History of History of AnthropologyAnthropology

Brief Introduction to Brief Introduction to Significant Theorists and Significant Theorists and

IdeasIdeas

Origins of AnthropologyOrigins of Anthropology

► Varying theories on when the discipline beganVarying theories on when the discipline began►Differing views on whether it is a natural Differing views on whether it is a natural

science or a humanities subjectscience or a humanities subject► Today is clearly considered a social science, Today is clearly considered a social science,

and many aspects cross over into other social and many aspects cross over into other social science disciplines, such as psychology, science disciplines, such as psychology, history, sociology, philosophy, etc.history, sociology, philosophy, etc.

► Elements of early origins trace back as far as Elements of early origins trace back as far as the Greeks in 5 BCEthe Greeks in 5 BCE

►Missionaries, explorers, and philosophers all Missionaries, explorers, and philosophers all contributed to the early disciplinecontributed to the early discipline

Early PerspectivesEarly Perspectives► 19th C. (Victorian age) idea of social 19th C. (Victorian age) idea of social

evolutionevolution Belief that all human societies develop in one Belief that all human societies develop in one

particular direction (from savage to civilized)particular direction (from savage to civilized) European societies were believed to embody European societies were believed to embody

“civilized” (according to Europeans, of course!)“civilized” (according to Europeans, of course!)

► Technological advances of the Industrial Technological advances of the Industrial Revolution and the spread of European Revolution and the spread of European colonialism contributed to this beliefcolonialism contributed to this belief Europeans believed that “white man’s burden” Europeans believed that “white man’s burden”

was to “civilize the savages” through was to “civilize the savages” through colonialism and missionary workcolonialism and missionary work

Cultural Evolutionists:Cultural Evolutionists: Henry Maine of Britain Henry Maine of Britain

► Britain: Henry Maine (1822-1888)Britain: Henry Maine (1822-1888) Made distinction between status and Made distinction between status and

contract societiescontract societies Status societies are based on kinship and Status societies are based on kinship and

myth as operating principlesmyth as operating principles Contract societies are based on individual Contract societies are based on individual

merit and achievementmerit and achievement Idea corresponds with later, modern Idea corresponds with later, modern

theoriestheories Overly simplistic, but still has an impact on Overly simplistic, but still has an impact on

anthropological thinking todayanthropological thinking today

Cultural Evolutionists:Cultural Evolutionists:Lewis Henry MorganLewis Henry Morgan

► America: Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-82)America: Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-82) Published the first ethnography of the Published the first ethnography of the

IroquoisIroquois Outlined an evolutionary scheme that Outlined an evolutionary scheme that

traced seven stages of societies from traced seven stages of societies from savage to civilizedsavage to civilized

Each of the stages was connected to Each of the stages was connected to technological achievementtechnological achievement

Also focused heavily on kinship systemsAlso focused heavily on kinship systems His work influenced later philosophers and His work influenced later philosophers and

social scientists, such as Marx and Engelssocial scientists, such as Marx and Engels

Cultural Evolutionists:Cultural Evolutionists:Edward Tylor and James FrazerEdward Tylor and James Frazer

► Tylor (1832-1917) teacherTylor (1832-1917) teacher influenced Darwininfluenced Darwin Outlined major fields of anthropology still used Outlined major fields of anthropology still used

todaytoday Wrote noteworthy definition of culture: “complex Wrote noteworthy definition of culture: “complex

whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”acquired by man as a member of society”

► Frazer (1854-1941) studentFrazer (1854-1941) student Focused his work on myth and religionFocused his work on myth and religion Believed thought developed from the magical via Believed thought developed from the magical via

the religious to the scientificthe religious to the scientific First person to hold title “Professor of Anthropology”First person to hold title “Professor of Anthropology”

Contrasting perspective:Contrasting perspective:Adolf Bastian (1826-1905)Adolf Bastian (1826-1905)

►German ethnologistGerman ethnologist►Reacted against what he believed Reacted against what he believed

to be overly simplistic typological to be overly simplistic typological schemataschemata

► Instead of belief that all humans Instead of belief that all humans evolve in similar, straightforward evolve in similar, straightforward pattern toward “civilization,” he pattern toward “civilization,” he believed that humans all have believed that humans all have same pattern of thinking same pattern of thinking

The Big Three of Social and The Big Three of Social and Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology

1. Franz Boas (1858-1942): 1. Franz Boas (1858-1942): German immigrant to AmericaGerman immigrant to America

2. Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942):2. Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942): Polish immigrant to BritainPolish immigrant to Britain

3. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955): 3. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955): BritishBritish

► Their theories moved the field away from Their theories moved the field away from evolutionism to actor, agency, and context evolutionism to actor, agency, and context studiesstudies

Franz Boas: Franz Boas: Father of American Cultural Father of American Cultural

AnthropologyAnthropology

► Studied Eskimo and Kwaikutl Indians of Studied Eskimo and Kwaikutl Indians of North America in 1890sNorth America in 1890s

► Four-field approach to American Four-field approach to American anthropology: cultural and social, physical, anthropology: cultural and social, physical, archaeology, linguisticsarchaeology, linguistics

► Emphasis on cultural relativismEmphasis on cultural relativism► Focused on collection of empirical dataFocused on collection of empirical data► Concerned about cultural change and loss Concerned about cultural change and loss

of unique culturesof unique cultures► Influenced many later American cultural Influenced many later American cultural

anthropologists who systemized his ideasanthropologists who systemized his ideas

Bronislaw Malinowski:Bronislaw Malinowski:Father of British Social AnthropologyFather of British Social Anthropology

► Set the standard for ethnographic field Set the standard for ethnographic field work with his studies in Trobriand Islandswork with his studies in Trobriand Islands

► Emphasized immersing oneself in the Emphasized immersing oneself in the culture completelyculture completely

► Focused on the individual’s actions within Focused on the individual’s actions within the framework of society’s social structurethe framework of society’s social structure

► Emphasis on “holism”Emphasis on “holism”► Believed inborn human needs were Believed inborn human needs were

impetus behind development of social impetus behind development of social institutions (functionalism)institutions (functionalism)

A.R. Radcliffe-Brown:A.R. Radcliffe-Brown:Major Influence on British Social AnthropologyMajor Influence on British Social Anthropology

►Developed theory of structural-Developed theory of structural-functionalismfunctionalism

►Saw the acting individual as less Saw the acting individual as less important, emphasizing instead the important, emphasizing instead the social institutionssocial institutions

►All social and cultural institutions are All social and cultural institutions are functional in maintaining overall social functional in maintaining overall social structure of a societystructure of a society

Other Significant TheoristsOther Significant Theorists

► Emile DurkheimEmile Durkheim►Marcel MaussMarcel Mauss► Claude Levi-StraussClaude Levi-Strauss► E.E. Evans-PritchardE.E. Evans-Pritchard► Clifford GeertzClifford Geertz► Victor TurnerVictor Turner► Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee WhorfEdward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf