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SOCIAL SCIENCE

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STANDARD NINE TERM I

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HISTORY1. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

The history of the human racecovers the entire period since man firstappeared on earth. By about 4000 BCthe accumulated knowledge and skillsof the preceding thousands of years,combined with new discoveries ofmetals enabled man to live in urbansocieties. The emergence of this stagewas a revolution in human historyknown as the metal age revolution. Itled to the emergence of the firstcivilizations which are known as RiverValley Civilizations. Such river valleycivilizations were noted for the effectiveuse of metal implements for Cultivation,weapons and domestic use.

The Bronze Age civilizationswhich flourished in different parts of theworld between 5000 BC and 500 BCwere

1. The Indus Valley civilization or theHarappan culture (3250to 2750 BC)

2. The Tigris - Euphrates civilization ofMesopotamia, the modern Iraq(3500 BCto 1000 BC)

3. The Nile Valley Civilization in Egypt(4000- 500BC)

4. The Hwang -Ho or the Yellow Rivercivilization in China (3500-3000 BC)

The NileValley Civilizationof EgyptAmong the four civilizations of the

Bronze Age, the civilization of Egyptwhich flourished in the valley of theNile, is believed to be the oldest ofwhich systematic records are available.The archaeologists were able to findhuge pyramids, the mysterious sphinx,ruins of temples and tombs, furniture

V_

and clothing and even well preservedhuman bodies (Mummies). Egypt isknown as the "daughter of Nile".Herodotus, the greek historian aptlycalled Egypt, "the gift of Nile". TheEgyptian civilization was at its pinnacleof glory about 5000 years ago.Political Condition

The people of ancient Egyptconsisted of various tribes. Theinnumerable tribal chieftains (Nomes)were gradually merged into twokingdoms under strong kings. Later onentire Egypt was united under onePharaoh. The Pharaohs were absolutemonarchs. The kings were believed tohave descended from Sun God. Theylived in great luxury. The Pharaoh wasthe chief justice, chief priest and chiefcommander. After his death his bodywas preserved in the form of 'Mummy'.He had the power to declare wars andmake treaties. The foremost amongEgyptian kings of this period wereThutmosel and Thutmose III. EmperorThutmose III was known as the"Napolean of Egypt".Socio-Economic Condition

The Egyptian society wascomposed of three classes namely thearistocracy, the middle class and theslaves. The slaves were forced to workfor the construction of pyramids,temples, canals and dams. Generallyspeaking, the king and his lords were atthe top in the social ladder. The priestsand the nobles formed a privilegedclass. They lived a life of comfort.Merchants, artisans, small landownersformed the middle class of the society.J

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RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONSArctic Ocean

Greenland

Mespfjotamian-Civilization

EuropeR. TiairsNorth America ChineseCivilization,Q Indus Valley

Civilization

Egyptian *Civilization1 Pacific OceanPacific Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

IndianOcean

AfricaSouth America

Australia

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position of women was a uniqueone. They practiced monogamy andendogamy.

Agriculture was the mainoccupation. They introduced theprocess of irrigation by digging canalsin basins. They knew the art of makingseveral articles of metal particularly ofbronze. Ship-building became animportant trade, along with pottery andcloth weaving. Both internal andexternal trade were highly developed.Their main means of transport wasnavigation in the river Nile and the sea.

Religion

Religion dominated the political,economic, intellectual and social life ofthe Egyptians. The ancient Egyptianspracticed polytheism. Their principalgod was the Sun God, AmonorAtonorRa; the other important gods andgoddesses were Osiris, Isis and Horus.The images of these gods were carvedout of big stones. They were shaped aspartly human and partly animal. Theybelieved that man would have aresurrected life and a trial by God.This religious belief inspired them tomummify their corpses and to constructpyramids (Tombs of the Pharaohs) topreserve dead bodies. The greatpyramid of Gizeh built for the PharaohCheops (Khufu) is 481 feet high.

The preserved and embalmeddead body inside the tomb was calledmummy. The mummy was placed in awooden coffin and it was sealed in astone box called Sarcophagus.

The Mummy case

In order to make the journey of thePharaoh to the nextworld comfortable,food, clothing and furniture were placedinside the tomb. Pharoah AmenhotepIV, popularly known as Akhnatonenforced monotheism, with Aton as theonly god to be worshiped by people. Healso declared that he was againstfighting andwars.

Art andArchitectureEgypt was the earliest home of art,

architecture and sculpture. Thepyramids and the sphinx are the most

The SphinxPyramid of Gizeh

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Greenland f'g

North America

Europe

KarnakGizeth

.

MemphisThebes-

Abu SimbelAtlanticOcean

Indian Ocean

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

PacificOcean

_ Equator qT( Australia \

The ancient writing of Egypt was

known as Hieroglyphics.

papyrus, reed

pen, ink inkpot.

Hieroglyphics

is a Greek word, which means Holy

picture. They first used a system of

pictographs. There were more than

2000 pictograph symbols. Writing

materials considered of

and

prepared a solar calender. They

ca lcu la ted the days between

f loods in the Ni le and f ixed

the solar year with 365 days.

The cycle of Zodiac is a gift of

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beautiful and wonderful specimens oftheir architecture and art. The sphinx isa mythological animal with the head ofa man and body of a lion.

The Greek historian and the fatherof history Herodotus wrote that 30,000men worked for 20 years to completethe structure of the pyramid of PharoahCheops (Khufu) at Gizeh. It is regardedas one of the seven wonders of theancient world. The temple at Karnak isa fine monument.

r %11, nilHI J .

V fV " m

The Karnak Temple

Writing

Egyptian literature ispredominantly religious in nature whichincluded book of 'the dead' and 'coffintexts'. They also discovered the secretsof eclipses, movements of planets and

Egyptians to the science of Astronomyand Astrology. They prepared startables. Tremendous progress in thefield of medicine and surgery weremade.They were the first to introduce adecimal system and to developgeometry.Trade and Commerce

Agriculture was the mainoccupation of the Egyptians. The NileValley became the centre of greateconomic activity. They carried ontrade in ivory, gold, ebony, ostrichfeathers and slaves with Nubia andSudan. They imported spices, scents,colours, fine cloth and sandal fromIndia. They learnt the art of makingjewellery, glassware and furniture. Theworld is deeply indebted to them notonly for their contribution to thecivilization but also for their art andcrafts. Thus Egypt made severalunique and valuable contributions tothe world.

Mesopotamian Civilization

The great Mesopotamiancivilization comprises the Sumerian,Babylonian and Assyrian cultures. Thiscivilization flourished in a regionbetween two rivers, i.e, Euphrates andTigris, hence the name Mesopotamia(meso - in between , potam - rivers; i.e,the land between two rivers). Both therivers, the Euphrates 2760 kms longand the Tigris 2000 km long, have theirsource in the mountains of Armenia.The valley between these two rivers isin the shape of crescent and the regionis fertile, hence is known as the 'fertilecrescent'. The Garden of Edenmentioned in the Old Testament of theBible was believed to have beensituated within this region. The fertilityof the soil and availability of water

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MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION

Arctic Ocean

Greenland

North America

Assur

NinevehNippurLagash

R. EuphratesAfrica

Australia

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attracted many tribes to this region.The peculiar feature of theMesopotamian civilization was itscomplex character.Political Life

The word Sumerian means black-headed. The historians tell us that theydid not belong to the Aryan or theSemitic race. They settled in thesouthern part of Mesopotamia near thePersian Gulf. They adopted a city statetype of government. Sumer was theirchief city state, so they were calledSumerians. Their city states weregoverned by patesis (Priest Kings).The most important city-states wereUr, Larsa, Kish, Lagas Eridu andAmmon. They had no physical barriersto prevent immigrations. So theirkingdom was conquered by the Semiticking ofAkkad, Saragon I.

Bab-llu was made the capital ofAmoritebykingSUMMUABU and theircity became popular as Babylon.Amorites were called Babylonians andtheir powerful king was Hammurabi.His reign witnessed all round prosperityand was sometimes described as thegolden age of Mesopotamia. Later onAssyrians conquered Mesopotamia.They were cruel and believed in terroractivities. The chief centres ofAssyrianpower were Assur and Nineveh. Lateron they were conquered by theChaldeans. The Chaldean empirereached the zenith of its prosperity

during the reign by Nebuchad nezzar.He built the famous "Hanging Garden",which is considered as one of thewonders of the ancient world. As aresult of the joint contribution of theSumerians, the Babylonians and theAssyrians, there flourished a greatcivilization in Mesopotamia for longtime.Social Life

The society was divided into threestrata, the farmers, labourers and theslaves. The social regulation wasbased on religion. The temples werethe centres of education. Women had ahonoured position. Agriculture washighly developed. They carried tradewith Indus and Nile Valley people. TheBabylonian merchants carried oncommerce by barter at first and the cityof Babylon became the centre of theinternational commerce.Cuneiform Script

The Sumerians evolved a systemof writing with wedge shaped letterscalled cuneiform. They wrote on wetclay tablets. They were then baked ordried. A large number of these claytablets have been found. They usednearly 350 signs. Their writings werefrom right to left. Most of the books ofthis period described gods and theiractivities. One of the most famous ofthese is the EpicofGilgamesh.

>> fitr

r SPA

Cuneiform ScriptHanging Garden of Babylon

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Science and AstronomyThe science, especially astronomy

and medicine had made astonishingprogress. Sun dials and water clockswere used to measure time. They madeuse of a Lunar calendar of 365 daysdivided into 12 months. They dividedthe circle into 360 degrees (60 x 6). Theziggurat or towered building alsoserved as an observatory. TheSumerians knew planets like Jupiter,Venus, Saturn and Mars. AncientChaldean astronomers Naburi andKidinnu made many contributions tothe science of astronomy.

