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granting ension to the $uslims" .he ension roll and the office for this ensionary account was calledthe diwan " In the sultanate eriod of &elhi, the diwan stood for a de artment of administration, muchthe same as the resent ministry, for exam le the diwan-i-wazarat 7the de artment of wa2ir:, diwan-i-

Arz 7military de artment in charge of recruitment and ayment of salaries: etc" 7bangla edia: In the/ttomans it was the Im erial council, called divan " In other words it was the de artment of the ruling

body, exce t the king always has the ultimate authority in decision makings" &i!an translated as a

Gcouch rofessor, stated Jo!ember 8 , 8))9 that India rior to the *ritish

ne!er racticed ri!ate ownershi of land" /ne needs to ask the 1uesting did the conce t then e!erenter discourseN

(?" 4ccording to much of the shariah ownershi belongs only to od, and his regent, the ruler on earth".herefore, e!erything in theory, but hardly racticed in reality, owns nothing" .his is ure communism,and ossible was a art of the western communist hiloso hies that arose in the (D'( th centurywritings" Howe!er, communism and its conce ts are as old as history itself and were argued in the westfrom the onset of recorded materials" *acon, and $oore had their own !iews in these regards # andmany more"

(9" Eugene 3" Irschick ultimately that Gdiscourse 73oucaultian: controlled and con1uered India" .his tiesinto their ast according to him, that India was some'how a socialist0caste ideology and that andhis Gsolution, from traditional India because he didnt know, was formulated into a western ers ecti!e of Glittle re ublics with ri!ate ro erty" >robably because ideology of socialism, ex ressed by $arx isthat all races get along in this system therefore no need for ri!ate ro erty which is0was ne!er the casein all studies, or in fact worse in many cases"

(B" Lamindars ne!er really owned land, but it was hereditary" a$indars had de!elo ed themsel!es as ractical landlords and the +osition ,eca$e hereditary "

(D" In the colonial eriod, the Lamindar@s ro erty rights were conditionalA the colonial state honoured therights of the Lamindars as long as they aid the re!enue" .hus the actual tillers were ne!er in the scene".hey were only as the tenants of their masters or otherwise worked for their masters in their land" Soonafter the inde endence in most of the areas this land was con!eniently a ro riated by the Lamindarsas their ri!ate ro erty" 7 eorge:"

( " In relation to the intellectual ublic domain, the commons a ears to be an idea about democratic rocesses, freedom of s eech, and the free exchange of information" .he term Ocommons,O howe!er,has !arious histories, from ro erty to shared s aces to notions of democratic ideals" It refers to thehouse of *ritish >arliament re resenting nontitled citi2ens, and agricultural fields in England and

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Euro e rior to their enclosure" In the Fnited States, commons refers to ublic s aces such as the JewEngland town s1uare, cam us dining halls, and conce ts of the OcommonO good" (B In almost all uses,the term has been contested" In the realm of legal ro erty rights, the ublication of Ancient Law byHenry u$ner .aine (D in ( B( set off a major debate about the origin of the !ery conce t of ro ertyin ancient times" ( &rawing on his own extensi!e research in India and the research of others on earlyEuro ean communities, $aine argued that joint ownershi by families and grou s of kin 7in other

words, common ro erty: was more likely the initial ro erty regime in most arts of the world thanthe notion of ro erty owned by a single indi!idual" (P .his great debate was not sim ly one betweenhistorians o!er whether common ro erty or indi!idual ri!ate ro erty came first" ather, the debateframed a ers ecti!e on whether landed ro rietors ha!e a s ecial role in society that needed rotectionand the legitimacy of enclosing ro erties owned communally" .he debate started long ago and is stillnot fully resol!ed" 4 major textbook on ro erty law de!otes the entire first cha ter to The Debateover rivate ro!ert" and the second cha ter to The roblem of the #ommons "8) 7 Hess:

(P" co$$on-+oo" goods/ therefore, the $arxist and other extreme left grou s, the English and Scottishdestroyed India by infecting it with notions of ri!ate ro erty" ;orking hard to ha!e a little iece ofyour own ri!ate hea!en in hell 7 earth: was a no'no to the extreme leftist" /ne must continue to li!e inhell" .his takes out the conce t of incenti!e, which saw most of the communist states struggle with thenotion of eo le not gi!ing or caring about the state, because they worked for only it with no G ho e for

future betterment" >eo le are in fact ossessi!e, which is not a attribute of communal li!ing" 4lso,some eo le like to be in seclusion for arts of some eriods, and therefore %esus said, my father hasmany rooms in his mansion6 ' not just one communal li!ing room" 3or those that can understand this,can com rehend the meaning of the com lex indi!idual, whereas extreme leftist lea!e this things out oftheir conce ts of the erfect state" Jot e!eryone is a social animal as communists like to ass on as areality"

8)" ise of the ro erty owners seen in context of Islams domination o!er the continent for manycenturies"

8(" >ersonal fortunes, an acce ted ca italistic way, was allowed to ha en because of family atronagewith the system of an annual o ening of ten 7(): ositions to fill from England or Scotland # this was

before 1 8 " Hastings was im eached in England for taking bribes and making money on the side">ossibly the English understood, which was ha ening, ri!ate fortunes were made an not taxes wereaccounted for Englands efforts"

88" .rade was de endant on Indian sureties thus the *ritish ne!er really had control"

8M" English rotected ownershi after they installed it" 7I do not belie!e as taught that the Indians or Islamhad no notion of ri!ate ro erty and no discourse on this subject with its ractice:"

24. 1 with the take o!er of the *engal diwan, the *ritish now began land reform, em loying the Indianu er middle classes as scribes, aid them chea ly, changes money system from $ugh ls bankers andmoney controllers to Indian bankers"

89" 18 4fter the mutiny took im ortance in *ritish discourse, the English +rown took control of Indiaand abolished the East Indian +om any, and a ointed their own go!ernors with direct accountability

back to the thrown"

8B" elied on chea em loyment of scribes from middle class Indians, which means they ex loited them"

8D" ;estern ;ritters go to +alcutta to learn all the indigenous languages, and forms of re!iousgo!ernment system to control them, according to Edward Said" .hus discourse starts from here and thehoning in on control is sought through this method" 7 I ersonally do not belie!e all men ha!e e!ilhearts as some 4merican F+ system try to dis lay:

8 " Benga"4 .adras 5 Bo$,ay4 Northern India began a western bureaucracy ne!er seen before in India"

8P" 1800 India became a *ritish state, because of the theory of bureaucracy and not of outright claims"

M)" 6ser grou+s need the right4 or at "east no interference 'ith their atte$+t4 to organi7e .here is astark difference between resource user grou s such as those in Swit2erland and %a an that ha!e both

legal standing as ro erty'owning entities and long'documented histories of community resourcemanagement, and indigenous eo les from Kalimantan to Irian %aya to the 4ma2on, and from Laire toIndia, who ha!e racticed community resource management for decades or e!en centuries but ha!e no

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legal rotection" 4s soon as roducts from the resource system become commercially attracti!e, ersons outside of the traditional user community become interested in ac1uiring legal rights to theresource" If the traditional users ha!e those legal rights in the first lace, then they essentially ha!e thecommercial o ortunities that their resources create" In >a ua Jew uinea, for instance, wheretraditional community forest rights are legally !alid, ortable sawmills used by !illagers turn out to bemore economically efficient o!erall, and to bring more wealth into the !illage, than timbering by

multinational cor orations" ;here local communities@ resource claims go unrecogni2ed by nationalgo!ernments, the best they can then ho e for is that higher layers of go!ernment will o!erlook themrather than o ose them" .he farming !illages of 4ndhra >radesh that use an o en'field system tomanage lanting, har!esting, gra2ing, and irrigation do so successfully only because and as long as thestate and national go!ernments ignore them 7;ade, (PP8:" 7Hess:"

M(" !istri,ution of decision-$a9ing rights and use rights to co-o'ners of the co$$ons need not ,eega"itarian ,ut $ust ,e ie'ed as :fair: (one in 'hich the ratio of indi idua" ,enefit toindi idua" cost fa""s 'ithin a range they see as acce+ta,"e) It comes as a sur rise to obser!ers whoha!e romantici2ed the commons that common' ro erty regimes do not always ser!e to e1uali2eincome within the user grou " +ommunities !ary enormously in how e1ually or une1ually theydistribute the roducts of the commons to eligible users" &ecision'making rights tend to be egalitarianin the formal sense 7one user household, one !ote: although richer households may actually ha!e

additional social influence on decisions" Entitlement to roducts of the commons !aries to a sur risingextent" In some communities, es ecially in India, the commons do turn out to be a welfare system forthe oor the wealthy members of the community may be entitled to use the commons but do not botherto exercise that right because of the high o ortunity cost of their labor, lea!ing de facto access to

oorer members, those willing to in!est their labor in collecting roducts from the commons 7Hess:"

M8" ri ate +ro+erty is the result of a society based on war, for its genesis is the wall of defense akistan and northern India7wiki edia:"

(" ed about (D such ex editions into India"

8" northwestern India and most of IranM" Fsed the title Sultan"

?" $ahmud a son of a .urkish sla!e" In PDD became ruler of ha2na"

9" $ahmud ascended the throne in PP at the age of 8D"

B" $ahmud marched on India at the head of (9,))) horse troo s"

D" .ried to ri!al the 4bbasid ca ital"

His first cam aigns were against the Hindu Shahi kingdom, which occu ied the >unjab from the Indus east tothe anges" He had artici ated in his father@s cam aigns against the Shahi king %aya ala in the late P )s that

ca tured the Khyber >ass region as far east as the Indus" $ahmud cam aigned against the Shahis in ())(, andin ())? raided dee into the >unjab, defeated a Shahi army and ca tured *hatia and $ultan" In ()) , he

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con1uered most of the >unjab and ca tured the Shahi treasury at Kangra in the >unjab Hill States, whichreduced the Shahi kingdom to a sli!er of the eastern >unjab"

$ahmud@s cam aigns seem to be moti!ated by both religious 2eal and an interest in wealth and gold" $ahmudfollowed the injunction to con!ert non'$uslims, whom he had !owed to chastise e!ery year of his life" Hindutem les were de ositories of !ast 1uantities of wealth, in cash, golden images, and jewelery ' and these madethem targets for a non'Hindu searching for wealth in northern India" .he later in!asions of $ahmud weredirected to tem le towns, including .hanesar 7()(8:, $athura and Kanauj 7()( :, and finally Somnath 7()8B:"$ahmud@s armies routinely stri ed the tem les of their wealth and then destroyed themA after $ahmud@s raidson the cities of Caranasi, Fjjain, $aheshwar, %walamukhi, and &warka, not one tem le sur!i!ed intact"

