) In the same city, and accurate drawings of Roman architecture that formed the basis of his church designs, such as S. Giorgio Maggiore (begun 1566) and Il Redentore (begun 1576), both in Venice.

Taken together, Palladio's work and books formed a demonstration of High Renaissance practice that became a basic model for classically oriented design for the next several centuries. Palladian influence can easily be traced to the American colonies, continuing to appear even today.

The urge toward systematic perfection so strong in the work of the High Renaissance gave way toward the end of the period to an interest in more experimental and personally expressive ways of designing. The term Mannerism is often applied to the style that marks a transition from the reserve and order of the High Renaissance to the elaboration of the Baroque, the third a final phase of Renaissance design. Mannerism is exemplified by such works as Michelangelo's Laurentian Library in Florence (begun 1524), with its extraordinary entrance hall and stairway .

BaroqueBaroque was the style of the

Counter-Reformation and was intended by the Jesuits to express the temporal power and riches of the Catholic Church in contrast to the austere doctrines of Protestantism. The theatricality of the Baroque style soon attracted the attention of princes, who wanted it to be used in the palaces they built. Coloured marbles were used extensively, frequently in combination with bronze and rich gilding. Coloured glass windows were often used for lighting special features. Walls were sometimes painted to appear to be a continuation of the interior, giving an impression of spaciousness. Certain materials were often simulated by others:


Axonometric drawing and section of the Cupola

The excessive decoration of Baroque Period

scagliola, for example, is a mixture of marble chippings, gypsum, and glue that was widely employed to imitate brecciated marble. What appeared to be richly coloured marbles were often no more than painted wood. Drapery was frequently imitated in carved marble, and wooden columns, the purpose of which was purely decorative, were painted like marble or some other exotic stone. Marble or stucco was made to imitate brocaded hangings, as in the Sala Ducale, Vatican, where an effect of space from limited means is created. Basic techniques were unaltered, but all restraint in their use vanished in bold theatrical effects and sensual luxuriance of modelling. Walls became curved, pediments were broken (i.e., with central part omitted), columns and pilasters twisted until the buildings seem to come alive with movement. Bernini exuberantly combined rockwork, figures, and draperies with columns, panelling, and vaulting.

The rich, sometimes excessive decoration of Baroque spaces led art historians of the last century to dismiss this work as decadent. Modern art historians have reinstated the Baroque interest in space, movement, effects of light, and sense of drama rather than its details of decoration. While classical detail was still used extensively, it was altered, even distorted, as in the spiritually twisted columns of the Baldachino in St. Peter's in Rome (begun 1624) by Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680).

The simple shapes-squares, circles, and rectangles-of the earlier, more restrained phases of Renaissance design gave way to more complex forms-ellipses, trapezoids, and spirals-in Baroque design. As these forms are developed in three dimensions and overlapped and interlaced, Baroque space takes on qualities of mystery and theatricality. It gives the effect of a richness that cannot be clearly comprehended but that vividly express drama, movement, and action.

Italian Furniture:With the Renaissance, furniture began to acquire importance and began its ascent

which would lead to the Golden Age of classical furniture in the eighteenth century. The basic formulas which define the furniture of the period are those of nature and individuality which were beginning to dawn towards the end of the Gothic period. While pieces from the Gothic period were predominantly vertical, those of the Renaissance are horizontal and are symbolic of classical balance.

The first innovation in Italian Renaissance furniture was the elaborately decorated chest known as a cassone, with its gilt, stucco, and painted decoration based on classical prototypes. Cassone forms were to some degree inspired by Roman sarcophagi; some early examples, however, had scenes illustrating the international Gothic romance, Le Roman de la rose. Interiors in 15th-century paintings, such as those in the Dream of St. Ursula (1490–95, Accademia, Venice) by Vittore Carpaccio and the Birth of the Virgin (1485–94,


Santa María Novella, Florence) by Domenico Ghirlandaio, suggest the restraint of Italian furniture design before the High Renaissance at the end of the 15th century.

Rich marquetry, imaginative carving, and a use of walnut in place of oak (which had been preferred for earlier work) characterized the more flamboyant efforts of the 1500s. A greater variety of forms and richer ornament were employed than in earlier periods. Portable folding chairs were revived, with seats of tapestry or leather. New solid-backed side chairs were developed; these have carved backs and, instead of legs, solid carved panels as supports.

Italian Renaissance furniture is often decorated with Classical architectural columns or with elaborate cupids, scrolls, and strapwork (carved designs resembling interwoven leather straps). In the late Renaissance style known as Mannerism, forms and ornament became exaggerated, and designs included grotesque masks and arabesques. The cassone, or marriage chest, was a typical form on which much attention was lavished. These chests were carved and painted by the greatest artists of the time, often with scenes derived from the Bible, literature, or mythology. The practice of intarsia, a type of inlay or marquetry, was carried to a high level.

Furniture in the early Renaissance was sparingly used, the rooms of the palazzos with their marble floors, richly painted fabrics and walls, and frescoed ceilings, were so decorative in themselves that little furniture was needed. The pieces that were used were therefore with very less decoration but with great beauty in line and exquisite detail. By the middle or high renaissance a demand for greater richness and comfort in movable furniture was felt. The principle wood used was walnut which was in use


throughout the whole period of Early Renaissance to Baroque. The most important pieces of furniture were:

Cassone: It was a chest or box of any kind which was used as dowry or wedding chest and it was the most important furniture piece in an Italian room. The lid was hinged at the top, and when the piece was closed it could be used as a seat or a table. In the early period the chest was quite simple in construction, but in the later period it became more elaborate with massive carving and carved ends.

Cassabianca: It was a large cassone with back and arms to form a settee or a sofa. Loose cushions were used for comfort.

Credenza: This was a cabinet sideboard with doors and drawers intended for the storage of linen, dishes, and silverware. It was made in various sizes.

Squabells: It was a light wooden chair with a straight narrow back heavily carved for dining and other purposes.

Dante: This type of chair had heavily carved arms and legs and usually had a cloth back and seat. The front was heavily carved whereas the sides were plain. The seats were made comfortable with velvet or decorative leather.