They adopted unitsof sixty to counttime. The Sumerians mostly usedSexagesimal system of counting. Theconcept of seven days constituting aweek also goes back to the days ofChaldeans.Religion

Religion played an important role.Their chief god was Marduk and hisqueen Nanshe. Ishta the mother of thegods possessed control overreproduction among plants and beasts.The Gods named Shamash, Nannarand Tammuz were worshiped by them.The tower temples known as Zigguratswere built by them. Their sculptureswere inferior to those of the Egyptians.Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabiwas the greatest of theBabylonian rulers. He is famous inhistory as a warrior, conqueror,administrator and builder. The code ofHammurabi is the first written code oflaws known to history. This had earnedHammurabi the title "The world's firstLaw giver". The code covered almost allaspects of man's life, for example debt,marriage, divorce, property, payment oftaxes etc., The Laws were engraved inSemitic Language of the Amorities on apiece of stone at the top of which was ascene representing Hammurabireceiving the laws from sun god. Thecode contained 4 parts namely a civilcode, a code of procedure, a penalcode and commercial code. The civilcode recognized 3 classes of citizens,freemen, semi-freemen and slaves.The second part dealt with courts, rulesand appointment of civil and religiousjudges. The penal code fixedpunishment of crimes. This law basedon the idea of "an eye for an eye and atooth for a tooth" is similar to the MosaicLaw. The laws fixed prices and wages,organized trade and fixed the rate ofinterests. These Laws, were engravedon a tall column of 2.5m high incuneiform script and exhibited to thepublic. 285 Laws were arranged inlogical manner.Art and Architecture

The Mesopotamians developed adistinct form of architecture. Arches,tombs and pillars were the notablefeatures of their architecture.

Hammurabi Code

ii it"

ii mi :: H

Temple of Karnak

The Hwang-Ho is known as Yellow

river because it brings the Yellow

alluvial soil and deposits it on its banks.

The civilization represents the largest

Bible was a tower built by Noah's

descendants in Babylon, a Ziggurat,

raised to the Sun God. According to one

account it rose to a height of about

200m and measured about 95m wide at

the base

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The tower of Babelwas consideredone of the wonders of the ancient worldand another which finds mention in the

The early Chinese Civilization or TheHwang-HoValley Civilization

of the wonders of the ancient world./-

The Great wall of ChinaThe Chinese honoured the teachings ofgreat philosophers named Confucius,and Laotze.Socio

-Economic Condition

unbroken chain of development knownto humanity. The role of rivers Hwang-Ho, and Yang-tze Kiang are significantin shaping the culture, civilization andHistory of China. The Hwang-Ho iscalled sorrow of China as its annualfloods cause widespread destruction ofboth possessions and to agriculture.The geography and topography ofChina caused the civilization to developin isolation. The Chinesepeople belonged to the Mongol race.They have yellow complexion, short,oblique eyes, snubbed nose and blackhair.Political History of Ancient China

FuXiwas the first known king. TheShang dynasty (1766-1122.BC)unified the territories of Yellow river.The succeeding Chou dynasty and itsruler Wu-Wang introduced manyreforms and the ChouAge is known asthe classical Age of China. After thedecline of Chou Dynasty Chinabecame disunited and feudal lordsreigned supreme. Hence this age isknown as feudal age. Shi - Huang -Tiwho belonged to Chin dynasty, put anend to the feudal control.

He is remembered in history as thebuilder of the great wall of China, one

The Chinese society was dividedinto the privileged and unprivilegedclasses. The nobility and the priestsenjoyed most of the privileges in China.The life of peasants was generallymiserable. Slavery and forced Labourwere common features. Women werenot given much freedom in the society.The system of foot binding wascommon among women. They had noright to property. However there wasno hereditary bureaucracy in China.The officials were chosen from a classknown as "Mandarin" who wereselected through a series of publicexaminations. After the spread ofConfucianism, there was markedchange inthe society.

The Chinese cleared and drainedthe Hwang-Ho basin and cultivatedcrops; there canal irrigation was inpractice. They wove silk garmentswhich attracted the attention of theworld trade. They developed theceramic art to a very fine manner andeven now ceramic cups are calledChina cups. The horse was known tothem and was used inwarfare.

The earliest commodities of tradein China were silk, ceramics, salt andiron. The trade was taken through the

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inland canals. There were guilds toprotect the interest of the merchants.During this period commercial contactswith Asia, Southeast Asia, theMediterranean region and South Asiawere established. The popular drink"Tea" is also a gift of the ancientChinese to the modernworld.Religion and Philosophy

Chinese believed in ancestorworship and made offerings to them.They also worshipped petty villagedeities and believed in the existence ofgood and evil sprits. To welcome thegood spirits and ward off evil spirits,they usedto build towers in each villageand burst crackers to ward off evilspirits. They believed that amythological dragon was protectingtheir land and people. The greatChinese thinker LaoTse condemnedritualistic practices and advised peopleto go with nature. Confucius, the greatChinese philosopher emphasized that,moral living, discipline and dutyconsciousness alone would lead us topeaceful and prosperous society. Lateron Buddhism was introduced and itsoon became the most influentialreligion in China.Chinese Script

The Chinese developed apictographic script and later broughtout many changes in it. Their writingwas done on bones or tortoise shellswith the help of some sharp instrument.In 2nd century A.D they invented thepaper. Silk pieces were also used forwriting. Ink was invented in 5th CenturyAD. The Chinese pencilswere made ofbamboo.

Some of the valuable scientificdiscoveries owe their origin to ancientChina. Theories of Lunar and Solareclipses were also developed. They

made some scientific inventions likethe Water Mill, the Mariner compass,the gunpowderand paper currency.

Water MillAn anatomical study of human

bodies was popular. In mathematicsthey introduced abacus method. Oneof the noblest contributions of ancientChina was its art of block printing. TheChinese civilization has left anindelible mark on human progress andcultural legacy of the world.Civilization of EuropeGreek and Roman CivilizationGreek Civilization

Greece is situated in the BalkanPeninsula on the south eastern part ofEurope, Balkan Peninsula is separatedfrom Asia Minor by Aegean Sea. Theearly Greeks came and settled inGreece in different groups asAchaeans, lonians and Dorians. Theycame from the Danube River Valley.Greece is a peninsula washed by theAdriatic, the Mediterranean and theAegean seas. The main land of Greeceis full of rugged mountains. Itscrisscross ranges cut up the main landinto hundredsof valleys.

One of the significant features ofGreek civilization has been their citystates.Athens, Sparta, Corinth,Thebesetc. were the important city states inancient Greece. Each of the city states

134

GREECE IN THE AGE OF PERICLESBlack Sea

Byzaniij

Macedonia

Asia MinorAegean Sea

Thermopylae

EuaoeaAetoliaIonian Sea Thebes

Corinl'eloponnesu

SpartaQ>

Athens and Her Allies oLaconia

hodesSparta and He Allies

CreteMediterranean Sea

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had its own government and rulers.Democratic Governments were set up.The city states often quarrelled amongthemselves. In the end there emerged,two powerful city states of Sparta andAthens. The Athenian democracyreached its zenith during the rule ofPericles. Ultimately the wars andconquests of Philip and Alexander ofMacedonia put an end to the city statesand Alexander built the first GreekEmpire. As a result of this, tradedeveloped between Europe and Asia.During the 2nd Century BC the Romansattacked the Greeks and Greecebecamea part of the Roman Empire.Contributions of Ancient Greece toWorld culture

Ancient Greece has contributed alot to enrich the culture of the world. Inthe field of language and literature thecontribution of Greece is unparalleled.The Iliad and Odyssey are the greatepics written by a blind poet Homer.Herodotus, Thucydides and Plutarchwere famous historians andbiographers of ancient Greece. Themost famous Greek philosophers wereSocrates, Plato andAristotle. Platowasa student of Socrates. He wrote thebook "The Republic". Aristotle was aphilosopher and a scientist and he wasalso Alexander's teacher. Socrates isregarded as the father of Westernphilosophy. Herodotus is known as the'father of history'.

1Herodotus

The Greeks considered scienceand philosophy as two sides of thesame coin. Hippocrates is consideredas the 'father of western medicine'.Ptolemy a geographer and astronomerbelieved that the earth was the centreof the universe (geocentric theory).The Greek contribution to the scienceof Mathematics, especially to geometrywas really great. Pythagoras was agreat mathematician, astronomer,astrologer and philosopher.

The temples in ancient Greeceespecially that of Zeus in Alexandriaare the best specimens of Greek artand architecture. The best example ofGreek architecture is the templededicated to goddess Athena inParthenon. Myron and Phidias werethe famous sculptors of ancientGreece. The Greeks were pioneers inthe field of sports and games too.They used toconduct olympiadfestival once inevery four yearssince 776BC.This proved to bethe forerunner ofthe ModernOlympic games.Achievements of Myronancient Greeks in the spheres ofphilosophy, literature, science andsports are marvellous. It is the Greekswho gave the world the idea offreedom, namely freedom of thought,speech orwriting.The Roman Civilization

Aristotle

The Apennine peninsula in thecentre of the Mediterranean region hadbeen the cradle of the Romancivilization. That peninsular territory iscalled "Italy" and the name Italy is ofGreek origin. The river basins of "Po"and "Tiber" were the centres of

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civilizational activities. The Alpsmountain ranges in the north preventthe cold polar winds from penetratinginto Italy, thus provide a very pleasantclimate to Italy. In fact the Romancivilization can be deemed as ItalianCivilization.

