History

HistoryHistoryAnAn

AreaArea

OfOf

KnowledgeKnowledge

A PredicamentA Predicament

Imagine waking up one morning to discover Imagine waking up one morning to discover that you have lost your memory. After a that you have lost your memory. After a few minutes of blind panic, you begin to few minutes of blind panic, you begin to examine the room you find yourself in. examine the room you find yourself in. You discover a scribbled note which says You discover a scribbled note which says “Meet George, mall, 10.” You glance at “Meet George, mall, 10.” You glance at the clock, it’s 9:00am. Since you don’t the clock, it’s 9:00am. Since you don’t want to tell anyone about your want to tell anyone about your predicament, you give yourself the hour to predicament, you give yourself the hour to work out who you are from the contents of work out who you are from the contents of what is clearly what is clearly youryour room and make it to room and make it to the mall to meet George – whoever he is…the mall to meet George – whoever he is…

A few thoughts…A few thoughts…

If you found yourself in the previous If you found yourself in the previous situation, to what extent would you situation, to what extent would you be able to reconstruct your identity be able to reconstruct your identity by examining the objects in your by examining the objects in your room? What problems would you room? What problems would you face trying to do this, and how face trying to do this, and how similar are they to those facing a similar are they to those facing a historian?historian?

How would How would amnesiac shellfish amnesiac shellfish poisoningpoisoning affect the victim? affect the victim?


Why should you care about your Why should you care about your past? past?

What dangers are there in being What dangers are there in being obsessed with your past, and what obsessed with your past, and what dangers are there in ignoring it?dangers are there in ignoring it?

How good is your memory, and how How good is your memory, and how reliable do you think it is as a guide reliable do you think it is as a guide to the past?to the past?

If you keep a diary, what determines If you keep a diary, what determines what you choose to include and what what you choose to include and what you choose to omit?you choose to omit?


Would you be more inclined to trust Would you be more inclined to trust an autobiography, or a biography an autobiography, or a biography about the same person written by a about the same person written by a historian?historian?

To what extent do you think that To what extent do you think that people learn from their mistakes, and people learn from their mistakes, and to what extent do you think they to what extent do you think they keep making the same mistakes?keep making the same mistakes?

What is History?What is History?

EvidenceEvidence SignificanceSignificance Explaining & UnderstandingExplaining & Understanding

What is History?What is History?EvidenceEvidence

A study of the present traces of the A study of the present traces of the pastpast

Problems:Problems: Too little evidenceToo little evidence Too much evidenceToo much evidence



Problems:Problems: Too little evidenceToo little evidence

Distant past: easy to misinterpret evidence & Distant past: easy to misinterpret evidence & jump to conclusionsjump to conclusions

Ex: “our knowledge of the wars between Ex: “our knowledge of the wars between Persia and Greece in the fifth century BCE is Persia and Greece in the fifth century BCE is based on a single, quite unreliable, source- the based on a single, quite unreliable, source- the Greek historian Herodotus (c.485-420 BCE).”Greek historian Herodotus (c.485-420 BCE).”



Problems:Problems: Too much evidenceToo much evidence

Modern historyModern history Ex: history of the year 2000Ex: history of the year 2000

What is History?What is History?SignificanceSignificance

A record of the significant events of A record of the significant events of the pastthe past

Problem: how do we decide whether Problem: how do we decide whether or not an event is significant?or not an event is significant?

Criteria:Criteria: How many people affected by an event?How many people affected by an event? To what extent were people affected?To what extent were people affected?