.he concentration of wealth at Somnath was renowned, and conse1uently it became an attracti!e target for$ahmud" .he raid in ()8B was his last major cam aign, and took him across the .har &esert, which had

re!iously deterred most in!aders" .he tem le and citadel were sacked, and most of its *rahmin defendersmassacredA $ahmud ersonally hammered the tem le@s gilded lingam into ieces, and the stone fragments werecarted back to ha2ni, where they were incor orated into the ste s of the city@s new %ami $asjid 73ridaymos1ue:"

*y the end of his reign, his em ire extended from Kurdistan in the west to Samarkand in the northeast, and fromthe +as ian Sea to the amuna" 4lthough his raids carried his forces across northern and western India, only the>unjab came under his ermanent ruleA Kashmir, the &oab, ajasthan and ujarat remained under the control ofthe local Hindu aj ut dynasties" .he wealth brought back to ha2ni was enormous, and contem oraryhistorians 7e"g" 4bolfa2l *eyhaghi, 3erdowsi: gi!e glowing descri tions of the magnificence of the ca ital, aswell as of the con1ueror@s munificent su ort of literature"

.he ha2na!id Em ire was ruled by his successors for (9D years, but after $ahmud it ne!er reached anythinglike the same s lendor and ower" .he ex anding Seljuk .urkish em ire absorbed most of the ha2na!id west".he >ersian horids ca tured ha2ni c" ((9), and $uhammad hori ca tured the last ha2na!id stronghold at

ahore in (( D"

.he romance of $ahmud and his sla!e boy $alik 4ya2 is art of Islamic legend 7 wiki edia :

=hur ids "i9e =ha7na ids

ha2na!ids J" &eccan

hur S"

hur king killed in &elhi in (8)B"

eriodic u"tanate

120 -1 2

$ost all of the rulers are .urks, but 4fghans at the end"

Benga"/ #he #rade *egion of the re-.odern and e en ?ncient Dor"d

*u"ed ,y I"yas hahis 13th-18th Centuries "

(" >owerful trade in the east"8" (8)M begins by con1uest"

M" Sufi brought grains and cleared brush in hinterlands making way for wet rice culti!ation" 4lso theri!ers shifted hel ing make areas nice and wet"

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?" Sufis were used to establish different rulers, but after the new ruler was firmly established on histhrown, they were discarded back into society as easants"

9" ;et and marshy with rainfall about ) inches a year and about ((( inches in the foothills, the armies,usually on horses, or the cannon were too difficult to mount sustained cam aigns" So this area was leftalong for much of the time" $urshid Quli Khan was sent by 4urang2eb to collect taxes that were fixed

for a long time and raise the rate to hel off set his war chest"

Eha"Fi - #ur9s

?"auddin Eha"Fi 7(8PB'(M(B: started a cam aign against the ada!as of &e!agiri in (8PB and islargely res onsible for establishment of Islamic armies in South India" In the year (8PP, 4lauddinfirmly assumed control of ower in &ehli" His military general $alik Kafur raided the owerfulHoysala and >andya ca itals in (M((" .he Khalji dynasty ex anded to much of India 7$arg:"

4lauddin (8PB'(M(B rotected raids from $ongols and was able to kee the $ongols out of India"

Had to maintain a large 4rmy"

His general .ai"99afur made raids into the &eccan"

$ugh ls 7claimed, $uslim go!ernance' ada ted $ongols :

(98B *abur

Ba,ur c"ai$ed he 'as a #i$urid , and a $ongolian and in!ading India he establishes the $ongol rule in India"$ugh l is the transcribed name for the region" .hey form a centrali2ed state with the circumference accordingto annual radius tra!ersement from Kabul, ajmahal to Islam uri" *urton Stein calls this the beginning ofIndias modern age" .his was a huge centrali2ed state which was ruled by mansabs, which were ro!inces andruled subordinately by mansabdaris who were hired out to bidders, or a ointed which included armies thatcollected taxes and tried to kee the eace" Hindus didnt like this but what could they doN .he horse warfarewas an established $ongolian artform' to' warfare erfected that con1uered arts of eastern Euro e and e!enthe /ttoman .urks, and ended the 4bassid Em ire" .he $ongols were excellent horsemen and horses were thefirst 1uick mo!ing battle tanks in history" *lood sweating horses from +entral 4sia, or more s ecifically the.arim basin, were the earths most owerful military wea on" .hese horses were described as sweating blood,

because of the mos1uito o ulations in the area, when they ran" In addition, the $ongols in!ented the stirruwhich aloud them to maneu!er with the sword or other wea ons" .his was crucial and called a militaryad!ancement" /ff the subject, the Euro eans were introduced to the conce t of the stirru s by the $ongols"Howe!er, the horses were known throughout history and central 4sian discourse became the o eration toharness these owerful military technologies"

G.he $ugh l ruling class consisted of $uslims and unorthodox $uslims and Hindus, although many of thesubjects of the Em ire were Hindu" ;hen *abur first founded the Em ire, he did not em hasi2e his religion, butrather his $ongol heritage" Fnder 4kbar, the court abolished the ji2ya, the tax on non'$uslims, and abandoned

use of the lunar $uslim calendar in fa!or of a solar calendar more useful for agriculture" /ne of 4kbar@s mostunusual ideas regarding religion was &in'i'Ilahi 7 odism in English:, which was an eclectic mix of Hinduism,Islam, and +hristianity" It was roclaimed the state religion until his death" u et rulers

ro ed u by 3rench and *ritish +arnatic wars" E!ents of Euro ean foreign owers e!olutionalry role in Indiais described below"

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In (DMP army from >ersia led by Jadir Shah defeated many strong holds" In (D9B an army of 4hmad Shahlooted &elhi again" .he *ritish Em ire finally dissol!ed it in ( 9D, immediately rior to which it existed only atthe sufferance of the *ritish East India +om any" Ended ( D9"

I$+eria"i7ed

4fter the India $utiny the +rown takes o!er India and declares it their state and rulershi , thus India becomes*ritish +olonial India and Im eriali2ed" English show u during the $ugh ls" .here orders are not to con1ueror start wars by England, but to trade Gonly"

;ng"ish 1 G8 southern eastern coast "

(" .he *ritish East India +om any, sometimes referred to as O%ohn +om anyO, was a joint'stockcom any of in!estors, which was granted a oyal +harter by Eli2abeth I on &ecember M(, (B)), withthe intent to fa!our trade ri!ileges in India" .he oyal +harter effecti!ely ga!e the newly createdHonourable East India +om any a mono oly on all trade in the East Indies" .he +om any transformedfrom a commercial trading !enture to one which !irtually ruled India as it ac1uired auxiliarygo!ernmental and military functions, until the +om any@s dissolution in ( 9 "

8" 4s 4dam Smith wrote, O.he difference between the genius of the *ritish constitution which rotectsand go!erns Jorth 4merica, and that of the mercantile com any which o resses and domineers in theEast Indies, cannot erha s be better illustrated than by the different state of those countries"O

M" .he Indian 4rmy in the time of the *ritish aj 7( 9D#(P?D:

?" ( P9'(P)8 .he Indian 4rmy was a collecti!e term for the armies of the residenciesA the *engal 4rmy,$adras 4rmy and *ombay 4rmy"

9" (P)M'(P?D .he Indian 4rmy was Othe force recruited locally and ermanently based in India, togetherwith its ex atriate *ritish officers"O

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(DD( Jajaf Khan (DDM was com eting for juridical ower like $urshid Quli Khan was in *engal"

British ;ast India Co$+any

1 *attle of >lassey 7 >ilasi: GIn *engal 7 4fter battle *ritish take control of *engal, *ihar and /rrisa:

(DB( .hird battle of >ani at(DB? .he *attle of *uxar 7 *ritish not entirely in control ' Kasim and Jawab of /udh:" 3orced Jawab to

ay annually ()),))) ru ees" .his will lead to EI+ beginning the forced uniti!e ayments for an army to rotect their interests"(DB9 obert +li!e a ointed o!ernor of *engal(DBD &e arture of +li!e1 - G 3irst $ysore war (DD8 ;arren Hastings@ a ointed as o!ernor(DDM .he egulating 4ct

i"asi .he town of $urshidabad 7then ca ital of the Jawab: in India" It was a battle between the forces of the*ritish East India +om any and of Siraj Fd &aulah, the last inde endent Jawab of *engal" .he significance ledto the e!ol!ing business of East Indian +om anys role as traders to e!entual role as rulers" .he wealth gainedallowed the +om any to ay for an army"

"aced on #hrone

$ir %afar .he first a ointment of the *ritish after the *attle of >lassy 7 >ilasi (D9D:"

$ir Kasim" He was a ointed but fought against the *ritish control" .his indicated that the *ritish didnt ha!edefinitional control in re'colonial times"

4fter winning the *attle of *uxar 7(DB?:, the *ritish had earned the right to collect land re!enue in *engal,

*ihar and /rissa" It a ears certain that this de!elo ment set the foundations of *ritish olitical rule in India"

Na'a, of udh - Eora and ?""aha,ad 1801-1803

Jawab of /udh >re!ious $ugh l kingdom territory" *ritish con1uests with the army now aid by the uniti!e forced ayments"

/udh forms the central ortion of the great angetic lain"

