historry study guide - mid term

8/7/2019 historry study guide - mid term .

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o 1.native american status in 1600's

y Native American History - Native Americans and the Europeans The Native Americans of the eastcoast met the new 16th and 17th century visitors from Europe with enthusiasm. They regardedthese bearded white men as strange but were delighted with the steel knives, mirrors, copperkettles, and other intriguing novelties. The indigenous tribes were more than accommodating and

hospitable. Without their aid, the first waves of settlers would not have survived in the land theyknew little about.

y But in time the Europeans disregarded all respect for the valued land and resources and insteaddisplayed insatiable greed and arrogance. The Europeans soon pursued their intent to conquer thisnew continent with brutal attacks and invasion. The Native Americans soon realized that theinvaders would arrive in overwhelming numbers, as many as the stars in heaven. Initially, thepeople of this land tried to co-exist with the Europeans. But many more problems arose. With alltheir intriguing gadgets, the white men brought deadly diseases to the Native Americans.

y The colonists and explorers brought measles, smallpox, cholera, yellow fever, and many moredevastating diseases. This drastically diminished the Native American population and annihilatedentire villages. In addition to this, the arrogant attitude of the ever-growing whites led to the IndianWars, the Indian Removal Act (1830), and in 1890 one of the worst massacres everWoundedKnee, South Dakota. Here warriors, women, and children alike were ferociously slaughtered by theU.S. Cavalry. The U.S, government began Relocation Programs and the now famous Trail of Tearsmarch where hundreds of Cherokee died from starvation, exposure, and illnesses. The Native

American peoples were not only reduced in number but taken from their homes, stripped of theircustoms, and even forbidden to speak their native languages. Their children were taken from themand sent to schools to civilize them, forced to abandon every aspect of their heritage. In January1876, the U.S. government forced them to live on reservations where the majority of Native

Americans still reside today.

y Native American History - The 20th Century Native Americans Some consider Native Americans asa resilient people. The Indian Citizen Act of 1924 offered official citizenship to the Native Americantribes. This was partly due to the heroic service of many of them in World War I. Others like JimThorpe, Sequoyah, and Sacajawea have represented their people with greatness. There are well

over 500 recognized tribal governments currently in the U.S. They are self-governed andconsidered to be sovereign nations of people within America. There are currently more than 2.48million Native Americans, according to the 2000 census bureau.

y While most still live on the reservations, they are considered some of the most poverty-ridden areasin the United States. Unemployment is 5 times higher than the general U. S. population, accordingto the 2002 Bureau of Indian Affairs. As with many defeated, oppressed people, they have sufferedtremendously from the plagues of alcoholism and suicide. These were once a vibrant andresourceful people. They have been robbed, humiliated, and removed from all they knew. Thoughmany have tried through the centuries to civilize, Christianize, and Americanize the Native

American people, there are organizations today that recognize the important heritage of thesenations. For example, Wiconi International says we want to see Indigenous people come to knowand experience ultimate freedom, and deliverance from the powers of darkness that still prevail in

lands and communities (cite websitehttp://www.allabouthistory.org/native-american-history.htm) The Americanization of NativeAmericans was an assimilation effort by the United States to transform Native American culture toEuropean-American culture between the years of 17901920.[1][2] George Washington and HenryKnox were first to propose the cultural transformation of Native Americans.[3] They formulated apolicy to encourage the "civilizing" process.[2] With increased waves of immigration from Europe,there was growing public support for education to encourage a standard set of cultural values andpractices to be held in common by the majority of citizens. Education was viewed as the primarymethod in the acculturation process for minorities.


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y Americanization policies were based on the idea that when indigenous people learned UnitedStates (European-American) customs and values, they would be able to merge tribal traditions withEuropean-American culture and peacefully join the majority society. After the end of the IndianWars, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the government outlawed the practice of traditionalreligious ceremonies. It established boarding schools which children were required to attend. Inthese schools they were forced to speak English, study standard subjects, attend church, and leave

tribal traditions behind.y The Dawes Act of 1887, which allotted tribal lands in severalty to individuals, was seen as a way to

create individual homesteads for Native Americans. Land allotments were made in exchange forNative Americans' becoming US citizens and giving up some forms of tribal self-government andinstitutions. It resulted in the transfer of an estimated total of 93 million acres (6,100 km ) fromNative American control. Most was sold to individuals. The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 was alsopart of Americanization policy.

y 2.revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turn around")y a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short

period of time. Its use to refer to political change dates[1] from the scientific revolution occasionedby Copernicus' famous De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium.[2] Aristotle described two types ofpolitical revolution:

y Complete change from one constitution to anothery Modification of an existing constitution.[3]

y Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods, duration,and motivating ideology. Their results include major changes in culture, economy, andsocio-political institutions.

y 3.life in the middle coloniesy The Dutch and the Swedish were the first to settle in the middle colonies. Later the Dutch colonies

became New York, New Jersey, and Delaware. There were many nation as people here including:Scotts-Irish, English Quakers, Germans, Welsh, and French Colonists. Germans built an efficientwood burning stove that others copied. The Quakers and Dutch believed in toleration religion.Quakers welcomed Germans and protestants as there people multiplied.

y Farmers and other people lived in very small houses farmers usually about ten to twenty miles outof town. The farms were very big; they stretched from the suburbs all the way to the seacoast.Farmers gathered: wheat, barley, rye, and other grains and fruits. Manufacturing was a very big

industry; they made-clocks, watches, guns, locks, cloth, and hats. They owned large plantationssmall lands and farms. Most of them lived in small villages or on grand plantations. they had manycash crops for trade and sell. Cash crop- grown to be sold. The idle colonists grew so much breadit became known as the bread basket colony.

y Benjamin Franklin born and raised in the middle colonies was a well known resident. many workerswould be in the press by this they had freedom of the press. The middle colony had a firedepartment and a public library thanks to Benjamin Franklin. African-Americans and woman couldnot attend college even though there were very little colleges and schools.