What is History?What is History?SignificanceSignificance

Using any criteria of your choice, rate the Using any criteria of your choice, rate the historical significance of the following historical significance of the following events.events. Publication of Charles Darwin’s Publication of Charles Darwin’s The Origin of the The Origin of the

SpeciesSpecies in 1859 in 1859 Your last TOK classYour last TOK class The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948 The 1930 soccer World Cup Final – won by The 1930 soccer World Cup Final – won by

UruguayUruguay Birth of Bill GatesBirth of Bill Gates Former US president Bill Clinton’s affair with Former US president Bill Clinton’s affair with

Monica LewinskyMonica Lewinsky Terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center & Terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center &

Pentagon in 2001Pentagon in 2001

What is History?What is History?Explaining the PastExplaining the Past

History is concerned with explaining History is concerned with explaining and understanding the pastand understanding the past

Establishing what happened is Establishing what happened is usually a prelude to trying to usually a prelude to trying to understand why it happened.understand why it happened.

Why Study History?Why Study History?

““The study of history is so important The study of history is so important that it should be a compulsory IB that it should be a compulsory IB

subject.”subject.” Think of as many arguments as you Think of as many arguments as you

can for and against this claim.can for and against this claim.


……gives us a sense of identity.gives us a sense of identity. ……is a defense against propaganda.is a defense against propaganda. ……enriches our understanding of enriches our understanding of

human nature.human nature.


History gives us a sense of identity.History gives us a sense of identity. As a community, if you don’t know As a community, if you don’t know

where you have come from it will be where you have come from it will be impossible for you to make any sense impossible for you to make any sense of the present or what you should do in of the present or what you should do in the future.the future.

You can know a country only if you You can know a country only if you know something about its history.know something about its history.

How does this apply to the Middle East?How does this apply to the Middle East?


How important do you think it is for How important do you think it is for our political leaders to have a good our political leaders to have a good knowledge of history?knowledge of history?

Do you think that some countries are Do you think that some countries are more obsessed with their history more obsessed with their history than others? What danger, if any, than others? What danger, if any, are there in:are there in: Ignoring the past?Ignoring the past? Being obsessed with the past?Being obsessed with the past?


History is a defense against History is a defense against propaganda.propaganda.

National pride may dictate a one-sided National pride may dictate a one-sided interpretation of the past which interpretation of the past which highlights a country’s achievements highlights a country’s achievements and overlooks its mistakes.and overlooks its mistakes.

History may be exploitedHistory may be exploited Legitimize ruleLegitimize rule Justify territorial expansionJustify territorial expansion Whitewash past crimesWhitewash past crimes Stalin exampleStalin example


History is a defense against propaganda.History is a defense against propaganda. Can also be used to puncture some Can also be used to puncture some

mythsmyths Chief Seattle quote (1854 response to Chief Seattle quote (1854 response to

US government attempt to buy his land)US government attempt to buy his land) No one knows what he said on that dayNo one knows what he said on that day Speech written by Ted Perry for an ABC Speech written by Ted Perry for an ABC

television drama in 1971television drama in 1971


What do you understand by George What do you understand by George Orwell’s observation, ‘Who controls Orwell’s observation, ‘Who controls the past controls the future, who the past controls the future, who controls the present controls the controls the present controls the past’?past’?

To what extent do you think this is To what extent do you think this is true?true?


History enriches our understanding of History enriches our understanding of human nature.human nature.

Shows us what human beings have Shows us what human beings have thought and done in a wide variety of thought and done in a wide variety of circumstances.circumstances. Should it make us feel optimistic or Should it make us feel optimistic or

pessimistic about human nature?pessimistic about human nature?


History enriches our understanding of History enriches our understanding of human nature.human nature.

““History shows…” should be treated with History shows…” should be treated with cautioncaution Self-realizing expectationsSelf-realizing expectations

Historical record can sometimes be a Historical record can sometimes be a source of hope rather than despair.source of hope rather than despair. Changes could not come about if people had Changes could not come about if people had

seen themselves as the victims of history.seen themselves as the victims of history. Abolition of slaveryAbolition of slavery Emancipation of womenEmancipation of women Birth of United NationsBirth of United Nations