Tables: The tables of Italian Renaissance were massive and were supported by heavily carved trestles. A trestle is a bar fixed on a pair of spreading legs, placed at each corner. The small tables had

hexagonal or octagonal tops and were supported by carved turning legs.

The Refectory table was a solid oblong top supported by trestles, columns or balusters, or slab ends, with stretchers between for support.

Beds: Beds were elaborate and massive, with panelled head and


footboards, a tester or canopy, and side draperies to keep out the ‘evil night air’. Enclosed beds with wooden doors were used primarily in northern Europe.

Renaissance AccessoriesRenaissance interiors were accessorized according to the wealth and importance

of the owner. Typical objects included:

o Paintings, sometimes attached directly to the wall with mouldings, or framed and hung.

o Statues of marble or bronze, classical in inspiration.

o Ceramics such as vases, plates, platters, and pitchers, sometimes in majolica, a polychromed terracotta ware manufactured throughout the Mediterranean region.

o Small mirrors, framed in gilded or stained wood.

o Wealthy householders also might have had silver or gold wares, which were expensive and highly valued.


Lesson – 14: Renaissance in France

Renaissance - 15th to 16th century

The Renaissance style in France refers to the style of the historic period primarily marked by King Francois I. Italian artists such as da Vinci and Cellini were invited to grace France with their talents in France, notably to improve his castle in Fontainebleau and to build his fabulous Château de Chambord in the Loire Valley.

Many aristocrats followed the monarch to the Loire Valley to escape poverty in Paris and to enjoy the pleasures of country life. The Châteaus of Azay le Rideau, Chenonceau and Blois are perfect examples of the Renaissance style.

In France, the Renaissance passed through the same three phases as in Italy, each occurring about fifty to a hundred years later than the Italian equivalent. The Early Renaissance in France appeared first in small details of ornament, door and window frames, and fireplace mantels in chateaux that are otherwise medieval in concept. Chambord (1519-47), the giant royal hunting lodge in the Loire Valley, is full of classically derived detail and has a generally symmetrical plan, pointing toward growing acceptance of the Italian conceptual formality.

Toward the end of the seventeenth century and in the eighteenth, French Renaissance design took on some of the character of Baroque design, particularly in the free and flowing use of curves. However, the last phase was more restrained in France than in Italy and Germany, meriting a different stylistic term, Rococo. To describe the elaborately decorative but classically ordered character of French Late Renaissance design. The preserved salon from the Hotel de Varengeville demonstrates how Rococo elaboration was adapted by aristocratic French society of the time.

French Furniture:The influence of the Italian Renaissance spread northward throughout Europe. It

was adopted in France under Francis I in the early 16th century, when furniture of a refined and delicate order was produced at Fontainebleau and elsewhere. The published designs of such men as Jacques Androuet du Cerceau and Hughes Sambdin were influential in establishing French Renaissance furniture in the second half of the century. The caquetoire chair, with a wide, trapezoidal seat to accommodate the flaring clothing of the period, was a favored type of seating.


Francois I's Chambord castle

During the reign of Francois I furniture design responded to the Italian influence, with the tables becoming smaller and chairs more comfortable. Ebony wood dominated French furniture of the 16th century. For the first time upholstered seats were permanently attached to the chair frames, replacing loose cushions. Tables with expanding top for dining were also introduced.

French Renaissance furniture and decorative elements are usually described with a terminology based on royal designs, a reminder that these styles almost exclusively served royalty and the aristocracy, having relatively little impact on a wider public. French provincial furniture design, however, is a partial exception. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, furniture makers of provincial France began to make everyday wooden furniture in simplified versions of French Renaissance "high style" prototypes. Such furniture, which struck a pleasant balance between simplicity and elaboration, has remained popular in France and is still widely collected elsewhere.

France became especially important to the development of furniture during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715). New type of furniture included the console table, sofa, and fully upholstered easy chair, furniture was of massive, richly ornamented style during the Baroque period. Intricate carving, inlay and gilt were typical. Boullework – an inlay of tortoise shell and metal was developed which had a sober but stately magnificence.

French furnishings borrowed freely from Italian examples, and furniture was both imported from abroad and manufactured at home. Most furniture was massive in size to match the scale of the rooms in the chateaux. Gothic forms disappeared slowly and were often mixed with the ‘new’ stylistic forms and motifs.

The main pieces of furniture of the French Renaissance were:

Chests: The chest, the cabinet and the cupboard were the most important pieces of furniture and these were beautifully proportioned. One of the most characteristic forms is the high cupboard finished with a pediment on top, shaped like slanting lines of the roof. Many of the pediments were broken at the centerpoint and the ornamental details were placed in the open space.


Room of the Duchess of Etampes.

This chest has applied Renaissance decoration over a very plain box with a lid.

Tables: The tables were also of a trestle type, with very elaborate supports. Examples of round, oval and octagonal tops supported on spiral legs were also to be found.

Chairs: The chairs were high backed and were upholstered in rich fabrics. The outstanding feature was the “H” and “X” shaped stretchers. Cane backs and seats were also introduced. The upholstery material was cut and fitted to the furniture piece.

The stool was the most common form of seating, although chairs were used in wealthy households and at court. The caquetoire chair translates as ‘gossip’s chair’. Notice the arched


panel in the back and the low stretchers, designed for keep the loose rushes covering the floor tamped down.

The wide arms are to accommodate the large skirts worn by ladies of the time

Beds: the panelled beds of the Gothic period were replaced by a four poster elaborately carved bed hung with velvet, silk, or needle point fabric.

This Renaissance poster bed has a panelled headboard and turned posts at the foot, with a carved tester or canopy.

Bed hangings or draperies were designed to conserve warmth and exclude the ‘evil night humors’, which were believed to cause illness


Lesson – 15: The English Renaissance

Renaissance styles arrived late from the continent, around 1485, and their influence was halted when Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church over his divorce from Catherine of Aragon (a Spanish princess and sister to Philip II). Economically, the split with the church helped create a new landowning class who were given or bought land previously owned by the church. Land was the primary form of wealth and landowners wielded the most power economically, politically and socially.