In the beginning monarchicalsystem prevailed in Italy. There wereAssemblies and Senates to advise andassist the kings. In due course,kingships were given up and"republics" were established. Of theserepublics the Republic of Romeemerged as the most powerful one. Itis believed that the city of Rome wasfounded in B.C. 753 by two brothersnamed Romulus and Rhemus. By 6thcentury B.C. it becamea Republic. The"Senate" was the legislative wing of theRepublic. In that senate the propertiedand influential class known as thePatricians wielded much influence.The common people who had noproperty were called "Plebians". After aprotracted struggle, the plebians toogained representations in the senate.The administrative powers were in thehands of three elected consuls.The plebians later on securedrecognition of their rights throughcodes of law. These codes engraved inslabs of woods were known as the"Laws of Twelve Tables".

Rome in the process of itsexpansion, had to fight three wars withthe state of Carthage in North Africa.These wars were called the Punic warsand were fought between 264 BC to146 BC. The brave Carthageniangeneral Hannibal was finally defeated.All these wars made Rome a society ofslaves and slave holders. The rich viedwith one another to possess slaves andaccumulate wealth which resulted inmoral decay of the whole society. The

rule of the Consuls was followed by therise of Julius Caesar, the most powerfulgeneral and popular leader and theforemost of the dictators of Rome.Though he introducedmany reforms in thesenate and improvedthe condition of thepoor, the enemies ofCaesar murdered himin a senate meeting in44 BC. After his death,his nephew OctaviousCaesar became theundisputed master ofthe Roman Empire. Hewas given the title of 'Augustus'meaning the "magnificent". He ruledfor forty one years. He completed thework which Caesar started. This periodwas known as "Golden Age of Rome"

Julius Caesar

Socio-Economic ConditionAgriculture was the chief

occupation of the Romans. They grewbarley, wheat, beans, grapes, figs etc.Along with agriculture, theydomesticated animals, such as oxen,sheep, horses, asses and goats.Roman nobles employed large numberof slaves for doing agricultural work andcattle rearing. The Romans had traderelations with India,Arabia, and China.Once Rome's territory expandedthere arose another class in society.This class consisted of slaves, whowere engaged to work in estates. Astime passed on, the slaves began tooccupy high position in the state.Roman conquests and its affluence,made the rich squander their wealthin extravagance.

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Contribution of the Romancivilization to the world

The most lasting contribution of theRomans was in the field of Law. TheRoman Law developed in three mainbranches as (1) The civil Law, (2) Thepeople's Law (3) The Natural Law.These Laws were codified by a laterruler,Justinian and that code is knownas the "Corpus Juris Civils" or "Justiniancode". The Roman concept of "PaxRomagna" ensured rule of law throughout the empire and it prohibiteddiscriminations inJudicial procedures.

Religion played an important partin Roman government and life. Theyworshipped many gods; Janus, thedouble faced god, protected their homeand family, Jupiter was the god of skyand Mars protected their armies.Venus was worshipped as the goddessof love. Prayers and sacrifices wereoffered by the priests on behalf of theRoman people. At first the emperorswere hostile to Christianity andpersecuted Christians. Christianity waspopular among the slaves. Then in 313AD Roman emperor Constantine madeChristianity a state religion. In duecourse Rome became the seat of thePope, the religious head of theChristians.

Roman art shows distinct Greekinfluence. They copied the Greek stylein the construction of columns orpillars. One of the most famous temple

was that of the Pantheon. Pompey wasa great architect. Their contributions toarchitecture are the arch and the dome.They developed mural paintings.

The Romans developed their ownalphabet and their language wasknown as Latin. Rome produced someremarkable literary figures. Livy wroteHistory of Rome. Another famoushistorian was Tacitus. His "Annals andHistories" is a trustworthy work onRoman Government and society. Virgilwrote an epic in poetry. Cicero was aversatile genius. Seneca, Plautus andTerence were the most popular Romandramatists who borrowed liberally fromthe Greeks. Cicero, Seneca andMarcus Aurelius Antoninus werenotable philosophers. 'Meditations'written by Marcus Aurelius isconsidered to be a masterpiece of stoicphilosophy.

In the field of science, the Romansimproved the medical science, Pliny,the Elder wrote a Natural History whichcontains scientific facts. Ptolemy aGreek and a great astronomer andgeographer lived in the Roman empire.Galen was the greatest physician of histime. He studied the respiratory systemand related diseases and wrotenumber of medical treatises.

The world is indebted to theRomans for their share in the march ofhuman civilization. The Romans actedas agents to spread and preserve muchof what the ancient Greeks had leftbehind as their legacy. The Latinlanguage, the concept of PaxRomagna (emphasising on one world,one citizenship and one law) themilitary system, works of engineeringand codified law are preciouscontributions of the Romans to theworld civilization.

Pantheon Temple

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rFEATURES OF DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONS

MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONSituated in the valley of two

rivers, the Euphratesand the Tigris.J.H Breasted described the

area as the "fertile crescent".

Different groups like theSumerians, the Amorites, theAssyrians and the Chaldeans ruled.

The form of writing was cunieform.

Epic of Gilgamesh wasfamous. The code of Hammurabi isthe first written code of laws tohistory.

They were polytheistic in thereligion. They worshipped Entil,Shamash, Ishtar, Venus, Marduk,Saturn etc.,

The tower of Babel is one of thewonders of the ancient world. Thehanging gardens of Babylon werealso another wonder of the ancientworld.

The contributions in the field ofAstronomy, Medicine andGeometry were noteworthy. TheZiggurat served as an observatory.The Astronomers Nabu andKidinnuwere famous.

Situated in the valley of Nile.

Described as the "Gift of Nile"orthe "Daughterofthe Nile".

Monarchs known as Pharaohsruled.

The form of writing wasHieroglyphics.

Egyptians were first to makepaperfrom a plant called papyrus.

They were worshippers ofNature. Ra, Osiris, iris and Horuswere their god and goddesses.Theembalmed dead body known asMummywas famous.

The Pyramids and the Sphinxwere the most beautiful andwonderful specimens of Egyptianart and architecture. The mostfamous and the largest of pyramidis found in Giza. The temple ofKarnak and Abu Simbel were finemonuments of the Egyptian templearchitecture.

The contribution in the field ofmathematics was astonishing.

The cycle of Zodiac isa gift of Egyptians to the science ofAstronomy andAstrologers.

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f \FEATURES OF DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONSCHINESE CIVILIZATION GREEK CIVILIZATION ROMAN CIVILIZATION

Developed on thebanks of two rivers theYangtse and the Howang-Ho.

Described as "YellowRiver" and also referred asthe "River of Sorrow".

System of Monarchywas followed.

The teaching ofConfucius was verypopularand important.

The hot beverage "Tea"is a gift to modernworld.

"The great wall ofChina" measured about2880 km in length, isconsidered as one of thewonders of the ancientworld. It was built by theChinese Emperor Chin-Shi- Hung-Ti.

The Chinese Scholarshave also contributed tothe Astronomical Science.They could also foretell theEclipse correctly.

The land of Greece liesin the region of the Balkanpeninsula.

The land juts into theMediterraneanSea.

Different groups asAchaeans, lonians andDorian'ssettled in Greece.

The most famousphilosophers wereSocrates, Plato,Aristotle.

Iliad and Odyssey werethe great epics. Thelanguage was of IndoEuropeanorigin.

The Greeks weremasters in Epic, Drama,Poetryand History.

Homer, Aeschylus,Sophocles and Euripideswere dramatists.

Herodotus, Thucydidesand Plutarch werehistorians andBiographers.

Science andPhilosophy are the twosides of the same coin.Euclidwas an eminentmathematicianHippocrates is the father ofmodern medicine.

The best architecture ofGreece is the templededicated to GoddessAthena in pantheon. Myronand Phidias were thefamous Sculptors ofancient Greece.

Italy was the centre ofthe early RomanCivilization. River Tiberruns through the centre ofItaly.

Oligarchy was the formof government and the ideaof republicanism was theircontribution.

"Vesta" the goddess ofthe earth was worshipped.Jupiter, Mars, Juno andMercury were the othergods.

Romans developedtheir own Alphabet andLatin became theirlanguage.

Cicero, Marcus andAurelius were the mostfamous Philosophers ofRome. Horace and Virgilwere famous Poets.

The Romanscontribution to architectureis theArch and the Dome.

The Romans improvedthe Medical Science bygiving medicines freely tothe poor. The significantcontribution of Romans istheir calendar.

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EXERCISEI) Choose the correct answer.

1) _ was called as "father of medicine" .a)Alexander b) Hippocrates c)Aristotle

2) The Egyptian kingwas called as_.a)Rajan b)Guru

3) The Sumerian calendar based on_a) Five b) Seven

4) Gun powderwas invented by_.a) Egyptians b) Babylonians c) Chinese

5) The Egyptiancivilization grew along the_ river.a) Nile b) Euphrates c) yellow

c) Pharaoh_daysinaweek.c)Ten

d) Galileo

d) Minister

d) Nine

d) Indians

d)Sind

II) Matchthe following.1) Pyramids Hilly region2) Greatwall Babylon3) Hanging garden Rome4) All roads lead to China5) Greece Egypt

NileEuphrates

Ill)Answer all the Questions given undereach caption.1) Egyptiancivilization

a) Who built the great Pyramidof Gizeh ?b) What was the Egyptian king called?c) How did the Egyptians preserve the dead bodies ?d) What is a Pyramid?

2) Chinese civilization.a)What was known as the "sorrow of China"?b) Namethe great philosophers ofChina ?c) Which was the popular drink in China ?d) Who built the Great wall of China ?

V J

Write a note on Hanging garden?

Name the two great epics of the greeks.

1. Collect pictures and write a small note on the wonders of the ancient world.

Paste them in your scrapbook.

2. Collect samples of scripts used by the people of ancient civilization and

paste them in your scrapbook.