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y 4.Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705[1]] April 17, 1790)y was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading

author and printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, satirist, civic activist,statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and

the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightningrod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica'. He formed both thefirst public lending library in America and the first fire department in Pennsylvania.

y Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning forcolonial unity; as a writer and spokesman in London for several colonies, then as the first UnitedStates Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation.[2] Franklin wasfoundational in defining the American ethos as a marriage of the practical and democratic values ofthrift, hard work, education, community spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition toauthoritarianism both political and religious, with the scientific and tolerant values of theEnlightenment. In the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, "In Franklin could be merged thevirtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat."[3]To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin, "the most accomplished American of his age and themost influential in inventing the type of society America would become."[4]

y Franklin, always proud of his working class roots, became a successful newspaper editor andprinter in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies. He was also partners with William Goddardand Joseph Galloway the three of whom published the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper thatwas known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British monarchy in the Americancolonies. [5] He became wealthy publishing Poor Richard's Almanack and The PennsylvaniaGazette. Franklin gained international renown as a scientist for his famous experiments inelectricity and for his many inventions, especially the lightning rod. He played a major role inestablishing the University of Pennsylvania and was elected the first president of the AmericanPhilosophical Society. Franklin became a national hero in America when he spearheaded the effortto have Parliament repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widelyadmired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in thedevelopment of positive Franco-American relations. For many years he was the British postmaster

for the colonies, which enabled him to set up the first national communications network. He wasactive in community affairs, colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs.From 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. Toward the end of his life, he freed hisslaves and became one of the most prominent abolitionists.

y 5.The Committees of Correspondencey were shadow governments organized by the Patriot leaders of the Thirteen Colonies on the eve of

American Revolution. They coordinated responses to Britain and shared their plans; by 1774-75they had emerged as shadow governments, superseding the colonial legislature and royal officials.The Maryland Committee of Correspondence was instrumental in setting up the First Continental

Congress, which met in Philadelphia. These served an important role in the Revolution, bydisseminating the colonial interpretation of British actions between the colonies and to foreigngovernments. The committees of correspondence rallied opposition on common causes andestablished plans for collective action, and so the group of committees was the beginning of whatlater became a formal political union among the colonies. A total of about 7000 to 8000 Patriotsserved on these committees at the colonial and local levels, comprising most of the leadership intheir communitiesthe Loyalists were excluded. The committees became the leaders of the

American resistance to British actions, and largely determined the war effort at the state and locallevel. When Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees tookcharge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to


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defy the boycott by importing British goods. They promoted patriotism and home manufacturing,advising Americans to avoid luxuries, and lead a more simple life. The committees graduallyextended their power over many aspects of American public life. They set up espionage networksto identify disloyal elements, displaced the royal officials, and helped topple the entire Imperialsystem in each colony. In late 1774 in early 1775, they supervised the elections of provincialconventions, which took over the actual operation of colonial government.[1]

y 6.First Continental Congressy a convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen North American colonies that met on

September 5, 1774, at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, early in the AmericanRevolution. It was called in response to the passage of the Coercive Acts (also known asIntolerable Acts by the Colonial Americans) by the British Parliament. The Intolerable Acts hadpunished Boston for the Boston Tea Party. The Congress was attended by 56 members appointedby the legislatures of twelve of the Thirteen Colonies, the exception being the Province of Georgia,which did not send delegates. At the time, Georgia was considered a convict state and was nottaken into consideration in the colonies.[1]

y The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economic boycott of British trade;publishing a list of rights and grievances; and petitioning King George for redress of thosegrievances.

y The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition wasunsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had noeffect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened the following year to organize thedefense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War. The delegates also urgedeach colony to set up and train its own militia.

y 7.Second Continental Congressy a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met beginning on May 10, 1775, in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in the American Revolutionary War had begun. Itsucceeded the First Continental Congress, which met briefly during 1774, also in Philadelphia. Thesecond Congress managed the colonial war effort, and moved incrementally towardsindependence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4th, 1776. Byraising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties, the Congressacted as the de facto national government of what became the United States.[1] With theratification of the Articles of Confederation, the Congress became known as the Congress of theConfederation.

y 8.American Revolutionary War (17751783) or American War of Independencey began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North

America, and concluded in a global war between several European great powers.

y The war was the culmination of the political American Revolution, whereby many of the colonistsrejected the legitimacy of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation,claiming that this violated the Rights of Englishmen. The First Continental Congress met in 1774 to


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coordinate relations with Great Britain and the by-then thirteen self-governing and individualprovinces, petitioning George III of Great Britain for intervention with Parliament, organizing aboycott of British goods, while affirming loyalty to the British Crown. Their pleas ignored, and withBritish soldiers billeted in Boston, Massachusetts, by 1775 the Provincial Congresses formed theSecond Continental Congress and authorized a Continental Army. Additional petitions to the king tointervene with Parliament resulted in the following year with Congress being declared traitors andthe states to be in rebellion. The Americans responded in 1776 by formally declaring theirindependence as one new nation the United States of America claiming their own sovereigntyand rejecting any allegiance to the British monarchy.

y France's government under King Louis XVI secretly provided supplies, ammunition and weapons tothe revolutionaries starting in 1776, and the Continentals' capture of a British army in 1777 ledFrance to openly enter the war in early 1778, which evened the military strength with Britain. Spainand the Dutch Republic French allies also went to war with Britain over the next two years,threatening an invasion of Great Britain and severely testing British military strength withcampaigns in Europe including attacks on Minorca and Gibraltar and an escalating globalnaval war. Spain's involvement culminated in the expulsion of British armies from West Florida,securing the American colonies' southern flank.

y Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupyAmerican coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where 90% of the population lived) largelyeluded them because of the relatively small size of their land army. French involvement proveddecisive, with a French naval victory in the Chesapeake leading at Yorktown in 1781 to thesurrender of a second British army. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and recognized thesovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded by what is now Canada to the north,Florida to the south, and the Mississippi River to the west.