.he olitical !icissitudes through which this tract of country assed in earlier times are described under IJ&I4History" It will be sufficient here to trace the ste s by which it assed under *ritish rule" In (DB9, after the battleof *uxar, when the nawab of /udh had been decisi!ely defeated and Shah 4lam, the $ogul em eror, was asu liant in the *ritih cam , ord +li!e was content to claim no ac1uisition of territory" .he whole of /udh

was restored to the Jawab, and Shah 4lam recei!ed as an im erial a anage the ro!ince of 4llahabad and Korain the lower &oab, with a *ritish garrison in the fort of 4llahabad" ;arren Hastings augmented the territory of/udh by lending the nawab a *ritish army to con1uer ohilkhand, and by making o!er to him 4llahabad andKora on the ground that Shah 4lam had laced himself in the ower of the $ahrattas" 4t the same time herecei!ed from /udh the so!ereignty o!er the ro!ince of *enares" Subse1uently no great change took laceuntil the arri!al of ord ;eliesley, who ac1uired a !ery large accession of territory in two instalments" In ( )(he obtained from the nawab of /udh the cession of ohilkhand, the lower &oab, and the orakh ur di!ision,thus enclosing /udh on all sides exce t the north" In ( )?, as the result of ord akes !ictories in the $ahratta;ar, the rest of the &oab and art of *undelkhand, together with 4gra and the guardianshi of the old and blindem eror, Shah 4lam, at &elhi, were obtained from Sindia" In ( (9 the Kumaon di!ision was ac1uired after the

urkha ;ar, and a further ortion of *undelkhand from the cshwa in ( (D" .hese new ac1uisitions, known asthe ceded and con1uered ro!inces, continued to be administered by the go!ernor'general as art of *engal" In( MM an act of arliament was assed to constitute a new residency, with its ca ital at 4gra" *ut this scheme

was ne!er fully carried out, and in ( M9 another statute authori2ed the R ointment of a lieutenant'go!ernor forthe Jorth';estern >ro!inces, as they were then styled" .hey included the &elhi territory, transferred after the$utiny to the >unjabA and also 7after ( 9M: the Saugor and Jerbudda territories, which in ( B( became art of

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the +entral >ro!inces" $eanwhile /udh remained under its nawab, who was ermitted to assume the title ofking in ( (P" 4ll rotests against gross misgo!ernment during many years ha!ing ro!ed useless, /udh wasannexed in ( 9B and constituted a se arate chief commissionershi " .hen followed the $utiny, when all signsof *ritish rule were for a time swe t away throughout the greater art of the two ro!inces" .helieutenantgo!ernor died when shut u in the fort at 4gra, and /udh was only recon1uered after se!eralcam aigns lasting for eighteen months"

In ( DD the offices of lieutenant'go!ernor of the Jorth;estern >ro!inces and chief commissioner of /udh werecombined in the same ersonA and in (P)8, when the new name of Fnited >ro!inces was introduced, the title ofchief commissioner was dro ed, though /udh still retains some marks of its former inde endence"

(" See a2elteer of the Fnited >ro!inces 78 !ols", +alcutta, (P) :A and .heodore $orison, .he Industrial/rgani2ation of an Indian >ro!ince 7(P)B:" 7Fnited >ro!inces of 4gra and /udh:"

Darren Hastings #a9es contro" and had to dea" 'ith a re o"t of raFa of Benares

*engal, *ihar, and /rrisa aja +hait Singh of *enares

.he first o!ernor' eneral of India was ;arren Hastings, who occu ied that high osition from (DDM to (D ?";hile +li!e was content with creating the im ression that the Jawab of *engal remained so!ereign, subjectonly in some matters to the dictate of the $ughal Em eror, Hastings mo!ed swiftly to remo!e this fiction" .he

Jawab was stri ed of his remaining owers and the annual tribute aid to the $ughal Em eror waswithdrawn" Hastings su orted the kingdom of 4wadh ro!inces, as they were then styled" .hey included the &elhi territory, transferred after the$utiny to the >unjabA and also 7after ( 9M: the Saugor and Jerbudda territories, which in ( B( became art ofthe +entral >ro!inces" $eanwhile /udh remained under its nawab, who was ermitted to assume the title of

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king in ( (P" 4ll rotests against gross misgo!ernment during many years ha!ing ro!ed useless, /udh wasannexed in ( 9B and constituted a se arate chief commissionershi " .hen followed the $utiny, when all signsof *ritish rule were for a time swe t away throughout the greater art of the two ro!inces" .helieutenantgo!ernor died when shut u in the fort at 4gra, and /udh was only recon1uered after se!eralcam aigns lasting for eighteen months"

In ( DD the offices of lieutenant'go!ernor of the Jorth;estern >ro!inces and chief commissioner of/udh were combined in the same ersonA and in (P)8, when the new name of Fnited >ro!inces wasintroduced, the title of chief commissioner was dro ed, though /udh still retains some marks of itsformer inde endence"

See a2elteer of the Fnited >ro!inces 78 !ols", +alcutta, (P) :A and .heodore $orison, .he Industrial/rgani2ation of an Indian >ro!ince 7(P)B:" 7Fnited >ro!inces of 4gra and /udh:"

Jajaf Khan >aymaster with tax manager of &iwan

4rmies sei2e control

.he de!elo ment of $ilitary fiscalism, as was taking lace in Euro e simultaneously"

>unjab (DPP .he %ats brought together" .hey are easants like the $arathas 7local tribe grou s:"

1 20- 0s *ohi""as

8" &efeat of the aj ut brotherhoods # not easants" *y ;arren Hastings troo s"M" 4fghans 7 islam: in am ur

?" .he ohillas were 4fghans who had entered India in the ( th century during the decline of the$ughal" ;ere not su orti!e of the easants"

9" Fsed *anjara herders, central India" 4nd were salt traders that !entured hundreds of miles to tradegrains" .his hel ed maintain urban economy, and also maintained a notion of centrali2ation orinterconnectedness of India, contrary to many historians" Cast trade 7 see andhi for discre ancies ofhis subjugated knowleges:"

B" ohillias from the South attack armies Hastings armies from the north out from &elhi"

D" ;arren Hastings was told not to go to war and it was the first thing he lanned when he arri!ed in Inda"He hel ed the Jawab of /udh defeat the ohillas by lending a brigade of the East India +om any@stroo s" He was called back to Englans and charged in a arliamentary im eachment of Hastings, but>arliament !indicated him" 7(DD?:

Dehli 1 -18th Century

1. Shiek Kulta (8 major brotherhoods, warbands, and $uslim $silisA hel ed destroy the $ugh ls"8" (Pth century +on1uest of India was achie!ed by &iscourse

M" Jominal obedience Quasbis tax gathering, military system"

?" .he &ahkait, wandered around and had no direction, but they came out from tribal life and settled toagriculture life" .his is the discourse talked about"

9" .hug Said is incorrect, .hug is an original Indian word, dating back o!er a thousand years" It meansG etty < not a major= criminal"

B" .hug comes from Hindi language"

D" &ense language, meaning secreti!e, coerci!e constructi!e knowleges, ideas of criminality, de artmentsof subjugated knowledges which were enshrined into the de artments of the dissemination ofinformation # ro agating against the decent of seditions" .his was a !ery interacti!e condition"

*ichard ;aton/

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" Eaton argues that for a long eriod of time, the Hindus li!ed side by side with Islam" .his ne!er meantthat they li!ed in harmony" .here was no syncretis$ 7No inter$i ing of re"igions :" .here wascom etition" /ttomans made foreigner lie is se arate districts"

P" Hindus and Islam ne!er merged"

()" ;ork Eaton, ichard $ " .he ise of Islam and the *engal 3rontier, (8)?'(DB)" Fni!ersity of

+alifornia >ress, *erkeley, FS"11. .he ise of +hittagongs eligious entry *y su orting frontier mos1ues and shrines, $ugh l

authorities in +hittagong established ties with olitical systems that functioned at a !ery local le!el".his was logical, for it was on the frontier itself, and not in district offices in +hittagong city

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4fter reaching the Indian subcontinent, he and his band of followers are said to ha!e drifted to Sylhet,on the easternmost edge of the *engal delta" 5In these far'flung cam aigns,6 the narrati!e continued,5they had no means of subsistence, exce t the booty, but they li!ed in s lendour" ;hene!er any !alleyor cattle were ac1uired, they were charged with the res onsibility of ro agation and teaching of Islam"In short, ro het $uhammad at the *attle of *adr in 4"&" B8?, the first major battle in$uhammads career and a crucial e!ent in launching Islam as a world religion" .he story thus has anob!ious ideological dri!e to it"

22. *ut other as ects of the narrati!e are more suggesti!e of *engals social atmos here at the time of thecon1uest" eferences to 5far'flung cam aigns6 where Shah %alals warrior'disci les 5had no means ofsubsistence, exce t the booty6 suggest the truly nomadic base of these .urkish freebooters, and,incidentally, refute the claim 7made in the same narrati!e: that Shah %alals rinci al moti!e for comingto *engal was religious in nature" In fact, reference to his ha!ing made 5a ortion for e!erybody6suggests the sort of beha!ior befitting a tribal chieftain !is'W'!is his astoral retainers, while thereference to his ermitting them to marry suggests a rocess by which mobile bands of unmarriednomadsVShah %alals own title mujarrad means 5bachelor6Vsettled down as ro ertied grou s rootedin local society" $oreo!er, the >ersian text records that Shah %alal had ordered his followers to becomekadkhud , a word that can mean either 5householder6 or 5landlord"6

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8B" Sufis of the +a ital

8D" .he rinci al carriers of the Islamic literary and intellectual tradition in the *engal sultanate weregrou s of distinguished and influential Sufis who resided in the successi!e ca ital cities of akhnauti7from (8)?:, >andua 7from ca" (M?8:, and aur 7from ca" (?M8:" $ost of these men belonged toorgani2ed Sufi brotherhoodsVes ecially the Suhrawardi, the 3irdausi, and the +hishti ordersVand

what we know of them can be ascertained mainly from their extant letters and biogra hical accounts".he urban Sufis about whom we ha!e the most information are clustered in the early sultanate eriod,from the founding of the inde endent Ilyas Shahi dynasty at >andua in (M?8 to the end of the aja

anesh re!olution in (?(9"

28. *ut were these men themsel!es tem le'destroying iconoclastsN +an we think of them as gh 2 sVthatis, men who waged religious war against non'$uslimsN Such, indeed, is the ers ecti!e of much/rientalist scholarshi " In the (PM)s the erman /rientalist >aul ;ittek ro ounded the thesis that the.urkish dri!e westward across 4natolia at the ex ense of *y2antine reek ci!ili2ation had been

ro elled by an ethos of Islamic holy war, or jih d, against infidels" 4lthough this thesis subse1uently became established in $iddle Eastern historiogra hy, recent scholarshi has shown that it suffers fromlack of contem orary e!idence"< ?= Instead, as udi indner has argued, the association of a holy warethic with the early rise of /ttoman ower was the work of ideologues writing se!eral centuries afterthe e!ents they described" ;hat they wrote, according to indner, amounted to an 5ex ost facto

urification of early /ttoman deeds, ashas writes extensi!elyof the ha2i frontier warriors during the (Bth +entury, by name of ha2i Gthis erson and that erson""7 See >ashas $elek, I ir, KY rZlZ and a ointments at Can:" Howe!er, this doesnt 1ualify that*engal saw the same roductions of con1uest at all 7mjm:"