3. Have a discussion on the differences in lifestyle between modern man and

ancient man.

4. Collect the information on the History of the Olympics games and prepare a

chart to show it evolved. Show the difference and similarities between the

ancient games and modern games.

5. Conduct a quiz on the features of ancient civilizations.

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V) Answer ina Paragraph.1) What were the gifts of China to the modernworld ?2) Write a note on the contribution of Romans to civilization.

VI) a) Markthe following placeson the outline mapof the world.1) Egypt,China, Babylon, Assiriya, Greece, Rome2) Prepare an album to show the development of the human race.

fIV)Answer briefly.1) Howwas the Egyptiansociety divided ?2)3)4) Mention two important contributions of the Chinese to the world?

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( " >2. IntellectualAwakening in 6th Century B.CConfucius,Zoroaster,Mahavira andBuddha

The sixth century B.C. witnessed agreat intellectual awakening in variousregions of the world . The reformers ofall over the world raised their voiceagainst the existing social beliefs andsystems and endeavoured toreconstruct them on a rational basis. InPersia, Zoroaster launched his protestagainst the prevailing religioussuperstitions and in China, peoplewelcomed the philosophic teachings ofConfucius which gave them a higherconception of duties in life. It was anage when people in India weredisgusted with old philosophical,religious and social dogmas and werestriving for holistic alternatives. Thenew philosophy of revolt was anti -establishment in form and anti-caste inspirit. The ultimate aim of the revolt wasnot only spiritual but also materialistic.In due course some of the socio-intellectual movements assumed areligious form. (Example: Jainism,Zoroastrianism, Buddhism.)

The thinkers of the newmovements were intellectualphilosophers and concerned with lifeas a philosophy of power andknowledge. In India such thinkers werethe wandering teachers (Sramanas).They rejected the authority of theVedas and Vedic priests, denouncedthe bloody sacrifices which constituteda very large part of the Religiousrituals and they did not make theirphilosophy and doctrines, god-centricones.

essentially a worship of spirits andancestors, but there was a tendencytowards monotheism in the form ofworship of the supreme ruler or thespirit of heaven. Heaven was the chiefnature-spirit, the forefather of theemperor, and chief of the ancestorspirits. Heaven was not considered aplace.

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ConfucianismEarly Chinese religion was

Confucius

Confucius was not the founder ofany religion nor was he even a religiousreformer. Inhisown words, hewas "nota maker but a transmitter, believing inand loving the ancients". LikeGautama, he at first lived a life of luxury.His restless and penetrating mindwould not allow him to remain inactive.Like Socrates, Confucius was a greatteacher. He established a school, inwhich he taught history, poetry andrules of propriety. "A man's character",he said, "is formed by the odes,developed by the rites (ceremony andcourtesy) and perfected by music".

He spoke very little of gods andreligious rituals, but spoke ofdisciplined society and of healthy socialrelations. Truthfulness and obedience

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had to regulate social relations. Thosewho were in superior position such as afather, teacher, husband or king hadtheresponsibility of providing protectionand fair treatment to the dependents;and if they failed in their responsibility,revolt would become unavoidable.Thus Confucius (Kung-Fu-Tse) wasadvocating a fair social order based ondiscipline and fairness to all. Itwould bedifficult to overestimate the influence ofConfucius on the Chinese people.Most Chinese scholars took pride inbeing his disciples. For more than2,000 years, the philosophy ofConfucius moulded and dominated theChinese mind. Confucianism,Christianity and Buddhism furnish themost conspicuous examples in thehistory of civilization of efforts toconvert into idealism from the naturalbrutality of mankindZoroastrianism

Before the advent of Zoroaster,the Persians followed a socio -religious faith that resembled thebeliefs and practices of Early VedicAryans. At that time they practicedpolytheism and worshipped severaldeities representing natural forces, likeMitra, Varuna, Surya etc; they indulgedin costly, bloody and senseless rituals,leading to exploitation of people by

priestly class. Polytheistic faith andsuperstitions obstructed social unity,rational thought and moral life. Greedand selfishness ruined PersianSociety. There was a need for a healthyphilosophical base to redeem thePersian society from degeneration andchaos. Itwas at that time that Zoroaster(Zarathustra) appeared in Persia andgave them a better socio-religiousorder in the form of Zoroastrianism.

Zoroaster, the founder ofZoroastrianism was born in about 600BC in North Western Iran. He wasconcerned about the superstitions,barbaric religious cults, polytheism andmoral degeneration in Iran. He waspained to see that his peopleshowed nodiscrimination between good and evil,right and wrong, individual greed andsocial need and between faith andsuperstitions. To begin with, he askedthe people to give up polytheistic cults,and to accept Ahura Mazda as the onlygod, representing good and right.Ahura Mazda, personified as sun ,fireand light, had been carrying on arelentless struggle against the evilforces (Asuras) who representedignorance, selfishness and all vices.The struggle between good and evilbecame the central theme ofZoroastrianism. This struggle ismanifested not only among humans,but also in all natural expressions. Heasked his people to be with the goodand abjure everything that was evil soas to attain salvation and immortality.His concept of good and evilstrengthened the moral base of Persiansociety and his monotheism servedthe cause of social unity amongPersian people. The Zoroastrian AhuraMazda cult did not involve in costlyrituals.

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Zoroastrians could practice Mazdaworship in the form of fire worship intheir own houses. For them the body isonly the instrument of spirits hence thecorpse(dead body) did not deservereverence or preservance. Hence theParsees neither cremate nor bury theirdead, instead they expose the corpsesto disposal by nature (to decompositionor to be consumed by animals or birds).This method of disposal of the dead isconsidered as rejection of superstitiouspractices centered round death andthis contrasts the Egyptian practice ofmummification. Zoroaster's teachingsare found in Zend Avesta, the holyscripture of the Parsees.

Economic and political strengthwas gained by the social unitybrought by Zo roastria n is m .Soon, the Persians built a politicalcivilization and powerful empire. TheirAchaemenian empire emerged as thelargest empire in the middleeast.

IAhura Mazda

In due course superstitious ritualsand priestly dominance crept into theZoroastrian system. However theZoroastrian concepts of monotheismand the ongoing struggle between thegood and evil, the necessity of humansidentifying themselves with the good forsalvation, influenced the theologiesand philosophies of Judaism,Christianity and Islam.

JainismJainism and Buddhism in the 6th

century B.C. satisfied the need of thetime by introducing the most necessarychanges. They recognised the realtiesview of life.Their doctrines of Karma didnot accept the belief that man's destinyis being pre-determined by supernatural forces. Instead, man's ownactivities (Karma) determine his future.Hence man can seek salvation not fromreligious rituals, but by righteousconduct.

MahaviraJainism was as old as the Rig

Veda. It was a revolt against the thenexisting Brahmanism. The new systemwanted to make religion simple andavoid irrational rituals. It gave newsocio-religious code of conduct. TheJains claim that their religion derives itstenets from 24 preceptors of differentages. These preceptors are calledThirthankaras. The earliestThirthankara was called Rishabha.However only the 23rd and 24thThirthankaras are considered to behistorical figures.

The 23rd Thirthankara, namedParsavanath, was a prince who livedy

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250 years before Mahavira. Hebecame an ascetic and preached fourdisciplines to his disciples.

1. Non - injury to living beings(ahimsa)

2. Not to speak untruth3. Not to steal4. Not to possessVardhamana, the 24th Thirthankara

was born in Kundagrama, near Vaisali,in 599 B.C. in a royal family. His fatherwas Siddhartha and mother Trisala.Vardhamana married Yashodha andhad a daughter. After the demise of hisparents Mahavira renounced worldlylife and became an ascetic.After twelveyears of wandering and severepenance, Vardhamana attained theKevalaGnanam(realisation of ultimatetruth) attheageof42.

Thereafter he came to be knownas Jina (conqueror of senses) orMahavira (great hero). He went onpropagating his doctrine to people andprinces for 30 years. He receivedpatronage of powerful kings of theGangetic valley (Bimbisara, Ajatasatruetc). The Jain sangha that he founded,helped to spread this new doctrines.Atthe age of 72 he died at Pava nearRajagriha.Teachings of Mahavira or Doctrinesof Jainism

Mahavira had no faith in God andalso rejected the authority of the Vedas.He believed that the matter and soulwere two eternal elements. The soulsuffers due to impurities caused by itscontact with the matter and is to be bornagain and again until it frees itself fromthe bondage of cycle of births. Hepreached the three gems i.e. TriRatnas; Right Knowledge, Right Faithand Right Conduct. Mahavira had a

strong faith in the doctrine of ahimsa ornon - injury to any living being.Ahimsabecame the most prominent principle ofJainism. The Jains started to covertheirmouth with a piece of cloth, to preventeven a small insect from being killed.Care was taken not to injure even anyplant or tree, nor to cause pain to men,birds and beasts. This principle wasagainst the principle of animal sacrificeassociated with yagnas.

Mahavira had no faith in the castesystem and preached equality ofhuman beings. He stressed that allhuman beings, irrespective of theirbirth, could attain salvation from thecycle of life, i.e. death and rebirth, byleading a pure and austere life basedon ahimsa. Headvised his followers notto make any discrimination betweenman and man on the basis of colour orcaste.Jainism advocates the followingprinciples to be followed by ahouseholder

The state of Moksha or Nirvanacan be attained by observing thefollowing three principles or Tri Ratna.(Ratnatraya) i) Right Belief, ii) RightKnowledge, iii) RightAction. (Conduct)

The code of conduct that Mahavirapreached hasfive disciplines

1. Non injury to living beings2. Not to utter untruth3. Not to steal4. Notto posses and5. To practice celibacy

(Brahmacharaya).After the death of Maravira, Jains

were split into two major groups. Thosewho followed the extreme tenets ofMahavira and gave up clothes came tobe known as Digambaras; others, who

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practiced the simple disciplines ofParsavanath and wore white robeswere called Swetambaras. The Jainspreferred people's languages to spreadtheir messages. They contributedmuch to the native languages likeMagadhi and Kannada. In Tamil theymade rich contribution to the Sangamand post-Sangam literature. Many ofthe Sangam ethical works,Silappadhikaram, five minor epics, andgrammatical works likeYapperumkalam were authored by JainScholars.