Why Study History?Why Study History?““One cannot avoid a certain feeling of disgust, when One cannot avoid a certain feeling of disgust, when

one observes the actions of man displayed on the one observes the actions of man displayed on the great stage of the world. Wisdom is manifested by great stage of the world. Wisdom is manifested by individuals here and there; but the web of human individuals here and there; but the web of human history as a whole appears to be woven from folly history as a whole appears to be woven from folly and childish vanity, often, too, from puerile and childish vanity, often, too, from puerile wickedness and love of destruction: with the result wickedness and love of destruction: with the result at the end one is puzzled to know what idea to at the end one is puzzled to know what idea to form of our species which prides itself so much on form of our species which prides itself so much on its advantages.”its advantages.”

- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)- From your own study of history, to what extent do From your own study of history, to what extent do

you think that Kant’s pessimistic assessment of you think that Kant’s pessimistic assessment of human beings is justified? human beings is justified?

- Are there any grounds for taking a more optimistic Are there any grounds for taking a more optimistic view?view?

How Can the Past be Known?How Can the Past be Known?

Problem with knowing the past: it no Problem with knowing the past: it no longer exists.longer exists. Memory is fallible.Memory is fallible. Evidence is ambiguous.Evidence is ambiguous. Prejudice is common.Prejudice is common.

Ideal: ObjectivityIdeal: Objectivity

How Can the Past be Known?How Can the Past be Known?

G.R. EltonG.R. Elton ““In a very real sense the study of history is In a very real sense the study of history is

concerned with a subject matter more objective concerned with a subject matter more objective and independent than that of the natural sciences. and independent than that of the natural sciences. Just because historical matter is in the past, is Just because historical matter is in the past, is gone… its objective reality is guaranteed; it is gone… its objective reality is guaranteed; it is beyond being altered for any purpose whatsoever.”beyond being altered for any purpose whatsoever.”

Samuel ButlerSamuel Butler ““Though God cannot alter the past, historians can.”Though God cannot alter the past, historians can.”

Which of these views is closer to the truth?Which of these views is closer to the truth?

How Can the Past be Known?How Can the Past be Known?Primary SourcesPrimary Sources

Written by someone who was there Written by someone who was there at the time.at the time.

‘‘Bedrock of History’Bedrock of History’ How can they be contaminated?How can they be contaminated? How can the four ways of knowing How can the four ways of knowing

distort the production of a primary distort the production of a primary source such as a diary?source such as a diary?


Fallible Eye-WitnessFallible Eye-Witness Perceptions shaped by interests, Perceptions shaped by interests,

expectations, & cultural expectations, & cultural backgrounds.backgrounds.

Emotion and prejudice affect Emotion and prejudice affect accounts of an event.accounts of an event.

Other biases?Other biases?


Social BiasSocial Bias Primary sources may reflect the Primary sources may reflect the

interests of one particular social group.interests of one particular social group. Why is medieval Europe often thought of as Why is medieval Europe often thought of as

a very religious place?a very religious place? People with the power control the pens.People with the power control the pens. The illiterate usually pass through The illiterate usually pass through

history without a trace.history without a trace.


If you were to make a time capsule If you were to make a time capsule to be opened in five thousand years to be opened in five thousand years time, what things would you put in to time, what things would you put in to give future historians as objective a give future historians as objective a picture as possible of life in the early picture as possible of life in the early twenty-first century?twenty-first century?


Deliberate ManipulationDeliberate Manipulation- A disturbing problem arises when A disturbing problem arises when

primary sources are deliberately primary sources are deliberately manipulated by governments and manipulated by governments and other interest groups to change the other interest groups to change the “facts” of history.“facts” of history.- Ex: Trotsky out of photoEx: Trotsky out of photo


History is written by the victors.History is written by the victors.

- How different would it be if written by - How different would it be if written by the losers?the losers?


Reliability:Reliability: Who wrote it?Who wrote it? What was their motive in writing it?What was their motive in writing it? How long after the event was it How long after the event was it

written?written? Comparison to other primary sourcesComparison to other primary sources Documents of a legal or administrative Documents of a legal or administrative

nature may be less biased than such nature may be less biased than such things as letters and diaries.things as letters and diaries.