30. It was also in the se!enteenth century that traditions concerning *engals most famous $uslim saint,Shah %alal $ujarrad 7d" (M?B: of Sylhet, became transformed in ways a roximating resent'day oralaccounts" ;e ha!e seen in +ha ter M that the earliest written record of Shah %alals life, com osed inthe mid (9))s, identified the saint as a .urk sent to India by a +entral 4sian r for the ur ose of

waging war against the infidel" ater hagiogra hical traditions, howe!er, substantially reinter reted hiscareer" .he Suhail'i aman, a biogra hy com iled in the mid nineteenth century, but based onmanuscri ts dating to the se!enteenth century,ower descends form the to " So!ereignty is from the to "

M9" Islamic rulers looked toward the west # the +ali hs in the re'medie!al times for legitimacy and ways

to rule and the /ttomans sultanate in the $edie!al times during (9th +entury onward"MB" Eaton ne!er talked about shakti"

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MD" Sufi in the hinterlands 7 eastern hills of *engal: wet'rice culti!ation" i!ed besides the s iritual Indiantribes and not in the !alley lains where Islamic and Hindus had com etition and li!ed side'by'side

but ne!er crossed o!er intermixing their faiths"

38. 5It would seem, then, that Sufism, or more recisely the style of iety informed by institutionali2edworld'rejection and the cult of saints, was !ery much built into the ethos of $ugh l ser!ice in *engal6

7Eaton .he >lace of Islam in $ugh l +ulture 8"D:39. Secondly, the ruling class in *engal maintained a clear se aration between matters of religion and

matters of state" *y contrast, the ancient ca itals of >andua and aur were denied any oliticalsignificance under the $ugh ls and emerged instead as Islamic sacred centers"

40. ;hen making !ows or swearing oaths, moreo!er, members of the im erial cor s a ealed to differentdeities according to the officers articular religious identities" /n one occasion, a co y of the Quranand a black geode re resenting a form of Cishnu 7s lagr m: were brought to a mixed grou of $ugh lofficers who had resol!ed to swear an oath among themsel!es"

41. ;hen making !ows or swearing oaths, moreo!er, members of the im erial cor s a ealed to differentdeities according to the officers articular religious identities" /n one occasion, a co y of the Quranand a black geode re resenting a form of Cishnu 7s lagr m: were brought to a mixed grou of $ugh l

officers who had resol!ed to swear an oath among themsel!es"?8" htt 00content"cdlib"org0xtf0!iewN

docId ft)BDnPP!PTdoc"!iew contentTchunk"id s("D"MTtoc"de th (Tanchor"id )Tbrand eschol

43. East *engal, where high'caste Hindus, ty ically absentee 2am ndrs, emerged at the u er end of thetenure chain, and $uslim culti!ators at the lower end"

44. In a second attern of land de!elo ment, $uslim rs or 1 2[ s went directly into unculti!ated regions,organi2ed the local o ulation for clearing the jungles, and only later, after ha!ing establishedthemsel!es as local men of influence, entered into relations with the $ugh l authorities"

45. Ha2rat &aner $aus transition from holy man to landholder was thus linked to the inter!ention of state ower" ;ith its hearty a etite for land re!enue, the go!ernment sought to ca ture and transform into

re!enue' aying officials whate!er local notables a eared on the hori2on" In the abo!e'cited case, thego!ernment ex loited the refusal by some !illagers to ay a charitable fee by establishing a fixed!illagewide figure to be owed the rA it then redefined that fee as land tax, and the r as the re!enue'

aying landholder"

46. ;here rs themsel!es did not become defined as 2am ndrs, their sons and descendants often did, aswas the case with the sons of >ir GFmar Shah of Joakhali, discussed abo!e"< PB= *ut the relationshi

between the religious gentry and $ugh l authorities was not always ha y, since a rs natural ties ofauthority and atronage generally lay with the masses of easants beneath him and not with thego!ernors and bureaucrats in distant &haka or, after (D)?, $urshidabad"

47. 3or exam le, in remote %halakati .hana in the *akarganj Sundarbans, an eighteenth'century r namedSaiyid 3a1ir wielded enormous influence with the culti!ators of the all'$uslim !illage of Saiyid ur,named after the r" *ut a difficulty arose, noted a (P)B !illage sur!ey, because 5the eo le of this artlooked u on the 3akir as their guide and did not ay rent to the Jawab"6 In this situation, one ala+het Singh, a ca tain in the em loy of the go!ernor, 5succeeded in ersuading the 3akir to lea!e thecountry"6 .hough we do not know how the officer managed to dislodge the r from the !illage, he wase!idently successful, since the authorities in $urshidabad rewarded him for his efforts by gi!ing himthe right to collect the arganas re!enue"< PD= .his suggests that on the olitically fluid *engal frontier,the easants loyalty did not necessarily extend beyond their local holy man" 3rom the go!ernments

ers ecti!e, while it was always referable when ossible to coo t influential holy men, the $ugh lsdid not hesitate, when necessary, to im ose their own re!enue machinery on rural settlements"

48. In the early twentieth century, the $uslim culti!ators of eastern *engal were described as anindustrious, unruly, and socially unstratified o ulation, with few loyalties beyond those gi!en their

rs" .he o ulation of one settlement in *akarganjs Swaru kati .hana, we read, consisted entirely of$uslims, who were 5rather fierce" .hey layed a cons icuous role in the history of the argana" .heywere the first men who rallied around-

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2amindari"6

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D" tates 5In the middle of the eighth century, large, regionally based im erial systems emerged in*engal" .he first and most durable of these was the owerful >ala Em ire 7ca" D9)#((B(: lain, e!en reaching Kanauj under their greatest dynast,&harma ala 7DD9# (8:6 7 Eton +h"("( 3oot 8P:"

" e!iew OIn all of the South 4sian subcontinent, *engal was the region most rece ti!e to theIslamic faith" .his area today is home to the world@s second'largest $uslim ethnic o ulation" How and why didsuch a large $uslim o ulation emerge thereN 4nd how does such a religious con!ersion take laceN ichardEaton uses archaeological e!idence, monuments, narrati!e histories, oetry, and $ugh l administrati!edocuments to trace the long historical encounter between Islamic and Indic ci!ili2ations" $o!ing from the year(8)?, when >ersiani2ed .urks from Jorth India annexed the former Hindu states of the lower anges delta, to(DB), when the *ritish East India +om any rose to olitical dominance there, Eaton ex lores these mo!ingfrontiers, focusing es ecially on agrarian growth and religious change"O Eatonhtt 00www"uc ress"edu0books0 ages0B() "html

P" O4 con!incing and thoroughly well'worked'out argument which is judiciously and lucidlyex ounded" It rests on sources in >ersian, 4rabic, *engali, Sanskrit, and Euro ean languages, as well as somenotably fruitful research in the >ersian records of the Sylhet and +hittagong collectorates" $ost of all, howe!er,it rests on years of thought on the issues in!ol!ed"O''%ournal of Islamic Studies"htt 00atheism"about"com0od0religiousauthority0a0whatisauthority"htm

()" ())" %alal'ud'din, the son of aja anesh con!erted to Islam under the ressure of the nobles

((" ()(" It was %alal'ud'din 7(?( '(?MM:, the son of aja anesh con!erted to Islam, who used thekalima for the first time in *engal on his coinsA this was inter reted as a symbolic gesture directed towards the$uslims to gain their su ort"?D

(8" 3or .urks, moreo!er, ufi $ode"s of authority 'ere es+ecia""y i id , since +entral 4sian Sufishad been instrumental in con!erting .urkish tribes to Islam shortly before their migrations from +entral 4siainto Khurasan, 4fghanistan, and India"6 # India

(M" 5Ha!ing dislodged a Hindu dynasty in *engal, the earliest $uslim rulers made no attem t on theircoins to assert legitimate authority o!er their con1uered subjects, dis laying instead a show of coerci!e ower"6Eaton"

(?" Sidelines ortuguese merchants intruded themselves into the %a" of %engal, establishing trading stations in both #hittagong and &atgaon in the mid '()*s.

(9" %ut in %engal during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries + e ico &ilver , the well-documented influ of silver had no such inflationar" effect on consumer !rices.

(B" r Instead of resenting the shaikh as a holy warriorVat no oint in the narrati!e does heengage the Hindus of >andua in armed combatVthe text seeks to connect the diffusion of Islam with thediffusion of agrarian society" In this res ect, se!eral elements in the story are crucial 7(: the shaikhscharismatic authority and organi2ational ability, 78: the construction of the mos1ue, 7M: state su ort of theinstitution, 7?: the shaikhs initiati!e in settling forested lands transferred to the institution, and 79: thetransformation of formerly forested lands into wealth' roducing agrarian communities that would continue tosu ort the mos1ue" In this way, the oem sketches a model of atronageVa mos1ue linked economically withthe hinterland and olitically with the stateVthat was fundamental to the ex ansion of $uslim agrarianci!ili2ation throughout the delta" 7Eaton:"

(D" +ite Looking at %engal/s 0indu societ" as a whole, it seems likel" that the caste s"stem1far from being the ancient and unchanging essence of 2ndian civilization as su!!osed b" generations of 3rientalists 1emerged into something resembling its modern form onl" in the !eriod '4**5'(**. #entral to this !rocess, as 6onald 2nden has argued, was the colla!se of 0indu kingshi!. %efore the Turkish con7uest, the &ena king had

maintained order b" distributing wealth and b" 8udging between sociall" high and low in the conte t of hiscourt and its rituals. 9ith the dissolution of 0indu kingshi! that followed the Turkish con7uest, however, these functions a!!ear to have been dis!laced onto societ" at large. 0indu social order was now maintained b" the

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enforcing of grou! endogam", the regulation of marriage b" :caste councils, and the kee!ing of genealogiesb" s!ecialists.<

( " 5Fltimately, this arose from the long'term eastward mo!ement of *engals major ri!er systems,which de osited the rich silt that made the culti!ation of wet rice ossible"6