y 9.Anti-Federalismy a US political philosophy which opposes the concept of Federalism. In short, Anti-Federalists

dictate that the central governing authority of a nation should be equal or inferior to, but not havingmore power than, its sub-national states (state government). A book titled "The Anti-Federalist

Papers" is a detailed explanation of American Anti-Federalist thought.

y Anti-Federalism also refers to a movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federalgovernment and which later opposed the ratification of the Constitution of 1787. The previousconstitution, called the Articles of Confederation, gave state governments more authority. Led byPatrick Henry of Virginia, Anti-Federalists worried, among other things, that the position ofpresident, then a novelty, might evolve into a monarchy.

y 10.Federalist partyy an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816, the era of the First Party System, with

remnants lasting into the 1820s. The Federalists controlled the federal government until 1801. Theparty was formed by Alexander Hamilton, who, during George Washington's first term, built anetwork of supporters, largely urban bankers and businessmen, to support his fiscal policies.These supporters grew into the Federalist Party committed to a fiscally sound and nationalisticgovernment. The United States' only Federalist president was John Adams; although GeorgeWashington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, he remained an independent his


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entire presidency.[1] The Federalist policies called for a national bank, tariffs, and good relationswith Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Their political opponents, theRepublicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, denounced most of the Federalistpolicies, especially the bank, and vehemently attacked the Jay Treaty as a sell-out of republicanvalues to the British monarchy. The Jay Treaty passed, and indeed the Federalists won most of themajor legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the nation's cities and in NewEngland. The Republicans, with their base in the rural South, won the hard-fought election of 1800;the Federalists never returned to power. The Federalists, too wedded to an upper-class style to winthe support of ordinary voters, grew weaker every year. They recovered some strength by intenseopposition to the War of 1812; they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings thatfollowed the end of the war in 1815.[2]

y The Federalists left a lasting imprint as they fashioned a strong new government with a soundfinancial base, and (in the person of Chief Justice John Marshall) decisively shaped Supreme Courtpolicies for another three decades.

y 11.Patrick Henry (May 29, 1736 June 6, 1799)y was an orator and politician who led the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s. A

Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia from 1776 to1779 and subsequently, from 1784 to 1786. Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 andis well remembered for his "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech. Along with Samuel Adamsand Thomas Paine, he is remembered as one of the most influential exponents of Republicanism,promoters of the American Revolution and Independence, especially in his denunciations ofcorruption in government officials and his defense of historic rights. After the Revolution, Henry wasa leader of the anti-federalists in Virginia who opposed the United States Constitution, fearing that itendangered the rights of the States, as well as the freedoms of individuals.

y 12.Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise of 1787 or Sherman'sCompromise)

y was an agreement between large and small states reached during the Constitutional Convention of1787 that in part defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would haveunder the United States Constitution. It proposed a bicameral legislature, resulting in the currentUnited States Senate and House of Representatives.

y 13.french and british war of 1790y The French and Indian War is the common U.S. name for the war between Great Britain and

France in North America from 1754 to 1763. In 1756 the war erupted into the world-wide conflictknown as the Seven Years' War and thus came to be regarded as the North American theater ofthat war. In Canada, it is usually just referred to as the Seven Years' War, although Frenchspeakers in Quebec often call it La guerre de la Conqute ("The War of Conquest"). In Europe,there is no specific name for the North American part of the war. The name refers to the two mainenemies of the British colonists: the royal French forces and the various Native American forcesallied with them.

y The war was fought primarily along the frontiers between the British colonies from Virginia to NovaScotia, and began with a dispute over the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers,the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The dispute resulted in the Battle of JumonvilleGlen in May 1754. British attempts at expeditions in 1755, 1756 and 1757 in the frontier areas ofPennsylvania and New York all failed, due to a combination of poor management, internaldivisions, and effective French and Indian offense. The 1755 capture of Fort Beausjour on theborder separating Nova Scotia from Acadia was followed by a British policy of deportation of itsFrench inhabitants, to which there was some resistance.


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y After the disastrous 1757 British campaigns (resulting in a failed expedition against Louisbourg andthe Siege of Fort William Henry, which was followed by significant atrocities on British victims byIndians), the British government fell, and William Pitt came to power, while France was unwilling torisk large convoys to aid the limited forces it had in New France. Pitt significantly increased Britishmilitary resources in the colonies, and between 1758 and 1760 the British military successfullypenetrated the heartland of New France, with Montreal finally falling in September 1760.

y The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict.France ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation forSpain's loss to Britain of Florida. France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced tothe islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Britain's position as the dominant colonialpower in the eastern half of North America.

y 14.Neutralityy is the quality or state of being neutral

y 15.Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 July 4, 1826)y was the third President of the United States (18011809) and the principal author of the Declaration

of Independence (1776). Jefferson was one of the most influential Founding Fathers, known for hispromotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. Jefferson envisioned America as theforce behind a great "Empire of Liberty"[3] that would promote republicanism and counter theimperialism of the British Empire.

y Major events during his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Lewis and ClarkExpedition (18041806), as well as escalating tensions with both Britain and France that led to warwith Britain in 1812, after he left office.

y As a political philosopher, Jefferson was a man of the Enlightenment and knew many intellectualleaders in Britain and France. He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar ofrepublican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a strictly limitedfederal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state[4] and was the authorof the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). He was the eponym of Jeffersoniandemocracy and the cofounder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated

American politics for 25 years. Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (17791781),first United States Secretary of State (17891793), and second Vice President of the United States(17971801).

y 16.Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757[1] July 12, 1804)y was the first United States Secretary of the Treasury, a Founding Father, economist, and political

philosopher. Aide-de-camp to General George Washington during the American Revolutionary