English Renaissance: The Tudor PeriodThe rise of the middle class occurred at about this time,

with merchants and professionals becoming more important in cities and towns. Conservatism was reinforced by the break with the Roman church and foreign influences declined until

the Elizabethan period which followed.

Henry VIII at right painted by Hand Holbein.

Henry VIII dominated England during his long reign. He had six wives, and married a succession of them because he was intent (as all monarchs were) on having a son to succeed him. His third wife, Jane Seymour, had a son, the future Edward the VI, but died

shortly after his birth. This portrait by Holbein is of Edward at about the age of three.

Tudor ArchitectureArchitectural changes during the

Tudor period occurred slowly; forms changed from the castle to houses built around a central courtyard (as in France and Italy).

Innovations included the built-in fireplace, which replaced a simple hole in the roof.

Most buildings were brick with Portland stone trim around windows, doors and roof cornices.


Hampton Court Palace was a gift to Henry VIII from Cardinal Woolsey.

More modest homes were built from wood in a style called ‘half-timbering’, which is associated with both Tudor and Elizabethan buildings.

The timber frame which supports the structure becomes part of the exterior decoration. The spaces between the timbers is filled with wattle & daub (rush and mud) and painted.

Tudor InteriorsThe interior was

dominated by the Great Hall, which usually had stone walls panelled in oak wainscoting. This multi-purpose room was used for many different activities including meals.

The great hall at Hampton Court Palace has a famous hammer-beam roof.

The area at the back is the screens passage; openings were usually hung with drapery to keep out drafts.

Walls were panelled with oak, sometimes carved to resemble folded linen fabric, called linenfold panelling.

The lower section of the wall was called the wainscot, which was proportioned to the height of the room. The area above was usually plastered.

Floors were stone on the main floors, with wood used only on the upper stories. The stone was covered with straw or rush.


English Renaissance: Elizabethan PeriodEdward died at the age of 16, and was

succeeded by his half-sister Mary Tudor, who was in turn succeeded by Elizabeth I.

The Elizabethan age saw the real flowering of the Renaissance in England, and was characterized by some as another ‘Golden Age’. Poets and playwrights like Shakespeare Marlowe and Spenser, explorers like Francis Drake, artists like Nicholas Hilliard all added to the splendours of life at court, which was the centre of social life.

The portrait at right is of Elizabeth I at about age 15, when she was living at Hatfield.

Elizabethan Architecture

Longleat House, Wiltshire 1572-1580 The flowering of the true English Renaissance style comes during the reign of

Queen Elizabeth. Longleat House, a fine example, is a large square block with projecting bays repeated on all four sides.

The large windows are an Elizabethan innovation.

The dining room at Longleat has been remodelled over its life, but the Renaissance ‘shell’ can still be seen in the shape & size of the windows, the fireplace, and the classical mouldings.


Burghley is another Elizabethan house with large windows, and clusters of chimneys, showing the addition of the fireplace as an important architectural feature.


Elizabethan InteriorsThe Great Hall in the Elizabethan era was more carefully detailed, with carved

wainscoting, an elaborate screen’s passage complete with Renaissance motifs, and a plasterwork ceiling.

Notice the absence of beams, and the addition of a wooden floor.

This staircase at Hatfield has elaborate newel posts, and the stair is in the open well form. The first flight of steps rises to a landing, where the stair turns and continues to the second floor (etc.)

The stairwell walls are decorated with paintings and armour. The gate is to keep the dogs on the lower floor.


This painting of a bedchamber at Knole (another great Elizabethan house) shows carved wood panelling, a bay window, plasterwork ceiling, and a curule chair next to the bed. Classical pilasters flank the fireplace

Elizabethan Furniture Tables: This is a draw table, which could be expanded by pulling the

leaves under the top out and up.

Slab-end benches were typical for seating large groups of people. Notice the low stretchers on the table, for keeping the rushes down.

Chairs: Chairs came in several forms, including the curule, which were copied from Italian and French examples. The caquetoire was also made in England, as were turned or thrown chairs.

This chair is a Farthingale chair, so called because is allowed ladies in the full skirt called a ‘farthingale’ to sit comfortably.

The Wainscot chair was also typical of the period, and featured a heavily carved back, stiff seat and upright turned legs.

The term ‘wainscot’ comes from its resemblance to wall panelling.


Cupboards: The Court Cupboard was used for both storage and display. The top has an enclosed section with raked sides and carved panels. Large round spindles support the top.

The lower section often had a drawer in addition to the cupboard. The double-arched carving on the door below is called an arcaded panel.


Review Questions

1. Where did Gothic Architecture originate? What were the salient features of this architecture?

2. Discuss in detail Gothic Churches.

3. With the help of sketches explain the structural features of Gothic cathedrals.

4. Write a detailed note on the stain glass windows of the Gothic churches.

5. What were the main features of the Renaissance architecture? Discuss in detail the main architects of this period

6. What were the various stages of the Renaissance architecture in Italy?

7. Write a detailed note on Italian furniture.

8. What were the main pieces of furniture used during the French renaissance period?

9. Explain in detail the various periods of the English renaissance.

10. Discuss in detail with the help of sketches the main furniture pieces of the Elizabethan Furniture.


Unit – IV

English Baroque – The Restoration Period Charles I Charles II Christopher Wren James II and William & Mary

The Queen Anne Period

The Georgian Periods Early Georgian Period 1714-1750 The Middle Georgian Period 1750-1770

The Neoclassical Periods English Late Georgian: Adam, Hepplewhite &

Sheraton English Neoclassical c.1770-1800 George Hepplewhite Thomas Sheraton


Lesson – 16: English Baroque – The Restoration Period

English Baroque: Charles I 1600-1649Charles I, son of James I, believed adamantly in

the divine right of kings, and their God-given right to rule. He also insisted on the authority of the Church of England. These beliefs soon brought him into conflict with Parliament and ultimately led to a civil war.