(P" 4s the deltas acti!e ortion gra!itated eastward, the regions in the west, which recei!eddiminishing le!els of fresh water and silt, gradually become moribund" +ities and habitations along the banks ofabandoned channels declined as diseases associated with stagnant waters took hold of local communities" .husthe delta as a whole ex erienced a gradual eastward mo!ement of ci!ili2ation as ioneers in the moreecologically acti!e regions cut !irgin forests, thereby throwing o en a widening 2one for field agriculture" 3romthe fifteenth century on, writes the geogra her " K" $ukerjee, 5man has carried on the work of reclamationhere, fighting with the jungle, the tiger, the wild buffalo, the ig, and the crocodile, until at the resent daynearly half of what was formerly an im enetrable forest has been con!erted into gardens of graceful alm andfields of wa!ing rice"7eaton:6 [3]

8)" $oreo!er, these grou s constituted the earliest'known class of *engali $uslims" 3ully fi!e ofthemVthe wea!ers, loom makers, tailors, wea!ers of thick ribbon, and dyersVwere linked to the growing

textile industry, and were robably recruited from amongst existing Hindu castes already engaged in thesetrades" 7eaton:"

8(" 9rote the ortuguese di!lomat 8ust cited= I saw one hundred and fifty cartloads of cooked rice,large 1uantities of bread, ra e, onions, bananas and other fruits of the earth" .here were fifty other carts filledwith boiled and roasted cows and shee as well as lenty of cooked fish" 4ll this was to be gi!en to the oor"4fter the food had been distributed, money was gi!en out, the whole to the !alue of six hundred thousand of ourtangas"-

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leading to the incorrect obser!ations from these writings of *rittlebank that .i us olitical control relied onsyncratic relationshi s between Islam and Hindus" < great $ichael:"B" Do$en were mechanisms that ke t the Indian kingdoms together" .hey 7 had monetary and

olitical worth # objects of ossession and not human beings: were traded, ut in harems, sold for animals"7 /ther who agree are Buc9"er :"D" Bri,ery If .i u ga!e a tribute to +ornwallis, who didnt acce t it, because this was seen as in

modern day cam ing gifts, or bribes, and would ha!e tied him olitical with .i u" +lose ties to subject and ruler # robes of honour" Kilhats, the !ow"

" She seeks legitimacy of her eers, but uses them instead of her own studies"P" .i u sent emissaries to /ttoman Sultan to ascertain ermission of Sunni orthodox"()" .i u tried to get away from Hindu culture and *ritlebank confuses Islamic with idolatry by sayingthat 5 his gold and sil!er coins he named which was included cali hs, saints and Imams" .his showed .i u hadno resonance with local knowledge, he mo!ed away from Hindu sysmbols and not a syncretic continuum ofhindu0Islam" 7 K* BD:"((" H/. 7*"8"M: *rittlebanks di!ulgence of .i us wakils 7 !akifs 4rabic arty 7*%>: south a court injunction to

re!ent the screening in India of a tele!ision serial entitled 5.he Sword of .i u Sultan"6 *ased u on a no!el ublished in the mid'se!enties, the rogramme contained material which, in the !olatile and deterioratingclimate of communal relations on the subcontinent, raised the ire of certain orthodox Hindues" .he com laintsargued that the series resented its central character # .i u Sultan of $ysore # sym athetically, as a G secularruler, rather than the fanatical $uslim ersecutor of Hindues they new him to be" .he case itself both generatedcontro!ersy 7 knowledges: and debate and was sym tomatic of a growing school of thought within India whichno longer regarded .i u as the great hero he had once been"88" .i u came to ower in the south Indian kingdom of $ysore in (D 8, following the death of hisfather Haidar G4li, who him self had sei2ed ower form the ruling Hindu ;odeyer &ynasty in the late (D9)s"

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His heroic status was the conse1uence of both his and his fathers !igorous o osition to the *ritish resence inthe region, with the antagonism between the two sides resulting in four 4nglo'$ysore wars" .he final war in(DPP, which was only a few months duration, ended with .u us death in $ay of that year as he fought todefend his ca ital Seringa atam"8M" .o the majority of the *ritish, the main rotagonist in his demise, .i u Sultan was tyrant and ausur er, an Islamic bigot who was well rid of, someone who for o!er sixteen years had been a thorn in their side

and constantly ercei!ed threat to their foothold in India, and who had ultimately reci itated his owndestruction by his im ortunate intriguing against them with the 3rench" .o the $uslims, u on his death heimmediately became a martyr 7 shah d:, who had fallen while resisting the infidels" ater this !iew becamemingled with nationalism and .i u took on the mantle of martyr to that cause as well, so that in >akistan, forexam le, he is articularly re!ered"8?" *urton Stein concentration of mainly state formation, all 7 others: been original attem ts at re'e!aluation of $ysore and its $uslim rulers, howe!er only stein em hasi2es the im ortance of context" .he mostnotable feature of all these abo!e works is the absence of any detailed discussion of issues relating to kingshiand ower and its matters such as these that the following analysis addresses"89" .i u claims to legitimacy were seen by some to be 1uestionableA in addition, he was the $uslimruler of a redominantly Hindu region and the ex ression of his rule reflected this fact"8B" In short the ruler had been seen to be ca able of ro!iding both eace and rotection in the realmAhe or she had to ha!e a regal aura of resence"8D" egitimacy 5Susan *ayly has examined in detail the de!elo ment and interaction of religioustraditions # Hindu, $uslim, +hristianVby drawing u on both written and oral texts" *oth works underline theclose relationshi between royal and sacred ritual as well as analy2ing strategies of subordination with thecultural en!ironment"8 " itual and symbolic rocesses in!ol!ed in the establishment assertion of legitimacy"8P" *uckler age D' "M)" How do rulers connect to the eo leNM(" #i+u u"tan s JifeM8" &oundation toneMM" $other 3atima *egum, second wife of Haider"M?" Na$ed .i u after Sufi saint .i u $astan 4uliya # whose tomb in 4rcot the ros ecti!e arentshad !isited to ray for the birth of a son":6M9"MB" $ysorean !iews of taking control # not usur ation Islam must rule" Cery sim le"*ritish and Hindu !iews Fsur ation" >ossibly there were mixed feeling from both cam s as this is just life ingeneral # eo le come to rule with their constructed birth ideologies 7 religious and faiths: confessing to this orthat but ragmatically the rule is a sign ost to glory, fame and self im ortance 7 souls stri!ing # inner feelings:"5 I can establish this or that-"it will be good for us and them-"7$%$:" (" 1 32 death of Krishna raja ;odeyar I" Jo adult a arenta" #i+u u"tan4 the eldest son of Haider ?"i , was born on &ecember (), (D9) at&e!anhalli"

b" 4 writer of (D )s described Haiders military genius as com aring him o hingi2Khan, .imur and Jadir Shah" His battle worthiness brought him recognition and to the attention of NanFaraFa "He made Haider a 3aujd r of &indigul, res onsible fro acifying the refectory oligars 7 chieftains res onsiblefor law and order and re!enue collection: of the region"c" His first days as a new small time chieftain saw his son, .i u, and family hold uas risoners at eringa+ata$ " *y %uly (DB( he regain custody of his family and land"d" Katar told Haider 5 i!e me my own lands for my own subsistence rated at twolakhs of agodas 7 er annum: and you are welcome to the rest"6 So Haider ga!e him his re1uest most ossiblyto get his family out of danger" .he $ysore Kater had total control o!er the noble family line of rulers the;odeyar, which determined the line of succession"e" Significant in the consolidation of Haiders ower was his ca ture in early (DBM of*enur, which had been the seat of the Ikkeri rulers since (BMP" .his wealthy city had benefited from its locationat the con!ergence of the many trade routs assing from $angalore to the ghats"f" ight from his early years he was trained in the art of warfare and at the age of (9he used to accom any his father Haider 4li, the ruler of $ysore, to different military cam aigns"g" Haider issued coins, always a symbol of so!ereignty by way of disbursingknowledges" His father also set about raising his son to become a good leader and an intelligent man" 5a ointing a suitable hand of attendants to wait u on him and em loying learning tutor to carry on hiseducation"6

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h" Haider said about his future sons osition 5 if the wheel of fortune should turnabout, and he should ha!e owers against him, with whom he could not contend in the field"6i" Education is just an im ortant as a military training to his father"

j" /ne *ritish clerk from the East Indian +om any in $adras 7 $r" Stuart:wandered into Ji2am, taken risoner and forced to lead a $ysore army, but esca ed by subterfuge a few monthslater" Haider was cited as saying 5 ne!er doubted the soldiershi of a man who wore a Hatt"6 Haiders faith in

*ritish and 3rench militaryshi came from obser!ations of cam aigns in the +arnatic" He was said to ha!eem loyed 3rench engineers as early as (D99 to assist in the organi2ation of his artillery and arsenal"k" Haider died in his sixties 7 some say at B): from a carbuncle, during the second4nglo'$ysore war" His father maintained tight control of his domains and ne!er allowed a *ritish resident to bemaintained at his court 7 no ambassadors:" He was sus icious of foreigners, both Euro ean and Indian 7 ossibly

because of s ies:"l" (DB)s Haider engaged the $arathas and *ritish" It was during the first 4nglo'$ysore war in (DBD, at the age of se!enteen, that #i+u was gi!en his first command, nder his eye of his militaryinstructor ha2i Khan"m" .i u became an able military fighter with successful cam aigns against the$arathas in (DDM'? and achi!ed notable !ictories o!er the *ritish during the second 4nglo'$ysorean war, bothat >ollilur near +onjee!eram in (D ) and at Kumbakonam in .anjore in (D 8"n" .he *ritish saw Haider as a usur er, and his sons succession as smooth" .his is in

art the feelings of the Hindus who didnt like the exclusi!e olitics of the Islamic o!erlord olicies" .his was a!iew of state affairs and not what was going on from the ers ecti!e of the $ysorean Islamic mo!ement" .heysaw this as natural to the rule of 4llah" $uslims must rule the world" It is that sim le"o" .o form legitimacy olitical marriage of .i u bound by two dis uted marriages,ending u marrying both and on the same night" &id this ha en in +hristianityN $uslims are allowed u to fourwi!es and many concubines, i"e" sla!es"