Jainism had its influence on social,political and religious life of our people.The literary and cultural fields were alsoenriched by Jainism. Anga, Upa Angaand Kalpasastras are beautiful literaryworks.

Chandra Gupta Maurya andKharavela of Kalinga embracedJainism. It was patronized by theRashtrakutas of Deccan and thePallava king Mahendiravarman ofKanchi. Jains contributed manybeautiful temples at Kanchi,Sittannavasal and Kalugumalai.Temples at Girnar and Mt. Abu alsobelongedto the Jains.Buddhism

Buddhism was founded by(Gautama) Siddhartha. His father wasSuddodana, the chief of the Sakya clanand mother was Maya. He was born inabout 567 BC in Lumbini in NepalTerai.Siddhartha was provided with acomfortable and happy life. He marriedYasodhara and had a son Rahul. Yetthe royal splendours did not make himcontent; he was moved by humanmiseries in the form of old age,sickness, death and disillusionment.

The misery of the human life cast adeep spell on Gautama. In order to find

a solution to the miseries of mankind heleft his wife Yashodhara and son Rahulat the age of 29 and wandered fromplace to place in ascetic garb. Thisevent is known as the GreatRenunciation.

El

BuddhaGautama spent 6 years as a

wandering ascetic and had discussionswith sages and Brahmins. Theirteachings did not help Gautama to finda solution. In order to find the truth, heresorted to rigid austerities of variouskinds of self-torture. Ultimately heabandoned everything and went toUruvela on the banks of Niranjana riverand sat under a pipal tree (Bodhi Tree)and meditated. He attained the"Supreme knowledge"(Englightenment) on the 49th day of hiscontinuous meditation. The placewhere he got enlightenment is knownas Bodh Gaya.Thenceforth he came tobe known as the Buddha(theEnlightenedone); He proceeded to theDeer park at Saranath near Varanasi,and gave his first sermon which isdescribed as "Dharma ChakraPravartana'. (setting in motion thewheel of Dharma).

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The royal families of Kapilvastu,Magadha and Kosala were attractedtowards Buddhism. It was in about 487BC he died at the age of 80 atKusinagara.

The eightfold path consists thefollowing principles

Teachings of BuddhaThe Buddha did not accept the

God as a creator or destiny maker. Hepreached Anatmavadha (No Athma)and Anitya Vadha (nothing is eternaland everything undergoes change). Hedid not accept the sanctity andsupremacy of Vedas and yagnas andrejected the caste system. He stressedthat "man is the maker of his owndestiny".

The first sermon of the Buddha atSarnath contains his philosophy. Histeachings were simple and conveyed tothe masses in their languages i.e.Prakrit (Pali) and not in Sanskrit. Theessence of his teachings arecontained in the 'four noble truths' andthe 'eightfold path'.The four noble truths

i) The world is full of suffering.ii) All sufferings have a cause.

Desire, ignorance and attachment arethe causes of sufferings.

iii)The suffering can be removed bydestroying its cause i.e. by curbingthe desire.

iv)ln order to remove suffering, onemust pursue the right path. This path isthe eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga)which leads to salvation (since this pathavoided ritualism and self-mortification, it is also known as goldenpath or middle path (Madyamikamarga). In order to end our sufferingsGautama Buddha advocated the Eightfold Path. (Eight codes of conduct)

Right belief, Right thought, Rightspeech, Right action, Right means oflivelihood, Right effort, Right meditationand Right remembranceor memory.

This eightfold path is consideredas the middle path between extremeasceticism and self-indulgence. TheBuddha preached 'Nirvana', theultimate goal in the life of a man. By aprocess of elimination of desire, onecan attain 'Nirvana'. Prayers andsacrifices will not end the desire. Helaid emphasis on the moral life of anindividual.

According to his Karma theory, thepresent is determined by the actions ofpast. The condition of a man in this lifedepends upon his own actions. As hisactions or karma are responsible forhis sufferings, he can secure salvationby perfecting his own deeds. No eternalforce, either God or rituals can give himsalvation. Thus man becomes themakerof his own destiny.

The Buddha neither accepted norrejected the existence of God(agnosticism). Hewas more concernedabout the individual and his action.Buddhism also did not believe in theexistence of soul. The Buddhaemphasized the sprit of love. Lovecould be expressed on all living beingsbyfollowing 'Ahimsa' (non-violence).

The Buddha preached the basicequality of all men. He had no faith incaste system. His egalitarian principlesattracted deprived masses towardsBuddhism. He also disapproved thesupremacy of Brahmans and he laiddown the concept of universalbrotherhood.

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The Buddha condemned thepractice of rituals and sacrifices,especially animal sacrifice. He rejectedthe authority of the Vedas and insistedthat everything must be subjected toscrutiny or reason.

He laid stress on morality. Headvised his disciples to lead an honestand disciplined life. He also advisedpeople to practice non -violence andnot to indulge in corrupt practices. TheBuddha established Sangha topropagate his principles and to renderservices to people. During the life timeof Gautama Buddha, his movementmade rapid progress. In the fourthcouncil convened during Kanishka'sreign, the Sangha split into two;Mahayanaand Hinayana sects.

The preachings of the Buddha andConfucius have at least two qualities incommon. They are pacific and they arerational. Their philosophies and

doctrines are not God-centred. Theystressed more on 'reason' than on faith.The Buddhist scriptures, known asPitakas are divided into threesections,namely, the Sutta,the Vinayaand theAbhidhamma.

As a result of these philosophicalor intellectual awakening, the existingsocial and political system had toundergo changes. These philosophersliberated their people from clannishconsiderations and made them havea universal outlook. A better socialorder and a humane administrationwere recognized as objectives of thepeople and princes. Rituals werereplaced by a moral order. Rationalphilosophies gave a better purpose forindividual and social activities. Such adevelopment marked anotherprogressive turning point in the historyof mankind.

EXERCISEI) Choose the correct answer.

1) Which period haswitnessed a great intellectual awakening in theorld_.

a) 5th Century b) 6th century c) 7th century d) 8th century2) How many years did the Philosophy of Confucius mould and dominate the

Chinese mind.a) 1000years b) 2000 years c) 3000 years

3) Who was the founder of Zoroastrianism_.a) Zoroaster b) Buddha c)Mahavira

4) Who was the 23rd Thirthankara_.a)Rishaba b) Parsavanath c)Mahavira

5) Inwhich place Buddha got enlightenment_.a)Saranath b)BodhGaya c)Sanchi d) Kapilavasthu

d)4000 years

d) Confucius

d)Buddha

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rII) Matchthe following.1) Zoroastrianism Buddha2)Jina Mahavira3)Yasodhara Buddhism4)Triratnas Pipaltree5) Sangha Rajagriha

MazdaConqueror of senses

III)Answer all the questions given undereachcaptions.1)Zoroastrianism.

a) Who founded Zoroastrianism ?b)Which was the wise sprit of Zoroastrianism ?c) What type of worship represented the monotheistic basis of

Zoroastrianism?d) What was the nameof the Holyscripture of the parsees.

2) Jainism.a)HowmanyThirthankaraswere there in the Jain religion.b)Who was the earliestThirthankara ?c) What was the nameof the lastThirthankara ?d) Who preachedthe four disciplines to his disciples ?

3) Mahavira.a) What was the original nameof Mahavira ?b)Where was he born ?c) What is meant by Jina?d)For how many years did he wander and observe severe penance?

4) Buddha.a) Who founded Buddhism?b)What was hisoriginal name ?c) Where did he give his first sermon ?d) Where did he get Enlightenment?

th

1. Compare any two religious doctrines propounded during the 6 century

B.C.

2. Collect information and prepare a project on any festival celebrated by

the Jains, Parsis or the Buddhists.

3. Prepare a slide show on the places of religious importance for the religious

th

that were founded in the 6 century.

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r AIV)Answer inbrief.1) Why did Intellectualawakening start in the 6th century B.C.?2) Write a short note on Mazda ?3) What was the four discipline preached by Mahavira to hisdisciples?4) Write about Pitakas .5) Inwhich councilwasthe Sangha divided into two ?

V) Answer ina Paragraph.1) Write a paragraph about Confucius.2) What was the importance of Zoroastrianism.?3) Write a noteon the teachings of Mahavira .4) Enumeratethe code of conduct that Mahavira preached .5) Write a paragraph on the Eightfold path of Buddhism.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

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476

3. MEDIEVAL AGE

The Medieval EuropeThe period from 600 AD

onwards till 1500 AD is known as theMedieval age, in European history. Itdid not begin exactly at the same time inall the countries of Europe. Historiansdivided the medieval period into twoparts. From the beginning of the fall ofRoman empire till 1000AD is called theEarly Medieval Age and from 1000ADto 1500 AD the Later Medieval Age.The beginning of the medieval age ismarked by the fall of the Romanempire.The early medieval period has beentermed as the "Dark Age", becausechaos and degeneration becameprevalent everywhere. The centralauthority of the government becameweaker and exploitation of the commonpeople increased. The medieval agesaw the emergence of a new religionIslam, which became internationallyimportant.