He dismissed Parliament and governed without it for 11 years. Along with no representation, unfair taxation alienated a large part of the population.

Parliament appointed a court to try the king, but Charles refused to recognize their authority. He was sentenced to death as a tyrant, murderer and enemy of the nation on January 27, 1649. Scotland protested, the royal family begged and France and the Netherlands interceded, all in vain.

Charles I was beheaded on a scaffold outside the Banqueting House on January 30 in Whitehall. Oliver Cromwell then became chairman of the council of state, a parliamentary agency that governed England as a republic until the Restoration of Charles II.

The Baroque in England: Charles IICharles II was born in 1630. He spent his

teenage years fighting Parliament's Roundhead forces until his father's execution in 1649, when he escaped to France.

Scotland proclaimed his right to the English throne in 1650; in 1651, he led a Scottish force of 10,000 into an overwhelming defeat by Cromwell's forces at Worcester.

He remained a fugitive for six weeks until he engineered passage to France.

Charles spent eight years in Europe before being invited back to England as the Commonwealth dissolved. He married Catherine of Braganza, but sired no legitimate children.

Charles II died in February 1685 from complications following a stroke.


Life at the court of Charles II was strongly influenced by his exposure to Versailles while a fugitive in France. The styles of the French court were introduced into England at this time, and furniture and interiors were lavish and elaborate.

Charles II was an enthusiastic patron of the arts and also a connoisseur of beautiful women; he had several mistresses, including the Duchess of Cleveland (right).

The Baroque in England: Christopher WrenThe most notable architect of the Restoration period was Sir Christopher Wren

(1632-1723) who adapted classical styles from the continent. He designed public buildings, churches and private homes.

Wren was educated at Oxford University and became part of the group of scholars who founded the Royal Society. Trained as an astronomer, he designed his first building in 1663.

London's Great Fire of 1666 gave Wren a chance to present a plan to rebuild the city. Utopian in concept, it was only partially carried out. In 1669 Charles II appointed Wren Surveyor General of the King's Works. As Surveyor General he supervised all work on the royal palaces.


St. Mary-le-Bow, London. St. Paul's Cathedral in England

St. Mary-le-Bow is one of the fifty-one city churches that Sir Christopher Wren replaced following the Great Fire of London in 1666.

St. Paul's, the largest cathedral in England, is Wren's masterpiece. In it, he brought a repertoire of new forms and architectural combinations into English architecture. The building is an encyclopaedia of Wren's impressions of the architecture of the continent.

The facade of St. Paul's is designed with two tiers of paired Corinthian columns like those of the Louvre and the space between towers is framed like those of Borromini's Roman church of S. Agnese. Above the two-story base rises a tremendous dome that reinterprets Bramante's Tempietto of 1502.

The interior features a complete Roman classical vocabulary and immense scale. Barrel-vaulted arches have coffered detail and are supported by fluted Corinthian pilasters.


The Baroque in England: James II and William & MaryWhen Charles II died, his brother, James II, succeeded him.

James was Catholic and not popular. He was forced eventually to leave England, and Parliament invited Prince William of Orange and his wife, Mary, to rule. Mary was the daughter of James, and a Protestant, and therefore acceptable to the English.

InteriorsGrinling GIBBONS was the

premier carver of the period and his studio produced superb examples.

This carving from Hampton Court Palace is typical of the exacting detail found in all of his work.

Grinling Gibbons was responsible for many beautiful carved details in elegant rooms of the period. The dining room at Stapleford is one example. The lace cravat (neck cloth) below is also an amazing piece of carving.


Interiors of the Restoration periods were elaborate, with panelled walls and carved detail.

Carving was naturalistic and included fruit, flowers, leaves and animals. Mouldings around doors, windows, fireplaces and mirrors were heavily carved in this fashion.

This is the Painted Hall at Chatsworth.


Restoration and William & Mary FurnitureThe Restoration style chair is

typical and shows similarities to French furniture. The feet are Flemish scroll, & the stretchers are turned.

Many craftsmen of the period were expatriate French Hugenot craftsmen who had been expelled from France when Louis XIV invoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685.

This created a strong French influence on English decorative arts and reinforced the fashion for French Baroque that came with the restoration of the Monarchy. This chest with marquetry decoration is typical of the period.


This ‘sleeping’ or reclining chair is in the Restoration or Carolean style, with a gilded wood frame that incorporates twist-turning and Baroque carving on the legs and stretchers.

The upholstery is cut velvet, and the seat and arms have fringe attached to the lower edges.


Lesson – 17: The Queen Anne Period – 1702-1714

The Queen Anne Style 1702-1714The early years of the 18th century were a

transition between the austere William and Mary styles and the more relaxed and curvilinear Queen Anne.

Queen Anne was only on the throne for a short time, but her name has become synonymous with an elegant and beautiful style of furniture that is still used and enjoyed today.

Architecture during the period was a continuation of the Baroque. Sir Christopher Wren was still active, and John Vanbrugh, one of his assistants, became a well-known practitioner of the style.

Blenheim PalaceThe premier house of the period was Blenheim Palace, designed by John

Vanbrugh (below right) & Nicholas Hawkesmoor for the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough (John and Sarah Churchill).

A gift from the English Parliament to the Duke after his victory over the French at the Battle of Blenheim, the house was constructed between 1704 and 1724.

A classical entry portico faces a courtyard and a view across lawns to a lake.


The scale is massive and the palace is regarded as the best example of truly Baroque architecture in England, a monument rather than a comfortable house

Large formal rooms are arranged ‘en enfilade’ or in succeeding series around the perimeter of the ground floor.

The State Dining Room is decorated with frescoes of classical columns and balconies where images of famous figures from history overlook dinner guests.

Furnishings are elaborate and scaled to the size of the rooms. Floors are marble or wood and covered with rich rugs and carpets.


Queen Anne FurnitureFurniture was lighter and more refined than

William and Mary types, and was the most important contribution of the age to the decorative arts.

Human scale and comfort were becoming more important, especially in the design of chairs, which were shaped to fit the body.

This chair is decorated with Chinoiserie in colour and gold leaf.