" .he urchase of sla!es continued in Istanbul and eorgia, within the /ttoman3ramework 7 they ruled as the second wa!e in history of the large encom assing Islamic states # the firstFmayyad c"D9) and 4bbasid c" (89) as seen as the entire first wa!e:"1" Haider maintained a 2an na, in /ttoman the more o ular term a harem 7full ofwomen for leasure:" .hese were high'caste Hindus, but some were women from the sla!e urchases from the/ttoman Em ire, as well as daughters of $uslim olitical as irates" i!ing a gift of a daughter was seen as asymbol of a $uslim rulers legitimacy" .hese were $uslim girls from 4rcot, .anjore, Hyderabad, urramkondaand other laces"r" (D ? .i u Sultan is enthroned as the ruler of $ysore in a sim le ceremony at*ednur on ?th $ay"s" His rule is said to ha!e two hases" 3irst was the signing in $arch (D ? the .reatyof $angalore"t" (DP8 Signing of the $angalore .reaty" 7 Ja oleon in the 4rmy Euro e:"u" .i u fought battles with other chieftains and accused them of cons iracy most

ossibly as an excuse to secure his lands" $ost of the time, .i u s ent time naming his lands, and reconfiguringthe Hindu realms under his control to Islamic !ibes" .his was his constituency, who ha!e 9no'"edges fa$i"iarto Is"a$ in 'hich to fee" co$forta,"e in the ,ody "

#i+u changes socia" and +hysica" infrastructure to Is"a$ic traditions "

7(: Introduction of new calendar, by .i u, the Islamic calendar which creates new knowledges affecting the*ody as holidays affect the body in rituals of the *ody in Islam such as fasting and eating" /ne can feel theim act on the Hindus who didnt follow the body rituals of Islam"78: 3ounded mints, under took new building rojects 7 Islamic ones: and became in!ol!ed in commercial affairsof India"7M: In1 , the &utch sold the ajas two key fortresses of 4yicotta and +ranganur" /n to of this, amaCarma, of the raja of .ra!ancore, ordered military defenses on dis uted lines between $ysore and .ra!ancore #

both claiming they were gi!en these areas" .his caused tension" ama challenged .i u, of whom ama was anally of the *ritish" .he .ra!ancore had sought to ally themsel!es with the *ritish against the Islamist ruler" .heyhid them at +hirakkal, +alicut and Kadattanad" .i u wished that these laces too would be gi!en to him7 returned because of original usur ationN : "7?: .i u fights $arathas in the Jorthern bords and defeates them late ( DB to (D D" He then dis atchesembassies internationally to the /ttomans, his friends, and to the 3rench who are com eting for trade in India"He dis atches embassies to Sultan 4bdul Hamid I in Istanbul and ouis \CI of 3rance" He recei!ed the/ttoman blessing with allowance to use the title of +ali h 7 %anuary (DP):"

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79: .he .ra!ancore lines in &ecember (D P began to see .i us forces arri!ing in which at the end of themonth skirmishes broke out and .i us forces suffered casualties" 3rom then until 4 ril the next year .i uattem ted in !ain to negotiate with the aja, the *ritish acting as mediators" ;e can almost hear the discussions,about Islam differences in faiths, beliefs and knowledges of the body com ared to Islam" .he land was not indis ute, but the body was # how was the body incor orated into the geogra hy, controlled by juridical owerand disci linary knowledges"

7B: 4fter Jegotiations broke down, .i u launched a cannonade at the lines and the rajas fled, which enacted*ritish o!ernor' eneral, ord +ornwallis who reacted in beginning a third 4nglo'$ysore war" .i u ambitionsfor a Islamic G growing state demonstrated the hold onto the as ects of how the body must ros er on the

hysical earth"7D: ater that year +ornwallis signed treaties, for consolidation with >eshwa, the Ji2am, the *ib of +annanore,the ajas of +oorg and +ochin, and se!eral other $alabar chiefs" .he negotiations rested on the consolidationof the ani akshmi 4mmanni , seen by the *ritish as the restoration form the usur ing Haider"7 : .hese wars are e!idence that Islamic o!erlordshi did not fit the rece ts of the body" Hidus ha!e differentrituals then $uslims and a different understanding of how the body works in society" .hese wars show that thiswas the main cause and not for land or trade re!enue" .he argument escalated to the foreigners who came intoIndia initially looking for ways to better their bodies" S ices was one way the enaissance ha ened" >eo leli!ed longer because food storage life and and reser!ati!es in the s ices hel condition the body to li!e longer".hus the state became in!ol!ed in trader initially to make the body last longer" .his also meant warring o!erother knowledges as to how the body gets its ur ose"7P: In Jo!ember .i u in!aded +arnic and achie!ed se!eral !ictories but his forces suffered defeats in $alabarwhich established *ritish su remacy in that area" .his re!ersal of fortunes continued into the following year In3ebruary +onrnwallis entered $y sore and in $arch ca tured the fort of Jabgalor, in 4 ril the fort of &harwarsurrendered to the $arathas after se!eral months siege, and by $ay the o!ernor' eneral was within a fewmiles of Seringa atam" *y this time his army was in oor condition, as the result of the weather, lack of foodand an outbreak of small ox, and unsure of the whereabouts of his allies, he decided to return to *angalore" In3ebruary (DP8, after the ca ture of se!eral $ysore forts, the allies returned and launched an attack on theca ital" /n the twenty'fourth of that month, with the enemy at the walls of the fort and facing o!erwhelmingodds, .i u entered into negotiations for eace" .here negotiations culminated in the signing of the treaty of

eringa+ata$ on ( $arch"7(): .he treaty for .i u was humiliating and caused him to cede half territory of his kingdom" .he*rtish were rewarded the districts of *aramahal and dindigal, the whole of +oorg and a large art of $alabarcoast, including orts of +alicut and +annanore" $aratha territory now extended to the ri!er Krishna and the

Ji2am a1uired +umbum, +udda ah, ganjikota and the area between the lower tungabhadra ri!er and theKrishna" .i u also had to ay an indemnity" 4lso, the hardest of the clauses of the treaty were the hando!ers oftwo young sons" 4bdul Khali1, age eight, and $ui2uddin, age fi!e" 4ccom anied by their fathers negotiatorsthe boys were deli!ered u to +ornwallis" It would be two years until they returned"7((: .he whole saga had a significant affect on .i u" 4ccording to Kirmani, he abandoned his bed,slee ing only on khadi, as some kind of !ow or enance" ;hether this is true or not it is ex ressi!e of the stateof mind which seems to ha!e o!ercome him" 4s a $uslim he would ha!e seen the hand of od at work in hisdefeat and it must ha!e occurred to him that his misfortunes may in fact ha!e been some form of di!ineretribution "7(8: He began to refer to his domains as Sarkar'I Khud dd , or od'gi!en realm, and his thoughtsturned to %ihad" In (DPM he ordered the com osition, by one of his leading courtiers, Lein ul'4bidin Shastari, ofthe u/a""id ul u8ahidin , a collection of Khutbas in !erse dealing with the benefits of %ihad, Gilm7 knowledge: and rayer, and the Lad ul'$ujahidin, a treaties of the duties of $uslims, again with s ecialreferences to holy war against infidels, the author of the latter work being the Qa2i of Seringa anan, hulam4hmad"

%os =o$$ans

K If they granted $ansa,dars the ;$+ire 'ou"d ha e fa""en $uch ear"ier L (=o$$ans 2) K easant re o"ts in "ate 1 th and ear"y 18 th century ,ecause of the asserti eness of 7a$indars ,eca$e"ess concerned 'ith $eritocratic and i$+eria" ser iceL M didn t ,ode 'e"" (" %amindar, ommansa" 5Lamindars were strongly rooted in local Indian society"6 5Hence, his readiness for distant im erial ser!icewas much more limited"6

b" House hold were a major building blocks of the military" 4 art from military retainers, ones extended familyconsisted of numerous ersonal and ser!ants and friends, either near home of s read out all o!er the country"

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.hese were networks of atronage, and the key significance to how the Indian society worked with all religionsin!ol!ed"c" E!en the military retainers were loyal to some household' to the one 5 whose salt they ate"68" $ugh ls ho ed that 2amindars would become mansabdars"a" a$indars re!olts became more fre1uent in the northern regions during the (D th century"

b" 5;itness a growing asserti!eness on art of the Lamindars"6

c" &issatisfaction with demands on the agrarian resources by the im erial forces"d" $urshid Quili Khan and other Lamindars that consolidated ower made it harder for the im erialmansabdaris to enforce tax re!enue from their land" .hey armed their easants as discussed"e" .he collections could not be assessed correctly, .his lead to war"f" (Dth century was a watershed eriod of the shifting ower from the mansabdar dominance to the Lamindardominance"g" Hand guns make their resence now"h" 4bul 3a2l states that what is needed is a 5 rinci le of harmony"6M"Ho' to turn s$a"" 'ar ,ands that conartly financed by cash thought the im erial treasury, but mainly by assignments of jagirs " .he Indian!ersion of i1ta"i" 5$ansabdars re resented not only the military elite but also re resented the ruling class of the em ire atlarge"6

j".hey re1uired military ex ertise, administrati!e and economic ex ertise"k" $ansabdar needed an extended network of atronage and court connections"l" .ar9et co$+etition "ed the 'ay for a++oint$ents ;ho would take the least money and manage the largestland assessment"m" If this was the /ttoman system, then none of this a lies, because it was a sla!e military system and ne!er a

bidding system"n" $oney was the entire $ugh ls system" .he $ore money the more mansabdars and larger the armiesem loyed" ;hen the Lamadars consolidated they then had new monetary le!erage against the mansabdars" .hisseems to be the entire case" 4 military for hire, and a way to make a good li!ing"o" $ilitary marketing"9" ?urnag7e, s +eriod sa' atan-Fagirs for$ , and mansabdars mold into a ty e of Lamindar"a" .herefore the entire fight hinged u on this shift"

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b" .he effects and significance was who could be the to 2amindar ower"c" .his then led to the chiefdoms and the decentrali2ation thought the many wars"B" *ritish used first $ugh ls knowledge as C ? Bay"y states then mo!ed away when they found out that thisknowledge didnt work and that 2amindars were leading the o ular knowledge of what worked best"a" Lamindars contributed to higher rates of loyalty and steadfastness, im licated by the higher rices aid andthe dwindling of resources for aying the $ansabdars"

b";e see an inflation of the mansabdars in relation to the 2amiondars as gommans oints out"c"5 the Mugh ls were adverse to granting them long term service "6d" Here, ommans uses 53rancios *ernier, modern historians ha!e ointed out that the short'term commitmentof the mansabdar to his jagir stimulated rack'renting and the abuse of the easant o ulation of the jagirs"6 Jotethis was not the roblem in general to the /ttomans who were not reliant on ay from the timars, as ommanswrongly cited 7see abo!e:"e"5 *ut are the $ugh ls to be blamedN If they had granted the mansabdars more ermanent rights in their jagirs,the em ire would ha!e fallen a art much earlier6 7 ommans P8:"f" emember the abo!e statement doesnt a ly to the ottomans as their system was a sla!e based system andthe $ugh ls didnt use a sla!e based system"