On the political front, MedievalEurope saw the rise of the EasternRoman Empire or Byzantine Empirewith its capital at Constantinople. Thisempire held sway over whole of EastEurope till about 1400AD. The Romansproved to be great warriors andconquerors. It was because of theirability and wisdom that strong rulersevinced. After the fall of the RomanEmpire in about 800A.D EmperorCharlemagne established his powerover a vast area-comprising modernFrance, Germany and a part of Italy.This empire lasted till his death and byabout 1000 A.D another empire calledthe Holy Roman Empire wasestablished. Thus towards the end of14th century, Europe's political map hadundergone many changes with many

rulers holding power in different partsof Europeat different times.

Rome was not built in a day.Similarly the decline of the Romanempire was not the work of a sudden orabrupt event but a long-drawn-outprocess spreading over nearly threecenturies. The death of MarcusAurelius in AD 180 was a turning pointin the history of the Roman Empire.The safety, security and integrity of theempire was threatened from within andwithout. Infact the steady decline of theempire started from the latter half of thesecond century. Before theirfinal decline inA.D. there were manysuccessful emperors likeDiocletian ( A . D . 2 8 4 -3 0 5 )Constantine I the Great (A.D. 306-337)and Theodosius I the Great(A.D.378-395).

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Causes for the down fall of theRoman Empire

The decline of the mighty Romanempire of the Caesars was wrought bytime and nature, Hurricanes andearthquakes. Fires and inundationsreduced the works of ages intodust.

The influx of wealth into the countrybrought in its wake moral degradation.The Romans lost all their old virtues ofdiscipline and duty to the state.

The growth of the Christian churchformed "a state within a state". In policyand action, the church stood againstthe empire.

The political mechanism of Romewith her constitution was quiteunsuitable to an empire. A corrupt andexpensive bureaucracy furtherworsened the situation. Rome becamea big empire and territorially it becamevast and impossible to control it. TheRomans did not treat their colonialpeople well. The administration wasweak and relaxed. Frequent wars alsocontributed to her decline.Declineof the Roman Empire

As Roman Empire expandedtrade, industry too increased. Colonialpeople were exploited and their wealthflowed into the capital. Romans gaveup hard work and wanted their slaves towork and fight. The empire was aRepublic in theory but in practice Romebegan to be governed by emperors.The people lost their freedom of speechwhich was so valuable. Senate andgeneral assembly included wisepeople. When dictators came to powersenate became subservient to them. Insociety, atmosphere becametense andsuffocating. The indifferent attitude ofmasses towards their rulers became acause for the downfall.

There was no regular law ofsuccession under the Roman legalsystem. The internal disputes, actionof a Alison and groupism weakenedthe empire. Thus vastness of Empire,frequent civil wars, luxurious life ofRomans, despotism of Romanemperors, confused socialatmosphere, high taxes and invasion ofbarbaric tribes led to the downfall ofRoman Empire.Barbarian Invasions

When the star of the empire wasfalling into evil days, the stunning blowto the tottering empire was given by thebarbarian invasions. These invasionsshook up the Roman solidarity.Barbarians like the Goths, Huns andVandals poured into the country in largenumbers and waited for the mostopportune moment to strike at the trunkof the withering empire. Their aim wasto loot the people of the conqueredterritories. The soldiers of thebarbarian tribes had no love for thecountry but often revolted against weakrulers. Thus the barbarian invasionsdisturbed the internal peace. Under thiscondition the kings failed to realizetaxes from the people. They felt unsafeand insecure. In this way thecircumstances bound the kings, Lordsand the common people to accept thenew system of feudalism.Feudalism

An important feature of the Middleages was feudalism. The word"Feudalism" is derived from the Latinword "feud" or "fief" which means a landheld on condition of service.Feudalism was essentially an agrariansystem. The peasants or the farmerswere obliged to give a portion of theproduce from the land to the lords asrent or taxes or they had to work on their

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lord's land or farm without anypayment.

King

Tenants-in-chief

Knights(lords)

PeasantsJ

A chart depicting feudal hierachyFeaturesof Feudalism

Feudalism was an organization ofsociety and its government based onland ownership. According to thesystem all lands belonged to the kingwho divided the kingdom into severalfiefs and gave each fief to a baron ortenant-in-chief on condition of militaryand administrative services and otheraids to the lord. As the fiefs weregranted to bishops and other churchdignitaries, they also came under thecategory of tenants-in-chief. The kingin his turn granted protection to them intimes of danger. Thus feudalism was apolitical arrangement in its origin. Thebaron in his turn subdivided the landinto several manors and gave eachmanor to a sub tenant on similarconditions. Thus the three importantfeatures of feudalism were feudaltenure, vassalage and immunity.Meritsof Feudalism

Feudalism proved to be a usefulinstitution to protect the people fromchaos and anarchy. It brought safetysecurity and orderliness to themedieval society. The decentralizationof political authority and distribution ofpower made the way to a new politicaldevelopment namely "parliamentary

democracy" in the later centuries. Thelining of military and agriculturalservices with a well-graded socialhierarchy fixed specific rights andduties upon the rulers and the ruled.The manorial system, an integraleconomic part of the feudal systemsaved Europe from utter confusion inthe farm front. The exhibition of skill andvalour by the knight errantsencouraged a sprit of sacrifice anddevotion to general cause among allpeople.Demeritsof feudalism

Feudalism was not an unmixedblessing. It brought the growth ofbaronial power. Jealousies among thebarons and suspicion between the kingand the lords encouraged local feuds.The king had to rely upon the militaryservices provided by his vassals. Theextensive holdings of the churchgradually created the conflict betweenthe Popes and the kings.

The feudal system was opposed tothe emergence of a strong nationalgovernment. The feudal lords ruledover their people in a tyrannicalmanner. They were either at war withthe king or with the fellow lords. Thearmy was not given uniform training inthe kingdom. Different system of justicewere practiced from fief to fief. Thesociety was divided between the richand the poor. As a result, peasantssuffered many hardships. The churchalso became a very big feudalorganization. Thus the feudal systembecame largely responsible for theconflicts between the kings and thechurch.

Feudalism degenerated into thesharp division of society of the havesand the have-nots. Growth of learningand education did not materialize in full

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bloom under feudalism. Justicebecame a mockery under the feudalsystem.Declineof Feudalism

Feudalism as a social force beganto decline even from the 12th Centuryonwards, and as a political force fromthe 13th century. The rise of strongmonarchies along with the rise of thebourgeoisie or middle class as a majorclass, completely changed the politicalvalues. The growth of representativeinstitutions In different parts of Europeundermined the feudal setup. Thecrusades and the invention of gunpowder sounded the deathknell offeudalism.

During the Age of Faith, the conflictbetween spiritual authority andtemporal power resulted in victory tothe former. The Age of Faith graduallygave place to the Age of Reason. Therenewed study of Roman law made it tounderstand the superiority of such alaw as against the clumsy feudal laws.The riseof the papacy

Christianity got politicalsupport under the Roman Emperorsfrom the days of Constantine. By the6thcentury A.D the Pope became thehead of the church and kings were therulers of the kingdoms. Sometimes, thePopes were stronger than the king.There in Europe developed a system ofdual leadership under the Popes andthe kings. Later, this dual leadership ledto the rivalries between the church andthe state. The Pope was considered asthe representative (Vicar) of JesusChrist. He was the highest authority ofthe church and was stronger than thekings. They could give directives to thekings and force them to obey theirorders.

The papal authority becamesupreme due to missionary spirit ofChristians. In the establishment ofpapal supremacy, monasteries playeda very significant and important role.The character of monks, educationalinstitutions of monasteries attracted thepeople towards papacy. It made certainvaluable contributions.Effectsof papacy

In the social life, people becameGod fearing, began to help the poor, theneedy and the deserving. The sense ofmorality and character as well asdignity developed. Beautiful churcheswere developed. Religious dogmasand hymns became the themes ofliterature. In the eyes of the papacy, allthe high and the low were equal. Withthe result it created a sense of equalityamong all. It was due to papaleducational institutions that knowledgedeveloped and also could be passed onto the presentgeneration.Holy RomanEmpire

Holy Roman Empire was anattempt by the kings to attain politicalunification of Christian Europe withclose co-operation of the church. Intheold Roman empire there was no placefor Christianity. In the new empireChristianity was the recognisedreligion. Rome was only nominal centreof authority. The old empire was Italianin its out look whereas the new one wasChristian in nature and character. Thusthe main idea of creation of an empirewas to bring all Christian statestogether in a fraternity. In the empire,the emperor was required to becrowned by the Pope.

The king possessed vast powers.He wanted that the Pope should beunder his control. The Pope belongedto the other world and had superior

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Greenland

i>GermanyAquileiaRavennNorth America

y Byzantium

AthensAlexandria

Syracu

AfricaIndian Ocean

ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT

Arctic Ocean

f oJ Great BritainFrance N

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position over the emperor. The greatestservice of the Empire was that thewhole of European continent, whichwas divided into small units, wereunited into one empire. It strengthenedhereditary system and weakened therepublican system. The Holy RomanEmpire contributed a lot by way ofcrushing feudal lords and feudalistictendencies. Mainly it was responsiblein bringing national unity in Germany. Itwas as a result of Holy Roman Empirethat nation states of England, Franceand Spain came into being.MedievalTowns and Universities

New towns began to emerge ascentres of craft and trade. The earlytowns were very small, as the numberof artisans increased and the tradebecame extensive, the towns toobecame bigger. When western Europetraded with the East, Italy enjoyed anadvantage over others because of theirlocation. Genoa, Florence and Venicebecame trade centres. Genoa andVenice were coastal towns whereasFlorence, Pisa and Milan were situatedon inland trade routes. In Holland,Belgium, Germany, France andEngland a number of cities grew upthat were either sea ports or centres oftrade and commerce. These medievaltowns became centres of the MedievalEuropeancivilization and culture.Education

In the early medieval period it wasthe church that gave education to thepeople. It taught the subjects likegrammar, logic, arithmetic andtheology. Some of the monasteriesbecame centres of learning. Manyuniversities were set up. The monksdominated the universities. Theologyand philosophy were givenprominence. History and science were

ignored. The books were hand copied.The university of Bolonga becamefamous for law. Arabic and Hebrewwere taught in the Spanish University.