Chairs were an important part of every home where taste and refinement were valued.

Queen Anne chairs have cabriole legs, shaped splats and a variety of feet, which include the slipper, trifid and club foot. The corner chair has slipper feet.


The wing chair was developed from earlier examples of sleeping and upholstered chairs. The example here has clubfeet, turned stretchers and Bargello embroidery upholstery (a geometric pattern popular since the Renaissance).

This candle stand has a slipper foot and is made from mahogany.

Used to support a candleholder in the 18th century, today it would be used as a side table.

The tea table was a design resulting from the fashion for drinking tea as a daily social occasion in the 18th century.

This example has club feet and slides which pull out to hold candlesticks on each end.


This Queen Anne lowboy has club feet and is made from tiger maple, a popular wood in the colonies.

The hardware is composed of bail handles with a back-plate called a “bat wing’ brass

This small chest is made from walnut with Oyster veneers, a pattern created by using the wood from the joint of small branches to the trunk.

The bun feet are characteristic of the earlier part of the period.


Windsor chairs appeared first in the early 18th century and were used in a variety of settings where casual furniture was appropriate.

Painted examples were used outdoors as lawn or terrace furniture

This is a comb-back windsor.


Lesson – 18: The Georgian Periods - 1714-1811

Queen Anne had died with no heir, so England again invited a foreign prince to become king. The Hanover dynasty was founded in England by George I in 1714. He was succeeded by his son, George II. His grandson was George III, who was on the English throne when America declared her independence in 1776.

George II is pictured at left, George III at right.

The Georgian Periods - InteriorsMany houses had a rectangular

plan with a central hall flanked by symmetrically placed salons or drawing rooms, with the dining room and library placed behind them on the main floor.

The second floor was reserved for family bedrooms, with servants on the third level or in the basement with the kitchens.

Interiors of the time typically had a prominent fireplace, which was still the focal point of most rooms.


Woodwork was styled with classical motifs and detailing, and crown moulding; chair rails and deep baseboards were common.

Walls in reception spaces were often wood or plaster, with rectangular panels separated by pilasters. Wall coverings were also popular, and usually placed above the chair or dado rail.

Floors were parquet or wood plank covered with rugs that were imported from the Middle and Far East, but were also made in England. Stylised florals and Oriental designs were popular.

Early Georgian Period 1714-1750This period corresponds to the

French Rococo period, and styles were adapted freely from French Baroque and Rococo as well as from the Queen Anne style.

Many buildings were based on a revival of the Palladian style, and houses were built on the central-block-with-wings model of the Palladian villa.

One of the most prominent designers of the period was William Kent (1685-1748) who created interiors, furniture and gardens and was a protégé of Lord Burlington (a self-taught gentleman architect). Kent’s interiors and furnishings are Baroque in inspiration.

This velvet covered settee is typical of Kent’s opulent classicism.


This George I console table had a marble top and heavy carving on the apron and legs.

The feet are hairy paw or lion’s paw and the apron has a carved satyr’s mask in the centre.

More elaborate furniture was common in the Georgian periods.

This Early Georgian chair still

features the curved back of the Queen Anne period combined with claw-and-ball feet and a carved knee.

The claw-and-ball was copied from Oriental examples and represents a dragon’s claw clutching the globe or world.

These George I chairs are walnut with vase shaped splats. The feet are ‘hairy paw’ or lion’s paw feet, and the knee and apron have a carved shell motif for decoration.

This upholstered Georgian side chair has carved cabriole legs and scroll feet.

The damask fabric is typical of the period, and designs were usually large in scale.

This George I chest-on-chest is typical of the case goods of the period, and this form continues to be popular throughout the 18th century in both England and America.


The Middle Georgian Period 1750-1770The Mid-Georgian period was dominated

by Thomas Chippendale, whose work was publicized through his pattern book, The Gentleman and Cabinetmaker’s Director.

This stylebook was published in three editions and transmitted Chippendale's ideas from craftsman to craftsman on both sides of the Atlantic.

This example of a typical page from the Director shows the Roman Doric order with proportions and scale notations.

The book also contains detailed drawings for furniture designs.

Chippendale designed furniture in a variety of styles, which fall into three broad categories: Chinese/Oriental, Rococo and Gothic

Some pieces are difficult to pigeonhole because they include motifs from more than one style.

These chairs are oriental or Chinese Chippendale.

Most furniture of this period was built of mahogany, which was imported from the Caribbean and South America. Its tight grain and hardness make it very suitable for carving fine detail.


This pair of Chippendale-style chairs have Ribband backs (Rococo influence) and Marlborough legs.

Made from mahogany, they are two of a set of eight.

Interiors were elegant, refined and beautiful, with decorative motifs taken from the Palladian, Rococo, Oriental and Gothic styles. Some interiors used a combination of all of these.

This bedroom at Saltram House contains Chippendale furniture in the Chinese and Rococo styles. The mantle-piece is classical, and the wall covering was imported from the Orient.


Lesson – 19: The Neoclassical Periods

English Late Georgian: Adam, Hepplewhite & Sheraton

English Neoclassical c.1770-1800The Late Georgian or Neoclassical period in England began about 1770 and lasted

into the early years of the 19th century.

The period was one of great sophistication and great change. It was the age of powdered wigs and elegant clothing for both men and women of rank, and saw the popularisation of the newspaper, coffee houses and tea drinking. Popular pastimes included conversation, reading, games of all sorts (including card playing).

It marks the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution and saw two political revolutions, in France and America.

English neoclassicism is characterized by

Classical ornament

Delicate scale & proportion

An emphasis on straight lines & geometric forms

Rationality and restraint

In design the works of Robert Adam, George Hepplewhite and Thomas Sheraton dominated the period.

Robert Adam was an architect and furniture designer. He was one of four sons of a Scottish architect and travelled in Italy in the 1750s. He and his brother James published Works in Architecture in 1773, which popularised the Adam style of ornament and decoration.