War, he was a leader of American nationalists calling for a new Constitution; he was one ofAmerica's first constitutional lawyers, and wrote most of the Federalist Papers, a primary source forConstitutional interpretation. Hamilton was the primary author of the economic policies of theGeorge Washington Administration, especially the funding of the state debts by the Federalgovernment, the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs, and friendly trade relationswith Britain. He created and dominated the Federalist Party, and was opposed by ThomasJefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party. Jefferson denounced Hamilton as too loose withthe Constitution, too favorable to monarchy and particularly to Britain, and too partial to themoneyed interests of the cities at home, but Hamilton's policies were generally enacted. A believer


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in a militarily strong national government, Hamilton helped defeat the tax revolt of western farmersin 1794, and built a new army to oppose France in the Quasi War of 1798, but Federalist PresidentJohn Adams found a diplomatic solution that avoided war. Hamilton opposed Adams, as well as theopposition candidates Jefferson and Aaron Burr, in the election of 1800; he supported Jeffersonover Burr when the House of Representatives had to choose in an electoral tie between them.Tensions with Burr escalated to a duel, in which Hamilton was killed.

y 17.John Adams (October 30, 1735 July 4, 1826)y was an American statesman, diplomat and political theorist. A leading champion of independence

in 1776, he was the second President of the United States (17971801). A New England Yankee,he was deeply read and represented Enlightenment values promoting republicanism. Aconservative Federalist, he was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States.

y Adams came to prominence in the early stages of the American Revolution. As a delegate fromMassachusetts to the Continental Congress, he played a leading role in persuading Congress todeclare independence, and assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the United States Declaration ofIndependence in 1776. As a representative of Congress in Europe, he was a major negotiator ofthe eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and chiefly responsible for obtaining important loansfrom Amsterdam bankers. A political theorist and historian, Adams largely wrote the Massachusettsstate constitution in 1780, but was in Europe when the federal Constitution was drafted on similarprinciples later in the decade. One of his greatest roles was as a judge of character: in 1775, henominated George Washington to be commander-in-chief, and 25 years later nominated JohnMarshall to be Chief Justice of the United States.

y Adams' revolutionary credentials secured him two terms as George Washington's vice presidentand his own election in 1796 as the second president. During his one term, he encounteredferocious attacks by the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his ownFederalist Party led by his bitter enemy Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alienand Sedition Acts, and built up the army and navy especially in the face of an undeclared naval war(called the "Quasi War") with France, 1798-1800. The major accomplishment of his presidency washis peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamilton's opposition.

y 18.hamilton and taxesy Born and raised in the Caribbean, Hamilton attended King's College (now Columbia University) in

New York. At the start of the American Revolutionary War, he organized an artillery company andwas chosen as its captain. Hamilton became the senior[2] aide-de-camp and confidant to GeneralGeorge Washington, the American commander-in-chief. After the war, Hamilton was elected to theContinental Congress from New York, but he resigned to practice law and found the Bank of NewYork. He served in the New York Legislature, and he was the only New Yorker who signed the U.S.Constitution. He wrote about half the Federalist Papers, which helped to secure ratification of theConstitution by New York and remain the single most important interpretation of the Constitution.[3]In the new government under President Washington he became Secretary of the Treasury.[4] Anadmirer of British political systems, Hamilton was a nationalist who emphasized strong central

government and successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution could be used tofund the national debt, assume state debts, and create the government-owned Bank of the UnitedStates. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports and a highly controversialexcise tax on whiskey.

y 19.ratification on the constitutony The ratification, or adoption, of the Constitution took place between September of 1787 and July of

1788. The Federal Convention, which had drafted the Constitution between May and September1787, had no authority to impose it on the American people. Article VII of the Constitution and


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resolutions adopted by the convention on September 17, 1787, detailed a four-stage ratificationprocess: (1) submission of the Constitution to the Confederation Congress, (2) transmission of theConstitution by Congress to the state legislatures, (3) election of delegates to conventions in eachstate to consider the Constitution, and (4) ratification by the conventions of at least nine of thethirteen states.

y

The procedure reflected the political realities and principles of 1787-1788. Putting the Constitutionin the hands of specially elected conventions would avoid the hostility of state officials jealous oftheir state's sovereignty, as would the nine-states requirement (the Articles required all thirteenstates' consent for ratification of an amendment). The delegates also viewed the Constitution as afundamental law requiring a form of adoption more solemn and significant, and less vulnerable toshifts of public opinion, than approval by state legislatures. The ratification process itself wouldinduce Americans to think of themselves as a nation, encouraging them to look beyond their state'sborders in deciding whether to support the Constitution and disposing them to adopt a newgovernment for the American nation. Finally, the Constitution's proponents hoped, a series of quickratifications by the first state conventions might generate momentum that would be difficult to resist.

y Ratification was not guaranteed, however. The Confederation Congress might reject theConstitution, rewrite it, or refer it to a second general convention, claiming that the first had violatedits limited mandate to suggest amendments to the Articles. For the same reason, the states mightrefuse to elect ratifying conventions. Enough state conventions might spurn the Constitution(whether as an illegitimate proposal or on its merits) to prevent its implementation. Finally, rejectionby the legislatures or conventions of any or all of four key states--Massachusetts, New York,Pennsylvania, and Virginia--might cripple the Constitution, even if the necessary nine states didapprove it. These possibilities dominated American politics of the time.

y On September 28, 1787, after three days of bitter debate, the Confederation Congress sent theConstitution to the states with neither an endorsement nor a condemnation. This action, acompromise engineered by Federalist members, disposed of the argument that the convention hadexceeded its mandate; in the tacit opinion of Congress, the Constitution was validly before thepeople. The state legislatures' decisions to hold ratifying conventions confirmed the Constitution'slegitimacy.

y The ratification controversy pitted supporters of the Constitution, who claimed the name"Federalists," against a loosely organized group known as "Antifederalists." The Antifederalistsdenounced the Constitution as a radically centralizing document that would destroy Americanliberty and betray the principles of the Revolution. The Federalists urged that the nation's problemswere directly linked to the frail, inadequate Confederation and that nothing short of the Constitutionwould enable the American people to preserve their liberty and independence, the fruits of theRevolution.