Writing HistoryWriting History

The starting point of historical The starting point of historical investigation is often a question or investigation is often a question or problem which reflects contemporary problem which reflects contemporary preoccupations.preoccupations.


History is a Selection of a SelectionHistory is a Selection of a Selection Primary sources are a selective Primary sources are a selective

interpretation.interpretation. The historian chooses his sources.The historian chooses his sources. Our knowledge of the past is filtered Our knowledge of the past is filtered

first through the eyes of those who first through the eyes of those who witnessed it, then through the eyes witnessed it, then through the eyes of the historian who wrote about it.of the historian who wrote about it.


The Advantages of HindsightThe Advantages of Hindsight The historian knows how things The historian knows how things

turned outturned out Certain ways of describing events Certain ways of describing events

may not be available at the time, but may not be available at the time, but only retrospectively.only retrospectively.

Division of history into periods is Division of history into periods is retrospective.retrospective.


G.M. Trevelyan (1876-1962):G.M. Trevelyan (1876-1962):

““Unlike dates, periods are not facts. Unlike dates, periods are not facts. They are retrospective conceptions They are retrospective conceptions that we form about past events, that we form about past events, useful to focus discussion, but very useful to focus discussion, but very often leading historical thought often leading historical thought astray.”astray.”

- How can dividing history into periods - How can dividing history into periods be useful and misleading?be useful and misleading?


The Advantages of HindsightThe Advantages of Hindsight The writing of history is influenced by The writing of history is influenced by

the era in which it is written.the era in which it is written. Events are judged by their Events are judged by their

consequences.consequences. Each generation interprets the past Each generation interprets the past

in the light of its own experience.in the light of its own experience.


Do you think you should study current Do you think you should study current events in history (last 5 years) on the events in history (last 5 years) on the grounds that they are relevant to grounds that they are relevant to your experience, or do you think they your experience, or do you think they should be excluded on the grounds should be excluded on the grounds that they are too close for you to see that they are too close for you to see them objectively?them objectively?


The Disadvantages of HindsightThe Disadvantages of Hindsight Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias

The results inevitable.The results inevitable. Anyone could have seen what would Anyone could have seen what would

happen.happen. If you were there, you would not have If you were there, you would not have

made the same mistake.made the same mistake.

The Problem of BiasThe Problem of Bias

Topic Choice BiasTopic Choice Bias Influenced by current preoccupationsInfluenced by current preoccupations

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias Only appeal to supporting evidence Only appeal to supporting evidence

(ignoring counter-evidence)(ignoring counter-evidence) National BiasNational Bias

Difficulty of dealing objectively with Difficulty of dealing objectively with sensitive issuessensitive issues

We begin with our prejudices and search We begin with our prejudices and search for evidence to support them.for evidence to support them.


Do you think that it will ever be Do you think that it will ever be possible to write a history of the possible to write a history of the world that can be agreed upon by all world that can be agreed upon by all countries?countries?


Pluralistic ApproachPluralistic Approach

““Cubist History”Cubist History” Explores the past from a variety of Explores the past from a variety of

perspectives.perspectives. Does not necessarily revert to Does not necessarily revert to

relativism.relativism. Does not preclude historical truth.Does not preclude historical truth.

Theories of HistoryTheories of History

H.A.L. Fisher (1856-1940):H.A.L. Fisher (1856-1940): ““The human universe is so enormously The human universe is so enormously

complicated that to speak of complicated that to speak of thethe cause of cause of any event is an absurdity.”any event is an absurdity.”

Possible causal factors:Possible causal factors: Geographical conditionsGeographical conditions Individual motivesIndividual motives Social & Economic conditionsSocial & Economic conditions Chance occurrencesChance occurrences


To what extent do you think that your To what extent do you think that your country’s history has been influenced country’s history has been influenced by its geography?by its geography?