Adam interiors were dignified, splendidly decorated and designed “all of a piece”. Each element was carefully coordinated with every other, and Adam insisted on designing each part of the interior, including architectural details, furnishings, floor and wall coverings and accessories.

This interior at Croome Court is by Adam.

This chair is an example of Adam classicism, and was made by Thomas Chippendale Jr.

The gilded frame is heavily carved and the chair has lion’s paw feet and a stylised shell on the crest rail and the apron.

This settee by Adam in the French classical manner is heavily carved and decorated with caryatids supporting the arms.


This sofa with painted frame and striped upholstery is decorated with gold leaf. Stripes were a typical pattern for upholstery during the period.

This suite of dining room furnishings is typical of Adam’s classical detailing and

delicate proportions.

The sideboard is for serving food, the pedestals at each side for storage, the urns are knife boxes for storing cutlery and the oval chest is a wine cooler.

George Hepplewhite

Along with Adam and Sheraton, Hepplewhite is considered one of the greatest designers & craftsmen of the English Late Georgian period.

Not much is known of his life, but he may have begun making furniture in London about 1760. He designed and made furniture to his own designs as well as producing pieces for others, like the Adam brothers.


After his death in 1786 his widow continued his business and published a pattern book, The Ccabinetmaker and Upholsterers Guide. It was so popular that three editions were published between 1788 and 1794. The illustrations were either drawn by Hepplewhite or under his direction before his death, and the designs were widely copied in England and America.

Hepplewhite’s furniture is noted for its grace and elegance and can be characterized as follows:

Furniture was small in scale and designs were refinements

of the Adam style

Shapes usually soft and rounded

Decoration included marquetry, painting, French-style mounts & low-relief carving

Motifs were classical, including a distinctive Prince of Wales feather detail.

Chair backs tend to be shield-shaped, hoop, oval, interlacing hearts, medallion or camel.

Legs are square and tapered (although sometimes turned) and fluted or reeded.

Sideboards had concave ends; commodes were semi-circular or ‘demi-lune’

This pair of chairs are two in a set of twelve.

The backs are heart shaped with a stylised Prince of Wales feather in the centre top.


This shield-shaped back has spindles decorated with husks.

The tapered legs end in spade feet and the seat is finished with caning.

Some chairs were painted, with motifs picked out in contrasting colours.


Thomas Sheraton 1751-1806Thomas Sheraton was the last of the great

18th century cabinetmakers and furniture designers. He was more famous for the style which grew from his designs than from anything he made.

Sheraton was born into poverty, and unlike his contemporaries was unable to make his vocation pay well.

Sheraton authored several books of designs that were very influential:

The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer’s Drawing Book.

Designs for Furniture: The Cabinet Dictionary

Cabinetmaker, Upholsterer and General Artist’s Encyclopaedia.

His work was heavily influenced by the Louis XVI style from France and by the design of Adam and Hepplewhite.

Sheraton’s furniture is characterized by:

o Smallest scale furniture of the Late Georgian period.

o Shapes emphasized the rectangular, lines usually straight.

o Decoration included marquetry, painting, & porcelain plaques.

o Motifs were both classical and floral in inspiration.

o Chair backs tend to be rectangular, legs were turned with reeding & fluting.

o Case goods such as commodes and sideboards had convex ends.

o Innovations: twin beds, mechanical furniture such as convertible step stools and the like.

o Known for tambour desks and worktables.


This Sheraton chair is painted black to resemble ebony and decorated with gold leaf.

The legs are intended to look like bamboo and the decoration is oriental.

This chair has a classical urn or vase splat with fluted turned legs in the Sheraton manner

A pair of console tables by Sheraton have tapered legs inlaid with marquetry. The tops and aprons also have contrasting marquetry banding.


This chair-back settee has a caned seat covered with an upholstered cushion.

The tapered legs are supported by casters so the piece is easy to move.

This small bookcase commode is made from beautifully figured wood and decorated with satinwood banding around the doors and drawers.


Review Questions

1. Give a detailed account of the works of Christopher Wren during the Restoration Period.

2. What were the main features of architecture and interior during the reign of William and Mary in England? Draw sketches of any three types of furniture pieces used in this period.

3. Write a detailed note on the Blenheim Palace, designed by John Vanbrugh.

4. What were the main features of the Queen Anne period furniture? Draw sketches of any three types of chairs used in this period.

5. What are the main features of the Early Georgian Period? Explain with the help of sketches any three pieces of furniture made in this period.

6. Write detailed notes on the furniture designed by the following:

a. Thomas Chippendale

b. Robert Adam

c. George Hepplewhite

d. Thomas Sheraton


Unit – V

The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution: Iron & Glass The Great Exhibition 1851 19th Century Architecture in France

Modernist Architecture Period Introduction Post – Modernism Latest Trends Contemporary Architecture Prominent Architects of Modernism


Lesson – 20: The Industrial Revolution

The term Industrial Revolution refers to a time of great change that revolutionized all aspects of life. It had its beginnings in the 18th century, but did not reach its peak until the 19th.

It marks a radical change in society with

A movement from hand to mechanized craft,

A movement of population from country to town,

A movement of industry from farm to factory

The invention of the steam engine was one of the most important developments. It made possible quicker and more reliable transportation, a source of power for running machinery, and stimulated the development of other industries which in turn supported the engines that made it all work.

The impact of industrialization on design was at first mostly technical, with the development of modern plumbing, heating and lighting a direct result of invention as well as the availability of new or better materials.

Cast iron stoves and ranges provided more even and reliable heat for comfort and cooking; their efficiency was due to the materials from which they were made as well as having coal more available for fuel.

Interior lighting was first improved by the use of oil lamps, then by gas light.

Both oil and gas provided more and better lighting for both inside and outside.

This gas chandelier or gasolier is made from brass and features etched glass shades.


The Industrial Revolution: Iron & GlassNew ways of building

impacted both architecture and engineering, and many things built during this period were a fusion of both skills.

Bridges, train sheds and railroad terminals, ships and engines were now constructed using industrial materials that provided greater strength that was not easily provided by wood.

The train shed at St. Pancras station in London is made from iron and glass. The iron can easily span long distances and the glass provides daylight and protection from the elements.