y The Federalists--led by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay, John Marshall, JamesWilson, John Dickinson, and Roger Sherman--had several advantages. In a time of nationalpolitical crisis, they offered a clear prescription for the nation's ills; they were well organized andwell financed; and they were used to thinking in national terms and to working with politicians fromother states. They also had the support of the only two truly national political figures, George

Washington and Benjamin Franklin.

y 20.hamilton;s plan on national debty Despite the growing concern throughout the nation over a string of acts asserting national over

state power, the Washington administration remained dominated by Federalists, led by Secretaryof Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton's initiatives aroused the ire of those who maintained thepolitics of the Anti-federalists. Hamilton's main goals were to achieve the financial stability


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necessary to fight another war should one arise with the foreign threats of Britain and Spain, and todull assertions of state power that might diminish national power. In his Report on Public Credit,submitted to Congress in January 1790, Hamilton calculated the US debt at $54 million, withindividual states owing an additional $25 million. American credit abroad was poor, and continuedto fall with every day the debt was left unpaid. Hamilton suggested funding the debt by sellinggovernment bonds, and further proposed that state debts be assumed by the national government.

y Hamilton advocated the selling of western land to pay off US debt to European nations in order torebuild credit, but suggested that the debt to US creditors be maintained as a perpetual debt. Heargued the US could continue paying interest on its domestic debt, thus maintaining good credit, ifthe US creditors would accept the debt as a secure investment which paid yearly interest. This plangenerated opposition from many, objecting to the fact that under the plan, astute wealthyspeculators who had bought the debt certificates of others, many at great discounts, would benefit,while the Americans who actually financed the war would lose out.

y Heavy opposition arose to Hamilton's proposal that the national government assume the debts ofthe states as well. Opposition ran especially high in the South, which, excluding South Carolina,had paid off 83 percent of the region's debt. Southern states saw in Hamilton's proposal a plan toalleviate the tax burden on northern states lagging in their debt payments, while southern stateshad already reduced their debt at great internal cost. In the end, Hamilton pushed his proposalsthrough Congress with the aid of much political wheeling and dealing. The nation reaped theeconomic rewards of Hamilton's efforts to improve credit, as Europeans increasingly purchased USgovernment bonds and invested elsewhere in the US economy.

y In December 1790, Hamilton began his second controversial policy campaign. Having increasedthe amount of capital available for investment, he planned to establish a national bank. One-fifth ofthe bank's stock would be owned by the US Treasury, which would have one-fifth control of theboard of directors. The remainder would fall into private hands. Hamilton claimed the Bank of theUnited States would, at negligible cost, provide a secure depository for federal revenue and asource of federal loans, as well as issue currency. The bank would regulate the activities of thenation's banks and extend credit to US citizens in order to expand the economy.

y The proposal for the national bank brought Hamilton more opposition than had any previous

initiative. Most notably, Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, joined the ranks of Hamilton'sopponents. Jefferson and other political leaders recalled how the Bank of Britain had undermineddemocracy, and feared that the creation of the bank would tie private individuals too closely topublic institutions. They predicted that politicians would manipulate bank shareholders and thatmembers of Congress who held bank shares would vote for the best interests of the bank overthose of the nation. Hamilton's opponents further pointed out that the Constitution did not grant thefederal government the power to grant charters. Despite this opposition, Congress approved thebank by a thin margin, and the Bank of the United States obtained a twenty-year charter inFebruary 1791.

y 21.the Embargo Act of 1807 and the subsequent Nonintercourse Acts were American lawsrestricting American ships from engaging in foreign trade 1807 and 1812. They led to the War of1812 between the U.S. and Britain.

y Britain and France were engaged in a life-and-death struggle for control of Europe, and the small,remote USA became a pawn in their game. The Acts were diplomatic responses by presidentsThomas Jefferson and James Madison designed to protect American interests and avoid war. Theyfailed, and helped cause the war. The Acts were bitterly opposed by New England shippinginterests which suffered greatly from them.

y 22.Tecumseh (March 1768 October 5, 1813), also known as Tecumtha or Tekamthi,


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y a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy that opposed the UnitedStates during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812. He grew up in the Ohio country during the

American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War, where he was constantly exposed towarfare.[1]

y His brother Tenskwatawa was a religious leader who advocated a return to the ancestral lifestyle of

the tribes. A large following and a confederacy grew around his prophetic teachings. The NativeAmerican independence movement led to strife with settlers on the frontier. The confederacyeventually moved farther into the northwest and settled Prophetstown, Indiana in 1808. Tecumsehconfronted Indiana Governor William Henry Harrison to demand that land purchase treaties berescinded. Tecumseh traveled to the southern United States in an attempt to unite Native Americantribes in a confederacy throughout the North American continent.[1] Before he left, he warned hisbrother against fighting the Americans. His brother ignored him. While Tecumseh was traveling,Tenskwatawa was defeated in the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe.

y During the War of 1812, Tecumseh's confederacy allied with the British in Canada and helped inthe capture of Fort Detroit. The Americans, led by Harrison, launched a counter assault andinvaded Canada. They killed Tecumseh in the Battle of the Thames, in which they were alsovictorious over the British. Tecumseh has subsequently become a legendary folk hero. He isremembered by many Canadians for his defense of the country

y 23.The Trail of Tearsy the forced relocation and movement of Native Americans from the present-day United States. It has

been described as an act of genocide.

y The removal included many members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, andChoctaw nations among others in the United States, from their homelands to Indian Territory(present day Oklahoma) in the Western United States. The phrase originated from a description ofthe removal of the Choctaw Nation in 1831.[2] Many Native Americans suffered from exposure,disease, and starvation while on route to their destinations, and many died, including 4,000 of the15,000 relocated Cherokee.