Great Person Theory of HistoryGreat Person Theory of History Course of history is determined by great Course of history is determined by great

individuals.individuals. A.J.P. Taylor (1906-90)A.J.P. Taylor (1906-90)

““The history of modern Europe can be The history of modern Europe can be written in terms of three titans: Napoleon, written in terms of three titans: Napoleon, Bismarck, & Lenin.”Bismarck, & Lenin.”


Great Person Theory of HistoryGreat Person Theory of History

Journal Entry:Journal Entry: If you could travel back in time and If you could travel back in time and

interview one character from history, interview one character from history, who would it be and why?who would it be and why?



Nicholas Humphrey (psychologist):Nicholas Humphrey (psychologist): If Newton had not existed someone else would If Newton had not existed someone else would

have discovered the law of gravity, whereas if have discovered the law of gravity, whereas if Shakespeare had not existed no one would Shakespeare had not existed no one would have come up with have come up with HamletHamlet..

Do you think that great historical figures Do you think that great historical figures are more like Newton or Shakespeare?are more like Newton or Shakespeare?

Theories of HistoryTheories of History Great Person Theory of HistoryGreat Person Theory of History

R.G. Collingwood (1889-1943):R.G. Collingwood (1889-1943): ““When a historian asks ‘Why did Brutus stab When a historian asks ‘Why did Brutus stab

Caesar?’ he means ‘What did Brutus think Caesar?’ he means ‘What did Brutus think which made him decide to stab Caesar?’ The which made him decide to stab Caesar?’ The cause of the event, for him, means the thought cause of the event, for him, means the thought in the mind of the person whose agency the in the mind of the person whose agency the event came about: and this is not something event came about: and this is not something other than the event, it is inside the event other than the event, it is inside the event itself… All history is the history of thought.”itself… All history is the history of thought.”



EmpathyEmpathy UsefulUseful

some have even tried psychoanalysissome have even tried psychoanalysis Often difficultOften difficult

Difficult to empathize with Genghis KhanDifficult to empathize with Genghis Khan Limits to agent’s perception of the Limits to agent’s perception of the

situationsituation Does no take advantage of hindsightDoes no take advantage of hindsight



To what extent do you think one can To what extent do you think one can and should try to empathize with and should try to empathize with Hitler in order to understand his Hitler in order to understand his actions?actions?



Give examples from history of Give examples from history of actions which had consequences that actions which had consequences that could not have been imagined by the could not have been imagined by the agent.agent.



When he was a young man, Hitler once sought a When he was a young man, Hitler once sought a job as a stage designer. Armed with a letter of job as a stage designer. Armed with a letter of introduction, he went to the Vienna Court Opera introduction, he went to the Vienna Court Opera to see the set director, Alfred Roller, three times, to see the set director, Alfred Roller, three times, but each time he lacked the courage to knock but each time he lacked the courage to knock upon the door. According to the historian upon the door. According to the historian Frederick Spotts, “If Hitler had been taken up by Frederick Spotts, “If Hitler had been taken up by Roller, he would have been very happily engaged Roller, he would have been very happily engaged as a stage designer. It would have been heaven as a stage designer. It would have been heaven for him.’ How different do you think 20for him.’ How different do you think 20thth century century history would have been if Hitler had summoned history would have been if Hitler had summoned up the courage to knock on Roller’s door?up the courage to knock on Roller’s door? LangemaatLangemaat



Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) in Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) in War and PeaceWar and Peace Although in that year, 1812, Napoleon believed Although in that year, 1812, Napoleon believed

more than ever that to shed or not to shed the more than ever that to shed or not to shed the blood of his peoples depended entirely on his blood of his peoples depended entirely on his will (as Alexander said in his last letter to him), will (as Alexander said in his last letter to him), yet then, and more than at any time, he was in yet then, and more than at any time, he was in bondage to those laws which forced him, while bondage to those laws which forced him, while to himself he seemed to be acting freely, to do to himself he seemed to be acting freely, to do what was bound to be his share in the common what was bound to be his share in the common edifice of humanity, in history.edifice of humanity, in history.