The Great Exhibition 1851In 1851, the first of the

great international World’s Fairs was held in London’s Hyde Park. The exhibition was the brain-child of two men: Prince Albert, Queen Victoria’s husband, and a reformer named Henry Cole.


They saw the exhibition as a way to showcase advances in industry and promote the products of

industrialization, especially those of Great Britain and the Empire.

A competition was held to select an architect for the exhibition buildings, and after reviewing several unpromising and impractical entries, the committee chose a proposal by Joseph Paxton, the chief gardener at

Chatsworth, for a large glass and iron greenhouse to enclose the exhibit spaces.

The exhibition building was nicknamed “The Crystal Palace” by the press and covered a large portion of the park, including enclosing several living trees.

The Crystal Palace was one of the first ‘pre-fabricated’ buildings of the 19th century. The structural elements were produced in a foundry and assembled on site. The interiors were light and full of colour.

The designer Owen Jones was responsible for the decoration.

19th Century Architecture in FranceFrance was also industrializing, and several architects were incorporating new

technologies into their designs.

Henri Labrouste (1801-1875) was the architect of the Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve in Paris. The neoclassical exterior of Ste. Genevieve encloses an


interior that combines the old with the new, and features iron barrel vaulting supported by thin iron columns.

The iron frame allows for large amounts of glass, creating a well-lit interior.

Labrouste also designed the Bibliotheque Nationale.

The reading room has a large volume of space roofed by domes which are supported by iron columns.

The most famous structure of the period in France is the Eiffel Tower, once the tallest structure in the world.

It was designed by Gustav Eiffel and built for the Paris International Exhibition of 1889.


Lesson – 21: Modernist Architecture Period

1919 - 1968

Introduction Modern architecture was pioneered in North America and then established in

Europe before and after World War I (1914-1918). In a 1932 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, it was acclaimed as the International Style. Initially, the movement offered pure abstract forms to replace stylistic traditions inherited from Renaissance art and architecture, but gradually this purism diffused. One of the persistent ideas in 20th-century architecture is the belief that beauty can be seen in the structural properties of industrial materials such as iron, glass, and steel.

The legacy of Modernist architecture, as viewed from the fragmented and decentred perspective of our current fin-de-siècle, is that of a remote and almost mythologized era, recalling dim memories of an artistic vanguard and a radical design culture. The entire trajectory of Modernism now seems elusive, particularly when one attempts to trace its precedents, both social and aesthetic, in the rationalist project of the Enlightenment.

One may locate the beginnings of Modernist architecture in the emergence of the nineteenth-century metropolis, a phenomenon that paralleled the advances of the Industrial Revolution. The rise of reinforced concrete and ferro-vitreous construction inspired the development of engineering and the specialization of knowledge. The Parisian École Polytechnique and École des Beaux-Arts are but two of the centres of expertise that recast the role of the architect. The received Vitruvian doctrines were openly challenged, and the validity of the classical criteria for architecture -- utilitas, firmitas, and venustas -- was re-evaluated. There emerged radical innovations: among the small-scale, Boulle’s unbuildable but magnificent cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton (c. 1785), with its geometrical purity and minimal, monumental form; among the large-scale, Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace, a tour-de-force, steel-and-glass pavilion erected for the Great Exhibition of 1851. Composed of standardized, pre-fab parts, Paxton’s building covered 93,000 square meters and took a record four months to erect. Related to the great Victorian railway buildings, the Crystal Palace heralded an age in which engineering radicalized architectural design, culminating in such works as Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge and Henri Labrouste’s Bibliotheque Ste-Geneviève.

Just as groundbreaking as the feats of engineering were the social impulses of the last century. The split between church and state, and the arrival of the egalitarian collective as an ideal - as exemplified by the French Revolution - gave rise to radical concepts of social structure. Charles Fourier’s utopian communities housed in phalanstères or J.P. Godin’s Familistère (1859-70) provided methods of establishing self-regulating communities based on cooperative living. Many of these strategies would resurface in the housing projects of the Modern movement. From the Wiessenhof Seidlung projects of 1927, designed by a group of renowned architects including Mies


van der Rohe and Le Corbusier, to the latter’s Unité d’Habitation built in Marseilles in 1946-51, the socialist impulse of providing decent and affordable mass housing remained a tenet of Modern architecture.

These twin catalysts, advanced engineering and new models of collective living, deeply marked the development of Modernist architecture in the twentieth century. In the brutal aftermath of the First World War, the Modern movement posed radical challenges to the orthodoxy of the withering nation-state. Spanning a spectrum that reached from the revolutionary designs of the Russian Constructivists, to the heady experimentalism of the Weimar Bauhaus, Modernist architecture created a pan-European design culture marked by artistic innovation and often leftist political affinities. The Dutch De Stijl movement and the advanced work of Le Corbusier’s Purism provided further reflections on the possibilities of avant-garde design.

Not surprisingly, the experiment was short-lived. The sacrifice of the worker’s paradise in the name of the all-mighty Soviet state found a parallel expression in the rise of Nazi Germany. Radical art was viewed by both regimes as suspect and degenerate; both found a natural outlet in Neo-Classical monumentalism and tried to rival each other in grandeur, as at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris, where the overblown pavilions of the two regimes were placed opposite one another. The Second World War ultimately demolished the Modern movement in Europe, and thereafter it was on the uncertain shores of America and the New World that Modernist architecture was to take its course.

Post - Modernism In the decades following World War II, new centralized administrative facilities

proliferated in cities throughout the world. Modernism, lending itself to the industrialized production and assembly of uniform elements for these huge structures, became the dominant style of public architecture. Reinforced concrete underwent continued industrial refinement, and it became possible to build high-rise buildings entirely in concrete, as exemplified by the work of Chinese-American architect I. M. Pei. Other architects sought to refine the use of industrial materials such as metal and glass, as well as to give form to innovative engineering possibilities. American architect Louis I. Kahn reconciled classical elements with the tenets of modernism.