Bologna University

The University of Oxford inEngland was modelled on the Parisuniversity of France. The Cambridgeuniversity came into existence in the12thcentury.Riseof Islam

During the middle ages, Arabia, avast desert land in south west Asia,became the birth place of Islam. Islamis one of the most important worldreligions. It united the various warringtribes.

Mecca

The founder of the Islamic religionwas Prophet Mohammad. Islam laidstress on the Unity of God and onfollowing high moral standards and

Social Science

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iergen

Novogorod

msterdatn I\ \ Bremen

DanzigMagdeburg

Breslau AstrakhsnCracow

Rostov

'eniceGenoa7

Marseilles\f Sargossa.Barcelona.?/'ledo

ConstantinopleValejsciaCordova,

MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN CITIES AND TRADE ROUTES

Arctic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

North Sea

/Lisbon

I

Moscow

AfricaTunis

Mediterranean Sea

Important Trade RouteBy Land-

i Antioch By Sea

1 Beirut

The Crusades were Holy wars

fought by the Christians of Western

Europe against the Turks, and by the

Muslims to have free access to their

holy lands in the Middle East. Every

Pious Christian considered it as his

sacred duty to visit their holy places

where the relics of Christ were

available. Jerusalem was one such

important place which was captured by

Turks in 1071 from the Fatimid Caliph

of Egypt. Upto 1076, there was no real

problem due to the tolerant policy of

Caliphate. But in 1076, Jerusalem went

under the control of Seljuk Turks, who

were religiously intolerant.

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f principles. Mecca and Medina becametwo important pilgrim centres inArabia.The main and significant contributionsof Islam were in the field of literature,science and medicine. Due to theirsuperior organization, faith in theirultimate victory and unabating zeal intheir mission, the Muslims were in aposition to secure power in manycountries. The Islamic culture servedas a link between the Christian westand the rich fabulous Orient (east). Itpossed a serious threat to the Christianculture. The Arabs wanted to spreadtheir religion in the conquered regions.This enthusiasm for the spread of theirreligion led to the fast expansion of theirempire.Crusades (1095-1444)

To save themselves from thepersecution and humiliation and toretrieve access to their holy places theChristians undertook a crusade. PopeUrban II gave a call to the Christians allover the world to come together and totake arms. There were different factorsresponsible to their quick response.The religious fanatics joined todischarge their religious duty. Somejoined to show their fighting skills andfor plundering and looting. The wars ofthe "Cross against the Crescent"according to tradition, were eight innumber. The first four were MajorCrusades and the last four MinorCrusades. After a meeting of council atClermont, they affixed cross on theirgarments. The Muslim had a crescenton their banners. Thus the crusades,the long drawn out "wars of the crossagainst the crescent" began.Children's Crusade (1212)

The leaders of the children'scrusade were Nicholas of Germanyand Stephen of France. They believedin their heart of hearts that God wouldmysteriously guide and guard thechildren in their endeavors. But noneof the children went beyond Italy. Manydied of hungerandstarvation.Causes for the failure of thecrusades

The wars were fought in a fardistant, alien and inhospitable regions.It exhausted the energies and sappedthe sprit of the people. The crusadersfailed in their primary motive ofrecovering the holy places ofJerusalem and Bethelham.

The Crusades were not properlyorganized. There was lack of unityand discipline among the leaders. Thestruggle for supremacy between the

_ JCrusades

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/papacy and their Empire had a banefuleffect on the issue. The weakness ofthe Byzantine empire was anotherserious cause for the collapse of thecrusades.Resultsof the Crusades

The Crusades failed in their mostimportant objective of recovering theholy places in Palestine but led to theestablishment of new Christiankingdoms in Spain and Portugal.

The Crusades in the end leftByzantine power vastly reduced inprestige and honour. The loss ofByzantine prestige was never fullyrecovered.

The crusading sprit spread like acontagious disease and it led to theconversion of Slav races on the shores

of the Baltic sea to Christianity and theGermanisation of the population.Feudalism received its rudest shockfrom the Crusades.

The crusades seriously affectedthe future of the military orders. Thepower and prestige of the Popesincreased.

The extensive travels undertakenduring the crusades provided thepeople with an opportunity to promotetheir knowledge of geography. Itprepared the way for the discovery ofnew trade routes in which Portugal andSpain became pioneers. It gave anadded fillip to the ship building industrywhich in turn paved the way for the useof Mariner's compass, etc.

The Crusades created a sprit ofenquiry and prepared men's mind forthe Renaissance of the 16th Century.

EXERCISEI) Choose the correct answer.

1) Early medieval period has been termed as_ .a) Golden age b) Copper age c) Dark age d) Ironage

2) Feudalismwas a social system based on_.a) Religion b)Army c) trade

3) Prophet Mohammadfound the religionof_a) Christians b) Hinduism c) Islam

4) The title of Lion heartwas given to_ .a) Philip b) Richard c) Fredrick

5) Holy Landof Christian is_ .a) Mecca b) Italy c) Vatican

d) Land

d)Sikhism

d) Nicholas

d) Jerusalem

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r AII) Matchthe following.

1)Constantine2) Fief

TribesLandConstantinopleUniversityCoastal townCode of conductEmperor

3) Cambridge4) Genoa5) Barbarians

III)Answer Briefly.1) What is Feudalism?2) What is Manor?3) What are the coastal towns and trade centers ?4) Howdid the kingget military service inthe time of war ?5) Who were the leaders of the children's crusade ?6) Mentionsome of the universitiesof medieval Europe ?7) What was the aim of the crusades?8) Who was the authority of the Church ?

IV)Answer all the questions given undereach heading.1) Feudalism.

a) Fromwhich word "feudalism" is derived ?b)Who were the Feudal Lords?c) Howwas the Feudalvillage called ?d) When did this system prevail in Europe?

2) Papacy.a) Who was the head of the Church ?b) Howwas the relationship between the Popeand the king ?c) What was the role of the Pope?d) What was the resultof the dual leadership?

3) Crusades.a) Which was the holy land of the Christians ?b)Who gave call to the Christians all over the world ?c) Where did the council meet ?d) How many Crusades have taken place?

V J

1. Collect pictures, stick them in your scrapbook and write a short note on 5 important

religious places of

a. Hindus

b. Christians

c. Muslims

2. Explain the religious customs and traditions followed by the people when celebrating

a. Deepavali

b. Chistmas or Easter

c. Ramazan

3. Prepare a chart to show the social order under the Feudal system.

4. Divide the class into 2 Groups. One group could enact a play to show the rise and spread

of Christianity and other of Islam.

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4) Mohammedthe Prophet.a) Which was the birth placeof Islam?b)Who was the founder of Islam?c) What are the important cities inArabia ?d) What did Islam religion stress ?

V) Answer ina paragraph.1)Describe the Barbarian invasion.2) Write the causes for the downfall of the Roman Empire.3) Explainthe rise of Islam in Europe.4) What were the results of the Crusades.

VI) Markthe following placesonthe outline mapof Europe.a) Rome b) Constantinople c) Venice d) Genoae) Paris f) London g)Pisa h) Florence

Markthe following countries.a)ltaly b) Greece c) Spain d) England e) Francef) Germany g)Arabia

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

STANDARD NINE

TERM II

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HISTORY1. BEGINNING OF MODERN AGE

Introduction

The transition from mediaeval"Dark Age" to Modern Age is causedand marked by certain new trends andthe developments such asRenaissance, Humanism, Sprit, ofEnquiry, Geographical Discoveriesand Reformation.

The ancient period in Europeanhistory came to an end in 476 A.D. withthe collapse of the mighty RomanEmpire. The barbarians who pulleddown the empire had no taste for thepursuit of classical languages and finearts.The neglect for learning immersedEurope in ignorance and darkness. Butat the beginning of the 16th century, arenewed interest in the study of Greekand Latin brought about the age ofreason. The Renaissance marked areaction against establishedconventions. A spirit of enquirydeveloped. People began to doubt,question and challenge instead ofblindly believing anything that wastaught by the church. This spirit ofenquiry stimulated the progress ofscience, architecture, sculpture,painting, literature, geography,religion, etc.Renaissance

Renaissance means revival orrebirth. It marks the aged of reason andthe revival of classical Greek andRomanspirit.

Renaissance signifies,"emancipation and expression". On theintellectual side, it markedthe revival ofliterature and art, on the political side itmarked the death of the universal

authority of Pope, the emergence andthe consolidation of well organizednation states. Socially, it marked thespirit of individualism and therecognition of man as an individualismand the recognition of man as anindividual in a society. Ecclesiastically,it marked the crumbling of the idea ofthe universal church and emergence ofthe national churches.

Renaissance in Italy

Italy, "the school of Europe", wasthe birth place of the Renaissance.Feudalism failed to take deep roots inItalian soil, in the middle ages. Thenobles and the church controlled theactivities of the people. In due course,the death knell to feudalism wassounded by the Crusades. Thecrusades were associated with theinvention of gun powder and the growthof nation states and towns with powerand independence. Northern Italy wasin a position to patronize art andliterature. Moreover, Italy was the seatof an ancient civilization whichreminded the people of "The Grandeurthat was Rome". The renaissancescholars wrote in the vernacularlanguages which appealed to themasses. The absence of a strongcentralized monarchy in Italy providedexcellent opportunities for intellectualoutbursts. Renaissance as amovement began in the 14th centurywith the publication of the "DivineComedy" by the greatest Italian poetDante and reached its culmination inthe next century.