Economic DeterminismEconomic Determinism History is determined by economic History is determined by economic

factors.factors. Printing Press, Steam Engine, & Printing Press, Steam Engine, &

ComputerComputer


Economic DeterminismEconomic Determinism

Which invention do you think has had Which invention do you think has had the most decisive impact on history the most decisive impact on history in the last two thousand years?in the last two thousand years?



Karl Marx (1818-83)Karl Marx (1818-83) DeterministicDeterministic Claimed to have discovered laws of Claimed to have discovered laws of

historical change (compared himself to historical change (compared himself to Newton)Newton)

Technological & economic factors are Technological & economic factors are engines of change (not great individuals)engines of change (not great individuals)



We can predict the behavior of a gas We can predict the behavior of a gas with a great deal of accuracy even with a great deal of accuracy even thought he behavior of an individual thought he behavior of an individual molecule is unpredictable. Do you molecule is unpredictable. Do you think that, in a similar way, we can think that, in a similar way, we can make accurate predictions about make accurate predictions about society even though individual society even though individual behavior is unpredictable?behavior is unpredictable?



Karl Popper (1902-94)Karl Popper (1902-94) Predictability of future is Predictability of future is incoherentincoherent If you could perfectly predict the future then If you could perfectly predict the future then

you would be able to predict such things as you would be able to predict such things as future scientific discoveries; but if you could future scientific discoveries; but if you could predict the details of such discoveries, you predict the details of such discoveries, you would then have discovered them now and not would then have discovered them now and not in the future – and that contradicts the original in the future – and that contradicts the original supposition.supposition.


Role of ChanceRole of Chance French philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623-62) If French philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623-62) If

Cleopatra’s nose had been shorter…Cleopatra’s nose had been shorter… Mark Antony might have found her less attractiveMark Antony might have found her less attractive not have fallen in love with hernot have fallen in love with her not have fallen out with Octaviannot have fallen out with Octavian Rome remained a republic rather than empireRome remained a republic rather than empire Rome might not have fallen into decadenceRome might not have fallen into decadence Able to resist the barbarian invasions of 4Able to resist the barbarian invasions of 4thth & 5 & 5thth

centuriescenturies Rome might never have fallenRome might never have fallen Europe & North Africa might still be RomanEurope & North Africa might still be Roman

A Few More Thoughts…A Few More Thoughts…

Why do we normally think of history Why do we normally think of history as the catalogue of ‘great events’ as the catalogue of ‘great events’ and assume that the details of our and assume that the details of our own micro-histories have nothing to own micro-histories have nothing to do with it?do with it?


The past no longer exists, but History The past no longer exists, but History seeks to reconstruct it on the basis of seeks to reconstruct it on the basis of evidence found in the present.evidence found in the present.


Skepticism about the past is no more Skepticism about the past is no more justified than any other skepticism, justified than any other skepticism, and it is possible to establish a and it is possible to establish a generally agreed historical facts.generally agreed historical facts. There is less agreement about the There is less agreement about the

meaning and significance of these facts.meaning and significance of these facts.


There are many different There are many different interpretations of the past, and trying interpretations of the past, and trying to determine which one is best is a to determine which one is best is a matter of judgment rather than proof.matter of judgment rather than proof.

If history is not to collapse into fiction, If history is not to collapse into fiction, we must take seriously the idea that we must take seriously the idea that there is some kind of truth about the there is some kind of truth about the past and that a good historian can at past and that a good historian can at least help us to get closer to this truth.least help us to get closer to this truth.


Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97) said that Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97) said that History does not “make us more History does not “make us more clever the next time, but wiser for all clever the next time, but wiser for all time.”time.”