By the early 1980s, postmodernism had become the dominant trend in American architecture and an important phenomenon in Europe as well. Its success in the United States owed much to the influence of Philip C. Johnson (as did modernism 50 years earlier). His AT&T Building (1984) in New York City immediately became a landmark of post-modern design.

Latest Trends Contemporary Architecture After the economic recession of the 1970s, when many large building projects

suffered, the 1980s saw a resurgence. In France a series of spectacular projects left a physical reminder of France's administration for posterity. In Britain, London's Docklands became the largest building site in Europe And in the United States, various imaginative schemes were launched to regenerated inner city areas and city centres.


Prominent Architects of Modernism:

Frank Lloyd Wright 1869 - 1959Born: Richland Center, Wisconsin, United StatesWorked: Chicago, IL, United States

With more than 600 executed buildings to his credit, Frank Lloyd Wright is regarded by many as the greatest architect of the twentieth century. In 1900, he began designing his celebrated and unprecedented prairie houses, which include the Robie House in Chicago (1909) and the Coonley House (1908) in Riverside. They were, according to H.R. Hitchock, "something of as much consequence in the history of the dwelling as the architects of the fifteenth century who turned the defensive castle into the residential mansion." In these homes, wrote Hitchcock, "room flowed into room...interior and exterior flowed into one another to create an abstract design in space relationships."

During this period, Wright also created the Larkin Company’s Administration Building in Buffalo (1904), which was the first office building in the United States to use metal-bound, plate-glass doors and windows, all-metal furniture, and air conditioning. Between 1915 and 1922 he worked on the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, in which he used a unique earthquake-resistant combination of concrete supports, cantilevered floors, and a foundation floating on a cushion of soft mud. The design was tested in 1923 by an actual earthquake, and passed.

After a period of professional decline from the late-1920s to the mid-1930s, Wright stormed back with his Kaufmann House -- cantilevered over a waterfall at Bear Run, Pennsylvania (1936), and the Administration Building for the S.C. Johnson & Son Company in Racine, Wisconsin (1936-39) -- with a streamlined exterior of brick walls and a now-famous interior of mushroom-shaped columns. Later notable works include the unconventional V.C. Morris gift shop in San Francisco (1949), the crescent-shaped Herbert Jacobs House II located near Madison (1942), and the circular Friedman House (1949-1951) located near Pleasantville, New York. In 1950, Wright completed the 15-story Research and Development Laboratory for the Johnson Wax Company, which features a round-cornered tower and cantilevered floors anchored to a concrete foundation that penetrates over 50 feet into the ground.

In 1959, Wright finished the Guggenheim Museum in New York, capping a career that has been described as farsighted, ingenious, and inexplicably vital. Bruno Zevi wrote that modern architecture is indebted to Wright’s sense of space within reality, his feeling for the organic growth of the house from interior to exterior, and his ability to blend his work with its natural surroundings. "After the industrial revolution and the progress of engineering had driven architecture to take refuge in applied decoration," writes Zevi, "Wright effected a completed artistic synthesis."

Le Corbusier 1887 - 1965Born: Lachaux-de-Fonds, SwitzerlandWorked: IndiaParis, France


Had Le Corbusier had his way, most of his architectural activity would have been directed toward the collective housing of the many. But as things turned out, he spent most of his time designing villas and private mansions, which were akin in style and spirit to the contemporary works of Mallet-Stevens, Chareau, and Rietveld.

Le Corbusier was a rational theoretician, and he subjected his works to a cold, standardized logic and an uncompromising functionalism. "The twentieth century hasn't built for men," he once opined, "it has been built for money." Le Corbusier asserted that modern towns -- which he called "stone deserts" -- are perishable because they cannot adapt to meet the needs of populations in rapidly progressing societies. He proposed that cities be pruned and that those centres unfit for traffic be demolished. Once the old patterns are destroyed, he argued, the new can be entirely reconceptualized.

Le Corbusier envisioned ideal dwellings for universal populations. He conceived a vertical city, with apartments that would open onto interior streets. Common services -- from the laundry to the kindergarten, the gymnasium, and the theaters -- would be located in specialized sections. The individual apartment would differentiate collective life from individual life, and would be small and functional.

Mies van der RoheBorn in Aachen, Germany, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) initially

worked as a draftsman specializing in furniture design and rendering. After working with progressive German architect Peter Behrens, Mies opened his own office in 1914. He soon achieved international recognition as one of the leading figures of modern architecture, through such works as the German Pavilion at the 1929 International Exposition in Barcelona, Spain, and the Tugendhat House in Brno, Czechoslovakia. He also established a reputation in the field of architectural education, having been affiliated with the famed Bauhaus school of design in Germany. He served as its director from 1930 to 1933, when the political pressures of Nazi Germany forced its closing.

In 1938, the Armour Institute of Technology, a modest technical training school on Chicago's near South Side, engaged Mies to take over its architectural program. He also established his own independent architectural practice, and his first client proved to be the school itself, which had merged in 1940 with Lewis Institute to form the Illinois Institute of Technology. Mies helped develop a comprehensive master plan for the campus and designed nearly 20 individual buildings, which comprise the largest and most important collection of Mies buildings anywhere. He also designed dozens of other internationally significant buildings, including the Seagram Building in New York, the Farnsworth House in Plano, IL, and the Federal Center in Chicago.

Mies ranks as one of the most notable architects of the 20th century. With his highly developed sense of classical proportion, appreciation of modern structure and materials, and keen sense of craftsmanship, he created buildings that provided a new style for the 20th century, one that reshaped architecture following World War II. The street in front of Chicago's Museum of Contemporary Art, near Mies' former residence, is named in honour of the architect.


Review Questions

1. How did the industrial revolution impact design? Explain by giving examples

2. What were the main features of the Great Exhibition of 1851?

3. What are the characteristics of Modern Architecture?


a. Frank Lloyd Wright

b. Le Corbusier

c. Pre-modern architecture.


Books for Further Reference

1. History of Architecture by Sir Banister Fletcher

2. The Great Ages of World Architecture by G.K Hiraskar


Documents

History of Interior Design