y In 1831, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee-Creek, and Seminole (sometimescollectively referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes) were living as autonomous nations in whatwould be called the American Deep South. The process of cultural transformation (proposed byGeorge Washington and Henry Knox) was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokeeand Choctaw.[4] Andrew Jackson continued the removal of the Native Americans with the passageof the Indian Removal Act of 1830. In 1831 the Choctaw were the first to be removed, and theybecame the model for all other removals. After the Choctaw, the Seminole were removed in 1832,the Creek in 1834, then the Chickasaw in 1837, and finally the Cherokee in 1838.[5] After removal,some Native Americans remained in their ancient homelands - the Choctaw are found inMississippi, the Seminole in Florida, the Creek in Alabama, and the Cherokee in North Carolina. Alimited number of non-native Americans (including African-Americans - usually as slaves) alsoaccompanied the Native American nations on the trek westward.[5] By 1837, 46,000 Native

Americans from these southeastern states had been removed from their homelands thereby

opening 25 million acres (100,000 km2) for settlement.[5]

o 24.Cherokeey a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States (principally

Georgia, the Carolinas and East Tennessee). Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian languagefamily. In the 19th century, historians and ethnographers recorded their oral tradition that told of thetribe having migrated south in ancient times from the Great Lakes region, where otherIroquoian-speaking peoples were located.[4]


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y In the 19th century, white settlers in the United States called the Cherokees one of the "FiveCivilized Tribes", because they had assimilated numerous cultural and technological practices ofEuropean American settlers. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Cherokee Nation has morethan 300,000 members, the largest of the 563 federally recognized Native American tribes in theUnited States.[5]

y

Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United KeetoowahBand of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. They were forciblyrelocated there in the 1830s. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is located on the QuallaBoundary in western North Carolina.

o 25.Whig Partyy Was a political party of the United States during the era of Jacksonian democracy. Considered

integral to the Second Party System and operating from the early 1830s to the mid-1850s,the partywas formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and his Democratic Party.

y In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of Congress over the presidency, and favored aprogram of modernization and economic protectionism. This name was chosen to echo the

American Whigs of 1776, who fought for independence, and because "Whig" was then a widelyrecognized label of choice for people who saw themselves as opposing tyranny.

y The Whig Party counted among its members such national political luminaries as Daniel Webster,William Henry Harrison, and their preeminent leader, Henry Clay of Kentucky. In addition toHarrison, the Whig Party also nominated war heroes generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott.

Abraham Lincoln was the chief Whig leader in frontier Illinois.

o 26.Democratic Partyy is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican

Party. The party's social liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S.political spectrum.

y The party has the lengthiest record of continuous operation in the United States. The party had 72million registered voters in 2004. President Barack Obama is the 15th Democrat to hold the office.

y In the 112th Congress following the 2010 elections, the Democratic Party will hold a minority ofseats in the House of Representatives and state governorships, as well as a minority of statelegislatures. It will continue to hold a narrow majority of seats in the Senate at the beginning of the112th Congress.

o 27.Hamilton's plan for national banky the First Bank was a bank chartered by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. The

charter was for 20 years. The Bank was created to handle the financial needs and requirements ofthe central government of the newly formed United States, which had previously been thirteenindividual states with their own banks, currencies, financial institutions, and policies.

y Officially proposed by Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, to the first session of the FirstCongress in 1790, the concept for the Bank had both its support and origin in and among Northernmerchants and more than a few New England state governments. It was, however, eyed with greatsuspicion by the representatives of the Southern States, whose chief industry, agriculture, did notrequire centrally concentrated banks, and whose feelings of states' rights and suspicion of Northernmotives ran strong.

y The bank's charter expired in 1811 under President James Madison. The bill to recharter failed inthe House of Representatives by one vote, 65 to 64, on January 24, 1811. It failed in the Senatewhen Vice President George Clinton broke a tie vote that February 20. In 1816, however, Madisonrevived it in the form of the Second Bank of the United States.

o 28.Shays' Rebelliony was an armed uprising in central and western Philadelphia (mainly Springfield) from 1786 to 1787.

The rebellion is named after Daniel Shays, a veteran of the American Revolutionary war. Therebellion started on August 29, 1786, and by January 1787, over one thousand Shaysites had been


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arrested.y A militia that had been raised as a private army defeated an attack on the federal Springfield

Armory by the main Shaysite force on February 3, 1787, and four rebels were killed in the action.y There was a lack of an institutional response to the uprising, which energized calls to reevaluate the

Articles of Confederation and gave strong impetus to the Philadelphia Convention which began inMay 17, 1787. Shays' Rebellion produced fears that the Revolution's democratic impulse had

gotten out of hand.

o 29.President Washingtony was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to

1797. As the leader of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, he led the Americanvictory over Great Britain. He then presided over the writing of the Constitution in 1787, and he wasunanimously elected as the first President of the United States, a position he held from 1789-1797.

y During his presidency, he developed the forms and rituals of government that have been used eversince, such as using a cabinet system and delivering an inaugural address.

y Acclaimed ever since as the "Father of his country", Washington, along with Abraham Lincoln, hasbecome a central icon of republican values, self sacrifice in the name of the nation, Americannationalism and the ideal union of civic and military leadership.

o 30.Sugar Acty also known as the American Revenue Act or the American Duties Act, was a revenue-raising act

passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on April 5, 1764. The preamble to the act stated: "it isexpedient that new provisions and regulations should be established for improving the revenue ofthis Kingdom ... and ... it is just and necessary that revenue should be raised ... for defraying theexpenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same.

y The earlier Molasses Act of 1733, which had imposed a tax of six pence per gallon of molasses,had never been effectively collected due to colonial evasion. By reducing the rate by half andincreasing measures to enforce the tax, the British hoped that the tax would actually be collected.

y These incidents increased the colonists' concerns about the intent of the British Parliament andhelped the growing movement that became the American Revolution

o 31. Promoting national Growth- Tariffs, canals, railroadso The railroads were of vital importance in 'opening up' the vast interior of the U.S. to

settlement and economic development. Before the construction of the railroads,areas like the Great Plains were difficult and expensive to reach from areas like theEast Coast and the South, for example.

y Railroads changed logistics during the Civil War, and then railroads changed the logistics ofindustry--iron and steel, energy, manufacturing, distribution, and marketing. Route-miles of trackgrew to 70,000 in 1873, compared to 30,000 just 13 years before.

y By 1890, mileage was rapidly approaching 165,000. Growth in freight ton-miles tells the tale.

o 32.William Lloyd Garrisony was a prominent American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer.y He is best known as the editor of the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator, and as one of the

founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society.y he promoted "immediate emancipation" of slaves in the United States. Garrison was also a

prominent voice for the women's suffrage movement.

o 33.Francis Cabot Lowelly was the American businessman for whom the city of Lowell, Massachusetts, United States is

named, and who was instrumental in bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States.He wasborn in Newburyport, Massachusetts, the son of John Lowell (17431802) and Susanna Cabot(17541777), and a member of the prominent Boston Lowell family.