The Renaissance movementcomes under two broad divisions,namely humanistic phaseorthe revival

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of classical learning and literature andthe regulation of classical art. The firstgreat pioneer in this line was Petrarch.He collected the classical manuscriptswritten by Plato, Cicero and others. Hegave a new life to the ancient classics.Boccaccio, the disciple of Petrarchfollowed the footsteps of his master.

The humanistic movement wasaccelerated by the capture ofConstantinople by the Turks in 1453A.D. The invention of the printing presshelped in the production of cheapbooks. It considerably helped thecause of humanism.

Printing press

Renaissance also left its mark on theartistic side. The barbarians destroyedmost of the remnants of culture ofancient Greece and Rome in themiddle ages, the Church controlled allthe cultural activities of the people. Artwas influenced by the church. Theworks of art were created mainly withthe object of perpetuating religion.Renaissance created a spirit ofdevotion towards the Greek art andliterature in the hearts of the people.Gradually Romanist spirit began to findexpressions in the arts, even inreligious subjects. Leonardo da Vinciwas a versatile genius, a writer,

scientist, inventor, engineer, architectand painter. Architecture, sculpture,painting, music and other fine artsprogressed tremendously though theinfluence of Christianity was veryvisible on the arts of this time.

Last SupperMichael Angelo, Leonardo da

Vinci, Raphael and Titian were thegreat painters of the time. The meetremarkable painting of MichaelAngelowas the "Lastjudgment".

Mono Lisa

Leonardo da Vinci's famouspaintings are "Mona Lisa" and "Lastsupper", Raphael was famous for hispaintings of "Madonnas". Titian wasnoted for this mastery of colour. Peter

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Brueghal, the Elder's genre paintingsdepicted scenes from robust peasantlives.

Madonnas

Sculpture and Paintings

The sculptors produced works ofgreater beauty and originality. Inarchitecture, the architects turned toclassical models.

St.Peters Cathetral

The best specimen of thearchitecture of the period wasSt.Peter's cathedral at Rome.Michelangelo's "Moses" is aremarkable sculptural expression ofthe time.Music

Music also made tremendousprogress in the fourteenth century.People began to take interest ininstrumental music rather than vocal.Various changes occurred in thesystem of music. Like other arts, Italyled the path in music. Music wasliberated from the monopolisticcultures of the church. New songforms and new musical instrumentshelped the emergence of secularmusic.Riseof Humanism

A shift from God centred and Churchcentred literary activities to humancentred literary trends is known asHumanism. The spirit of Humanismwas found in ancient Greek and Romanliterature. But in the medieval ageowing to the influence of church thespirit of spiritualism, escapism andworship of God become quite popularand people began to think more of theother world than this one. Owing to theinfluence of Renaissance, peoplebegan to take an interest in ancientGreek and Roman literature. They alsobegan to take an interest in expressiono humanism and their interest in themediaeval culture and civilizationdiminished.Humanism

Michelangelo's Paintings

Petrach is supposed to have beenthe original thinker who preachedHumanism. Dante and otherssupporters were his follows. Thecontemporary ruler of Florence,Lorenzode Mediciwas the great patron

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of scholars. He provided shelter tovarious authors of Humanism.

Leonardo da Vinci

Humanism spread from Italy toother countries of Europe. MichalAngelo, Machiavelli, Leonardo daVinci, Donatello Botticelli, Robbia,Fincino were some significant writersof Humanism. Andrew Vesalius, adoctor to Emperor Charles wrote"Seven Books on the structure of theHuman Body" Leonardo da Vinci drewa sketch of the future airship.

Andrew Vesalius

Human happiness and progresswere the core objectives of the ancient

Graeco Raman literature. The churchcontrolled medieval societyencouraged and patronized only suchliterature that was agreeable to theinterests of the church. Life wasportrayed as devoid of any worth.Pursuit of happiness was treated as asin. Pessimistic spiritualism foundexpression in all church sponsoredliterature. The rediscovery of theGraeco Roman spirit of Humanisminspired a new human-centred literarytrend in Europe.Science

The Renaissance spirit affected thefield of science also. Friar RogerBacon, the Father of modern sciences,was the greatest medieval exponent ofobservation and experiment. Hiswritings developed a critical andscientific sprit. Notable contributionswere made in astronomy, mathematics,chemistry, physics and medicine.Copernicus discovered that the earthrevolves round the sun. Galileoperfected the telescope.

Galileo's Telescope.

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Both contributed to the heliocentrictheory. Earth is the centre of theuniverse. Newton discovered the "lawof gravitation". Kepler laid thefoundation, of MathematicalAstronomy.

KeplerIt was also an age that witnessed theinvention of printing. Far-reachingresults were achieved in geographicaldiscoveries. Columbus, Vasco-da-gama and Magellan were the greatestfigures in this field. The invention ofmariner's compass (in China) was ofimmense help to the sailors, especiallyin their voyages to the south of theEquator.Results of the Renaissance

1. The study of classical languagesdeveloped a spirit of enquiry in theminds of the people. Instead of blindlybelieving what was written by others,they began top doubt, question andargue which enabled them to arrive atthe truth. The quest for truth broughtabout profound changes in science,art, politics, religion and literature.2. Renaissance created a passion forreason in the mindsof the people.3. The Renaissance kindled thecreative talents of the people andslowly paved the way for manyinventionsand discoveries.

4. Before the Renaissance theruins of Greece and Rome had nofascination for the people. But afterthe Renaissance the peopleevinced keen interest in the ruins.Thus, the science of archaeologycame intoexistence.5. The reasoning spirit openednew opportunities for the people tofind our loopholes in religiousbeliefs. The invention of theprinting press helped to publishbookson a large scale.6. The new inventions,discoveries and writing of eminentmen completely changed theoutlook of the people towards thestate. It developed a sprit ofnationalism and individualism. Itresulted in the emergence e ofnation states such as England,France, Holland, Portugal andSpain.7. The study of the old classicswhich ran counter to Christianideals greatly weakened thechurch and revived the spirit ofHumanism.8. The study of history becamemore scientific. The Renaissanceresulted in "Humanism" which wasnoted for its sympathetic anddevoted approach to mankind.

i2w

Erasmus9. The Greek and Latin classicswere humane in nature. Theprotagonists of this culture were

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called "Humanists", and their subjects"Humanities".

"Humanism, whose seed wassown by Petrarch in the fourteenthcentury and whose fruit was plucked byErasmus in the sixteenth, still lives inhigher education through our EuropeandAmerica".Reformation

The term 'Reformation' refers tothe religious reform movement in theCatholic Church which led to the rise ofa new section of Christians known asProtestants. These Protestants brokeaway from the Roman Catholic Churchin order to form new churches onnationalist lines. Though reformationwas a religious movement it was anoutcome of the socio, economic andpolitical conditions that prevailed in thesixteenth century.

During the medieval period theChurch had developed a powerfulhierarchy led by the Pope (Bishop ofRome) and assisted by cardinals,archbishops, bishops and priests.Every Christian had to perform sevensacraments in his life time with theassistance of the priests of the church.Hence, the church had acquiredabsolute authority to control thepersonal lives of Christians. Thechurch exploited Christians by allmeans.

Religious appointments were soldand those who purchasedthe positionscharged high fees for the services theyrendered. The new learning promotedby the Renaissance and growth ofcapitalist tendencies influenced someof the clergymen. The popes andhigher clergy lived like princess. Theyindulged incorrupt practices to amasswealth. They lived a life of opulence,immorality, running gambling housesand keeping mistresses.Dispensationswhich exempted people

from certain laws of the church weresold.Moreover any opinion or doctrinecontrary to the church dogma wasconsidered heretical. Such hereticswere burnt at stakes. For example JohnHuss was burnt at the stake in1415.A.D.

The growing nationalist sentimentalso worked against the church.Powerful dynasties were emerging inSpain, France and in various parts ofEurope which resisted the overlords ofRome. The church collected varioustaxes and a large portion of this wassent to Rome, the head quarters of theCatholic Church. Christians of variouscountries like Germany, England, andNetherlands etc. disliked this practice.The rulers of various countriesresented the contr4ol of the church ontheir royal authority, and the churchlands being exempted from royal taxes.

The immediate cause of theLutheran revolt was the issue of 'sale ofindulgences', A magnificent churchknown as St.Peter's church was beingbuilt by the Pope. A lot of money was

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required for the building of that church.The Pope ordered the subordinatechurches to raise funds for theconstruction of that church JohannTetzel, a Dominican friar, in order toraise funds, sold indulgences for theremission of the penalty for the sins inthe purgatory. The quantum ofremission would be in proportion to theamount of money spent for thepurchase of 'indulgences'. Such vulgarsalesmanship of the clergy shockedPious clergy like Martin Luther whoraised a banner of revolt against thecorrupt practices of the RomanCatholic Church.

In 1517, Martin Luther nailed hisprotest against the indulgences in theform of 95 theses to the door of theWittenberg church in Saxony. Hisprotest theses were translated, copied,and circulated widely in printed form. In1520 Luther published threepamphletsi.e 1) AN ADDRESS TO THENOBILITY OF THE GERMANNATION.

2) ON THE BABYLONIANCAPTIVITY OFTHE CHURCH AND

3) THE FREEDOM OF THECHRISTIAN MAN.

In his writings Luther questioned the

I

authority and relevance of the Popeand church councils.

Pope Leo x, through a papal bull(papal order in a sealed cover)threatened Luther withexcommunication if he failed to recant.But Luther encouraged by the supportof the German people and princess,defied the authority of the Pope andburnt in public the papa