" .he $ugh ls attem ted to co'o t the 2amindars into the mansabdari systems"P" $ugh l system was to ado t all religious affiliations into the military system, exce t 4urang2eb"

()" .i"itarya" $ore exciting to join the military then in central 4sia"

b";hyN $ore monetary incenti!es"c" .he difference was only the degree"d" >olitical rank ne!er colla ses on one another, indicating no racism and e!eryone got along" E!erything wasmonetary in!ol!ed" 4ccording to ommans this e!en crossed the line of atronage households"e" $ugh ls didnt recruit all the different religious or ethnicities into the military to show management ofdi!ide and con1uer, but their willingness to kee em loyment in the Indian country instead of relying onem loyment form outside India, and claiming that Indian military is far su erior as well"f" .i"itary $ar9et was di!erse 5com rising of ethnic and caste grou s of which the .uranis, Iranis, 4fghans,

aj uts and $arathas were the most significant"6g" a$indars were well armed had lots of monetary a!enues to build military careers for their rotection" 54lmost e!ery Indian 7including all easants, and middle class: had some kind of ex erience with arms and

combat"6h" 4ccording to 4bul 3a2l, there were more than ?"? million 1ualified military man in the $ugh ls state .hesefigures are su osed to re resent local militia and not military troo s" i" 5/b!iously, the $ugh ls couldnt come anywhere near to engaging, weather directly or indirectly, suchmasses of armed eo le 6"

((" ?urang7e,a" 54urang2eb himself considered the .uranis su erior to the aj uts"6

b" .uranis disci line com ared to raj ut bra!ery"c" aj uts fought to the death e!en in a losing battle, and 4kbar noted that he wants to sa!e his men" So if thearmy is losing just retreat knowing that there will be another day to fight" It is ossible that 4kbar icked u this

olicy after recei!ing knowledges from Iran of .amas I successful tactics against SZleyman 5the $agnificent"6.his was a successful lan that also sa!ed many men on both sides of the battlefield"d" 5Shah .amas of Iran had ad!ised Humayun to recruit aj uts instead of 4fghan because he would ne!er

be able to win the latters friendshi "6 7 Jote Sunni and Shii differences in these relationshi s:

(8" Interested in war bands, geogra hy and economy" He is not interested in the religious as ects as much in hiswritings"(M" ;ork ommans, %os Mughul Warfare , ;arfare and History" India 3rontiers and High roads to Em ire(9))'(D))" outledge 8P west M9th Street, Jew ork" J ()))(" 8))8"(?" 4ccording to %os ossmans, ;hat was the downfall of the $ugh lsN Subject is $ansabdars !s"Lamindars" Lamin0land dar0 holders # >ersian"(9" Irana"+onfronted the $ugh ls although they fount on babur and Humayuans side again the F2bek and 4fghan7Sunni: wars"

(B" .arathas4 or desh$u9hsa" &ry sa!annah of the deccan lateau

(D" *ecruit$ent of the !eccan

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a" 3irst $ugh l 5success hinged u on their ca acity to entice the &eccani warlaords away from their 4dilshahi7*ija ur: and Qutbshahi 7 olkonda: atrons6

b" Entice byu cash and jagirs 7 jadindars:"c" &utch East Indian +om any introduced erman order and disci line"d" B) $uslim &eccan warlords, and about ()) $aratha chiefs, who were the core of the *ija uri forces, mainlyin the lower ranks of the mansabdari system"

( " *ritish find >adshah, adishad 7 i indicting followers of:" .he ruler < stabili2er= of the world"(P" Shahansshahi the Islamic counter art in the almost e1ually uni!ersal +ali hate 7 *y now the +ali h titlewas loosely used by $uslim rulers of different ethnicities:"8)" 5Sultanates of the &eccan, time and again, turned o enly towards Shiism and acknowledged Safa!idsu2erainty 7 % 8(:" .his included the $ogh ls"8(" Nuc"ear (+o"itico-socio-eco) 7ones88" (9(B $ugh ls started their raids into Hindustan 7 *engal is in this area:"8M" $ughla legitimacy ranged form controlling the inner and outer 2ones of ower"8?" #hey contro""ed si $aFor centra"i7ing 7ones "89" 3rom Kubal to ajmahal, the &eccan, $awla in the south < eastern and western hats=" +ontrolled the tradecrossroads"8B" &eccan tended to go towards the southeast" 4rmy bulk congregated here"8D" &elhi'4gra region is a crossroads"8 " I$+ortant +orts were ajmahal and *engali" Jortheastern was gi!en freer reign or autonomy becausemilitary could not li!e and function there"8P" Eastern mo!ement of main *engal ri!es hel ed the $ugh ls to get closer to *engal" .hey had interest ingrain industries to feed army and make money" $o!ed ca ital to &haka in (B()" ajmahal resting lace forarmy"M)" rienta"is$/M(" .he $ugh ls tragicall" failed

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?D"Ideali2ed and analy2ed old Sanskrit texts, for instant analy2ed by 3rancis Limmermann ha!e /rientalistcharacters of geogra hy of indigenous eo le li!ing in India in which made a subjugated knowledge from thenormati!e treaties that drew clear cult distinctions between marshy eastern lands and western arid lands" 5.heeastern ones being fat, round and susce tible to disorders of the hlegm, the western ones being thin, dry and ofa bilious tem erament6 7 % (M:" In a way these descri tions seem not that much difference from the later, racistdescri tions of the *ritish sur!eyors selecting the so'called martial tribes of India 7 3or the military:"

? " 4lexander !on Humboldt certain egotism of self'culture" Sent out by the &utch East India +om any to findthe Jortheast >assage"?P" Jote that the 2amandiris became owerful and the $ughuls e!entually lost control of them as they begin to

back the $arathas, which begin to start winning wars against the $ugh ls 7mjm:"9)" End of (D th century the $arathas begin to start winning wars against the $ughuls"9(" .ansa,s/ .ansa,ars98" book rinci le is laid out in dichotomy"9M" .hesis of first cha ter is warfare cannot be studied without understanding the geogra hy of India"

9?" ?rid 7ones take recedence o!er $onsoon 7 non'arid: 2onesA east west dichotomy in Indias monsoonclimate #west a roximately B) in" er year # east a roximately ) in er year and u to (8) inches in thefoothills and mountains"99" .i"itary "a,or $ar9et em loys thousands of farmer0 easant soldiers each year and is one of the mostsalient features of military life in northern India and should be closely linked to s ecific conditions of Indiasdry land" .he crucial oint in that the organi2ation of military labor tended to be different in both 2ones" In thenon'4rid regions, the military recruits were more hard to control, but had more ex ertise and s ecial talents ofwarfare tactics, as com ared to the 4rid 2ones" In the arid 2ones military tended to be seasonal, or art time andthus less s eciali2ed" .he arid tracts were ideal areas for irregulars, as easily gathered and dissol!ed 7 Jot yearly

ayments adjustments:" *y contrast in areas that military ser!ice tended to be year round 7 full time: the easants tended to be rofessional warriors"9B"*ritish made /rientalist commentary toward the differentiations of both 2ones eo le, calling them so'calledmartial tribes of India"9D".hesis in ch" ( It is my contention that this conce t, of lateral lines of communications radiating outwards, isalso rele!ant for understanding the rocess of im erial ex ansion under the $ughuls" Es ecially during theearly years when the $ughuls came down to road building"9 " .he more central administration in!ests in the area, for exam le for defense or control, the more its liability

to become to 'hea!y, to break away and to start a new center of its own"9P" 4ccording to early Indian texts, more of less confirmed by contem orary accounts of +hinese ilgrims, thesub'continent consisted of fi!e regions $adhyadesha or the $iddle +ountry, Fttara atha or Jorthern India,>racya or eastern India or Eastern India, &aksina atha or Sourthern India and 4 aranta or ;estern India" Herewe ha!e the unusual number of fi!e relating to four wind directions emanating from a center" Interestingly, twoof these Sanskrit names literally refer to the meaning of road or atha, hence Fttara atha becomes northern roadand &akshina atha becomes southern road"B)" 4s a result the rocess of state formation in India in!ol!ed the command o!er both the inner frontier and thelimits" In more ractical terms, for the $ughuls this im erati!e came down to the control of fi!e or six nuclear2ones of ower which e itomi2es this combination of agrarian sur lus, extensi!e marchland and long'distanttrade routs"B(" +ontrol the corn routs 7 all grains in this context of India: " .he !ital east'west connections 7 roads: createdcommercial and astoralist crossroads, which the $ugh ls, like any olitical ower of the interior, needed to

control"B8"BM" It was this east'west connections that the $arathas emerged as the rime ri!al of $ugh l ower in theregion"B?" Strong warhorses which made the control of Kabul so crucial to the $oghuls" Kabul ser!ed as the hub ofIndias trade with +entral 4sia and , to a lesser extent, with Iran as well"B9" *engal was hard to kee under control because of the extensi!e tributaries and the climate was injurious tohorses" 4kbar e!en doubled the allowances of the nobles stationed in *engal"BB" $ugh ls succeeded artly because the main ri!er courses had gradually shifted eastward, which enabledthem to remo!e their ca ital from ajmahal to &haka in (B()"BD"$ugh ls begin to lose to the $arakas about the end of the (Dth +entury 7(BP)s:"B " $ugh ls didnt a ease the Lamindaris and they became rich and ower full, when in *engal after$urshid Quli showed u at the behest of 4urang2ab"

BP"*aF+uts were not likened because they would fight to the death e!en in losing battles and the $ugh lsdidnt like losing their men in battle 'e!en when they knew they would lose" .he $ugh ls wanted retreaters