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y To raise capital for their mills, Lowell and partners pioneered a basic tool of modern corporatefinance by selling $1000 shares of stock to the public. This form of shareholder corporation quicklybecame the method of choice for structuring new American businesses, and endures to this day inthe well-known form of public stock offerings.

y In 1814, the Boston Manufacturing Company built its first mill beside the Charles River in Waltham,housing an integrated set of technologies that converted raw cotton all the way to finished cloth.

This Waltham mill was thus the forerunner of the 19th century American factory. Lowell alsopioneered the employment of women, from the age of 15-35 from New England farming families, astextile workers, in what became known as the Lowell system. He paid these "mill girls"(also knownas lowell girls) lower wages than men, but offered attractive benefits including in well-run companyboardinghouses with chaperones, cash wages, and benevolent religious and educational activities.He lobbied heavily for a protective tariff on cotton products; they were included in the Tariff of1816[4]

y Although he died early at age 42, only 3 years after building his first mill, Lowell left his BostonManufacturing Company in superb financial health. In 1821, dividends were paid out at anastounding 27.5% to shareholders. In 1822, Lowell's partners named their new mill town at thePawtucket Falls on the Merrimack River "Lowell," after their visionary leader. One of his sons,Francis Cabot Lowell Jr., continued to work in his father's footsteps.

y Lowell was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1978.

o 34.Charles Grandison Finneyy was a Presbyterian and Congregationalist figure in the Second Great Awakening. His influence

during this period was enough that he has been called The Father of Modern Revivalism.y Finney was known for his innovations in preaching and religious meetings such as having women

pray in public meetings of mixed gender, development of the "anxious seat", a place where thoseconsidering becoming Christians could come to receive prayer, and public censure of individuals byname in sermons and prayers.

y He was also known for his use of extemporaneous preaching.

o 35.temperance movementy is a social movement urging reduced use of alcoholic beverages.y Temperance movements may criticize excessive alcohol use, promote complete abstinence.y Also to pressure the government to enact anti-alcohol legislation

o 36.Northern economy before the civil wary as a nation, the United States was still primarily agricultural in the years before, during and

immediately after the Civil War. About three-quarters of the population lived in rural areas, includingfarms and small towns. Nevertheless, the Industrial Revolution that had hit England decadesbefore gradually established itself in the "former colonies."

y While factories were built all over the North and South, the vast majority of industrial manufacturingwas taking place in the North. The South had almost 25% of the country's free population, but only10% of the country's capital in 1860. The North had five times the number of factories as the South,and over ten times the number of factory workers. In addition, 90% of the nation's skilled workerswere in the North.

y The labor forces in the South and North were fundamentally different, as well. In the North, laborwas expensive, and workers were mobile and active. The influx of immigrants from Europe and

Asia provided competition in the labor market, however, keeping wages from growing very quickly.The Southern economy, however, was built on the labor of African American slaves, who wereoppressed into providing cheap labor. Most Southern white families did not own slaves: only about384,000 out of 1.6 million did. Of those who did own slaves, most (88%) owned fewer than 20slaves, and were considered farmers rather than planters. Slaves were concentrated on the largeplantations of about 10,000 big planters, on which 50-100 or more slaves worked. About 3,000 ofthese planters owned more than 100 slaves, and 14 of them owned over 1,000 slaves. Of the fourmillion slaves working in the South in 1860, about one million worked in homes or in industry,construction, mining, lumbering or transportation. The remaining three million worked in agriculture,


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two million of whom worked in cotton.y Since Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton 'gin, the cotton industry became a lucrative field for

Southern planters and farmers. Utilizing slave labor, cotton planters and farmers could cut costs asthey produced cotton for sale to other regions and for export to England. In exchange, Southernfarmers and planters purchased manufactured goods from the North, food items from the West andimported luxuries like European designer clothes and furniture from England. The growth of the

Southern cotton industry served as an engine of growth for the entire nation's economy in theantebellum years.y The other critical economic issue that divided the North from the South was that of tariffs. Tariffs

were taxes placed on imported goods, the money from which would go to the government.Throughout the antebellum period, whenever the federal government wanted to raise tariffs,Southern Congressmen generally opposed it and Northern Congressmen generally supported it.Southerners generally favored low tariffs because this kept the cost of imported goods low, whichwas important in the South's import-oriented economy. Southern planters and farmers wereconcerned that high tariffs might make their European trading partners, primarily the British, raiseprices on manufactured goods imported by the South in order to maintain a profit on trade.

y In the North, however, high tariffs were viewed favorably because such tariffs would make importedgoods more expensive. That way, goods produced in the North would seem relatively cheap, and

Americans would want to buy American goods instead of European items. Since tariffs wouldprotect domestic industry from foreign competition, business interests and others influencedpoliticians to support high tariffs.

y Americans in the West were divided on the issue. In the Southwest, where cotton was a primarycommodity, people generally promoted low tariffs. In the Northwest and parts of Kentucky, wherehemp was a big crop, people supported high tariffs.