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instead of martyrs" # it would be more ermissible for the aj uts, according to the $ughuls if they wouldreturn and retreat in case things became hard on the battlefield and it a eared they would start to lose"D)" $ugh ls were com osed of a whole bunch of ahsham all sorts of rag'tag foot' retainers 7 iyadagan:aul oalen, Head of History Homerton +ollege, +ambridge" 5India, 3rom $ugh l em ire to *ritish aj6"M" 4bul 3a2l, who wrote the story of 4kbars life"?" 54fter *arburs death in (9M), his soun Humayun became Em eror" Humayun ruled until he died in a falldown his library stairs in (99B" His son 4kbar became the Jew $ugh l em eror, aged only (M"6 5 ;hat sort of

erson was the young 4kbarN69" 4 Cictory tower made out of the enemies heads"6 >ainted in about (9P)" this was a custom of the earlier$ugh l em erors" ;hat effect do you think a tower life this would ha!e on eo leNB" 5Hemus < Hindi general= body was brought before 4kbar and was beheaded" His head was sent to Kabuland his body was sent to &elhi to be laced on a gibbet as a warning to others" .hose who had su orted Hemuwere killed and thjeir heads were made into a !ictory tower"6

D" 54kbar ne!er learned to read or writeeasants are first beaten without mercy andmaltreated and then sold in the ublic market lace as sla!es" .hey are carried off, attached to hea!y iron chains,

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to !arious markets and fairs, which their oor unha y wi!es behind them carrying their small children in theirarms, all crying and lamenting their e!il light"6(D" In this icture oalan resents Indians as weak and submissi!e who took beatings and were sla!es" 5 these

oor eo le < Indians = ha!e their sur lus < s are money and cro s= confiscated and their children carried awayas sla!es" ress (PPD"+o yright >aul abinow" ` htt 00foucault"info0foucault0inter!iew"html 8))9 :

?ndre Din9

(" Be"ie es $u"ti so ereignty is +ossi,"e8" Oa9if4 ,ig issue 'ith hi$M"Power/sovereignty is by fitna ( sedition). Management through conflict.?"They are not strong on their own, but co shares of the realm ! this goeswith "tein and #rittleban$s of a ty%e of syncretic relationshi%. &atonsays the 'indus and Muslims lived side by side but never mi ed theirfaiths, but were always in com%etition.9" ambition is to become stronger by encroaching u%on each other ( in$*+ ) meaning a syncretic inter consecutiveness.B" -on uest almost always %assed 01 always through a dual government.D" "overeignty was de%endant u%on fitna (2 * +).

" 5It was always incor oration of disorder

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(9" &ifferent !iew from +alkin in that 4 so!ereign, of a otential so!ereign, to be successful in con1uests, firsthad to entrench himself within the structure of 2amindari and other hereditary rights such as are called !atan inthe &eccan"(B" In differentiation, the argument of +alkin is that one needs to torture or beaten into submission the2amindars to force them to com ly, whereas ;ink belie!es that the coo eration of the gentry was needed alongwith 3itna by inter!ention in the conflicti!e structure of !ested rights essential in state'ex ansion to access the

agrarian resource base without which no state could sur!i!e" ;ithout it not e!en an army could maintain itself".hus 3itna and generali2ed taxation were the conditions of so!ereignty in India, and the two are related in sucha way that urely technical arameters in!ol!ed in a land're!enue settlement cannot account for the working ofthe fiscal system" .his is because the fiscal system is intimately bound u with the !ested rights of the2amindars" .his is a tough conce t to understand, howe!er, this is where scholarshi , as ;ink oints out, isdifficult to recogni2e if we limit oursel!es"(D" .hus the (Pth +entury *ritish re orts suffer from a centralist oint of !iew in all as ects co!ered, indicatingthat they could not get to the real understanding of the system # thus generating artificial !iews # like in realitycon1uest is G drawing 2amindars" 4s it is ut by the jnR atra 7MM'/din:, the $artha treaties on olitics whichwas written in the wake of the $ughul in!asions".he story is that hereditary rights caused massi!e dis utes and unstablility, and was in o osition westernunderstanding of ri!ate ro erty that created this confusion"(: =o ern$enta:Lamindars, !atan in the deccan" 7Carious names:i: Inheritance of joint family asset" $ale members had birthright to ro erty"ii: Catans, 2amindars, and chiefdoms of the co'shares of the realm were held by !ested right and descended in

atrilineal inheritance6" < !atrilineal elating to, based on, or tracing ancestral descent through the aternal line= b: .ansa,dari: Jo ownershi at all" .his is a $uslim sur!eillance system where the king is allowed (0M roceeds of annualeconomic out ut, and collection of re!enue is accom lished either by tax farming or direct ayment annually"c:.he interest of the !atandars do not Gcoincide with that of the so!ereign6 +f" .hom son, 2ndian rinces "

d: Hereditary rights in Islam was only for the Sultan as defined in the shariah,and the only ro erty ri!atelyallowed to exists according to the shariah was endowments, as art of the six illars of Islam, or things a$uslim must com lete in his life on earth" .his was of utmost im ortance" .he Hindu traditions of common'community bloodline hereditary rights conflicted with these notions"

e:Lamindars are either loyal subjects to the king and loyal co'shares of the real or they culti!ate an o osition tothe ruler"f: 5Sto ing the !atandars can be dangerousA at the same time, allowing them com lete freedom ofmo!ement will make manifest their eculiar nature6 5 these two extremes the king has to a!oid"6 5 the rightway to assure their loyalty is to kee them ositi!ely G in between friendshi and su ression"6g: $ugh ls could ask for tribute or a land'assessment" +ustomary ractice was allowed by the $ugh lssometimes"

8: Con

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xii: /ther times easants formed unions with the leader of the !atandars, mansabdar or 2amindar and left theloyalty of the central ower, as was the case with the $arathas and Shi!aji lans" .his bought on 4rung2ebsdiscontinuance to make annual sur!eys of India and concentrate on battling the deserters"xiii: ayats 7 easants or eo le li!ing in a district:

M: Chiefdo$sa: *reakdown of system

b: &ecentrali2ation and com etition in which war breaks out that creates confusion and fragmentation"

?:In India4 a ho"der or occu+ier (dar) on "and ( a$in) .he roots were >ersian, and the resulting name waswidely used where!er >ersian Influence was s read by the $ugh ls or other Indian $uslim dynasties" .he$eaning attached to it were !arious" In *engal the word denoted a hereditary tax collector who could retain ()

ercent of the re!enue he collected" .he $ugh ls used the mansabdar system to generate land re!enue" .he em eror would grant re!enue rights to amansabdar in exchange for romises of soldiers in war'time" .he greater the si2e of the land the em erorgranted, the greater number of soldiers the mansabdar had to romise" .he mansab was both re!ocable andnonhereditary"

&id the mansabars begin to control themsel!es, and if so whenN

a$indars bloodline, and hereditary, according to subjected romotion disimilar in time and eriod" .heycontrol the easant army, and had funds to arm them" .his was key in *engal as the tributaries, and seasons andclimate made it hard for the $ugh ls to kee a mandanar or the im erial army entrenched with control in thearea" 5 In reality con1uest in drawing 2amindars6"53itna and generali2ed taxation were the foundations of so!ereignty in India, and the two are related in such away that urely technical arameters in!ol!ed in a land're!enue settlement cannot account for the working ofthe fiscal system"6 >eo le fount against the mansabaris when they cam to collect the taxes andLamindars called !atan in the deccan"Lamindars in *engal were E istemic 7adj: con1uest"/f, relating to, or in!ol!ing knowledgeA cogniti!e"

elying on or deri!ed from obser!ation or ex eriment" being conscious intellectual acti!ity 7as thinking, reasoning, remembering, imagining, or learning words:"

hi"i+ B Ca"9in(" Murshid Quili Khan 1700 d. 1727 sent by Aurangzeb to garner funds for wars withcollecting taxes in Bengal.8" 5.he cou of (DMP was brought about because the interests of the principal landholders , bankers, and many

military men coincided"6 7>hili *" +alkin, uling grou in *engal:"M" ;ork +alkins, >hili *" .he 3ormation of a egionally /riented uling grou in *engal, (D))'(D?)"?" Marathas and later a!uts" #hi$s.9" Q. Khan enforces torture if the za%andars do not &ay u& or lie about re'enue. (hentries to ta$e o'er as Muhgals lose &ower by se&arate legal syste%" %oneylenders"ban$s" lenders consolidation of za%indars into his &oc$et. (hen later a cou& and all ca%etogether as so'ereigns ) until the British began to destroy the syste% *+0,-. B" $urshid Quli showed u at the behest of 4urang2ab to enforce a new tax u on *engal to hel offset the$ughul war chest needs" .ax issues were a major issue in regards to holding so!ereignty 7mjm:"D"

" But when /a%indars were not changing hands accounting beca%e difficult and this%eant less $nowledges.P" #u%%ery of his ) ro'incial syste% * Bengal- did not bring chaos" decadence" ore'en" &erha&s" a decline in ad%inistrati'e efficiency * +0,-.

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()" 4urang2abs oint of !iew was that taxes needed tobe raised" .hen the $arathas came and a need for taxesfor an army to confront the $arathas led to him sending -" .o *engal" *engal was an area that had greatagriculture re!enue, that was left unnoticed by other rulers, and 4urang2ab thusly ex loited it"(("5 4s the im erial go!ernment at the center of the em ire weakened during the eighteenth century, theadministration system of *engal was ada ted 7 large commercial and financial interests: , with reasonablesuccess, to account for the changing ower relationshi s6"

(8"4urang2ab sent $urshid Quli to *engal around (D)), and from the date of his arri!al until his death in (D8D,with the exce tion of a eriod of two years, he was the most im ortant administrator in *engal"(M" $urshid Quli inhanced re!enue demand, sometimes with tourter, and gi!ing away land from one 2amindarto another for unishment" *y the time of his death in (D8D, fifteen largest amanindaris were res onsible foralmost half of the re!enue of the ro!ince" $ost 2amindar holders who couldnt ay'off the ele!ated tax losttheir rights to other 2amindar that could ay'off that ersons tax ayments" .his meant that originally when Qulia eared, many held landed rights, and much more di!ersified e1ual economy was in rogress # as heconsolidated most of the landed rights by his olicies, the accountability suffered in that less information wascorrectly gathered by the tax collectors, and lost re!enue was actually the o osite of what was the desiredresult of his olicies" .hus, by the time of his death the 2amindars held a ower olitical force throughout*engal" .his was cou led by money lenders whose schemes of lending significant amounts of mo