o 37. Southern economy before civil wary The Southern economy was built on the labor of African American slaves, who were oppressed into

providing cheap labor.y Most Southern white families did not own slaves: only about 384,000 out of 1.6 million did. Of those

who did own slaves, most owned fewer than 20 slaves, and were considered farmers rather thanplanters. Slaves were concentrated on the large plantations of about 10,000 big planters, on which50-100 or more slaves worked.

y About 3,000 of these planters owned more than 100 slaves, and 14 of them owned over 1,000slaves. Of the four million slaves working in the South in 1860, about one million worked in homesor in industry, construction, mining, lumbering or transportation. The remaining three million workedin agriculture, two million of whom worked in cotton.

o 38.Texas Annexation of 1845was the annexation of the Republic of Texas to the UnitedStates of America as the twenty-eighth state. This act quickly led to the Mexican War(184648) in which the U.S. captured additional territory (known as the Mexican Cession of1848) extending the 19th century southern U.S. territorial acquisitions from Mexico all theway to the Pacific Ocean.

y Texas then claimed, but never actually controlled, the eastern part of this new territory, whichcomprised parts of present-day Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.

y This created a continuing dispute between Texas, the federal government and the New MexicoTerritory until the Compromise of 1850, when these lands became parts of other territories of the

United States in exchange for the U.S. federal government assuming the Texas Republic's $10million in debt.

o 39.role of women during civil warduring the tumultuous years of the Civil War, womenwho did not have a right to vote, own property and had few civic liberties of their own,unified in support of the war efforts. Women who had not worked a day in their

y lives, with grit and determination hid their identity and took up arms of their own, cared for sick anddying soldiers, risked their lives to gather information, cooked, cleaned and care for children. Thetenacity and love with which these women served their country was astounding, and yet often


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overlooked.y Although women were not allowed to serve in the army, that did not stop some women from

disguising themselves as men and taking up arms. Women would create masculine names andhide their identity from officials. We do not know how many women served because they did sosecretly. On occasion, their sex was revealed. Mary Owens, after being shot in the armed, wasdiscovered to be female. Upon returning home, despite her sex, she was received warmly. Both the

Union and Confederate army refused to acknowledge that women had served.y During wartime, women who were not fighting also played very important roles. When battle began,

both armies were unprepared for the wounded. Women with no medical training would rush out tothe front lines to help injured soldiers. Within two months, it was decided that Dorothea Dix wouldbe appointed Superintendent of Nurses.

y Ms. Dix had high standards for women wishing to serve as nurses. Women were to be over the ageof thirty, plain looking, wear service dresses, and be interviewed by her personally. These nursesworked strenuously 12 hour shifts sometimes attending to forty patients at a time. Many nursesliterally worked themselves to death. A good chronicle of the life of a nurse is Louisa May Alcott's"Hospital Sketches."

y Some women chose to nurse independent of Ms. Dix. One such woman was Clara Carton whowould later be credited as founder of the American Red Cross. To help assist in the war efforts shewould collect and distribute necessities to the soldiers.

o 40. The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, usually referred toas the Freedmen's Bureau,

y was a U.S. federal government agency that aided distressed refugees and freedmen (freed slaves)in 1865-1872, during the Reconstruction era of the United States.

y The Freedman's Bureau Bill, which created the Freedman's Bureau, was initiated by PresidentAbraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. It was passedon March 3, 1865, by Congress to aid former slaves through legal food and housing, oversight,education, health care, and employment contracts with private landowners. It became a keyagency during Reconstruction, assisting freedmen (freed ex-slaves) in the South. The Bureau waspart of the United States Department of War. Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard,the Bureau was operational from 1865 to 1872. It was disbanded under President Ulysses S. Grant.

y At the end of the war, the Bureau's main role was providing emergency food, housing, and medicalaid to refugees, though it also helped reunite families. Later, it focused its work on helping thefreedmen adjust to their conditions of freedom. Its main job was setting up work opportunities andsupervising labor contracts. It soon became, in effect, a military court that handled legal issues. By1866, it was attacked by Southern whites for organizing blacks against their former masters.

Although some of their subordinate agents were unscrupulous or incompetent, the majority of localBureau agents were hindered in carrying out their duties by the opposition of former Confederates,the lack of a military presence to enforce their authority, and an excessive amount of paperwork.

o President Andrew Johnson vetoed a bill for an increase of power of the Bureau, supportedby Radical Republicans, on February 19, 1866.

o 41.Jefferson Finis Davisy was an American statesman and leader of the Confederacy during the American Civil War; serving

as the President for its entire history. A West Point graduate, Davis fought in the Mexican-American

War as a colonel of a volunteer regiment, and was the United States Secretary of War underPresident Franklin Pierce. Both before and after his time in the Pierce administration, he served asa U.S. Senator representing the State of Mississippi. As a senator, he argued against secession,but did agree that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from theUnion.

y On February 18, 1861, after he resigned from the U.S. Senate, Davis was selected provisionalPresident of the Confederate States of America; he was elected without opposition to a six-yearterm that November. During his presidency, Davis took charge of the Confederate war plans butwas unable to find a strategy to stop the larger, more powerful and better organized Union. His


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diplomatic efforts failed to gain recognition from any foreign country, and he paid little attention tothe collapsing Confederate economy, printing more and more paper money to cover the war'sexpenses.

y Historians have criticized Davis for being a much less effective war leader than his Unioncounterpart Abraham Lincoln, which they attribute to Davis being overbearing, over controlling, andoverly meddlesome, as well as being out of touch with public opinion, and lacking support from a

political party According to historian Bell I. Wiley, the flaws in his personality and temperamentmade him a failure as the highest political officer in the Confederacy. His preoccupation with detail,inability to delegate responsibility, lack of popular appeal, feuds with powerful state governors,inability to get along with people who disagreed with him, and his neglect of civil matters in favor ofmilitary were only a few of the shortcomings which worked against him.

o 42.Abraham Lincolny served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April

1865. He successfully led the country through its greatest internal crisis, the American Civil War,preserved the Union, and ended slavery. Reared in a poor family on the western frontier, he wasmostly self-educated. He became a country lawyer, an Illinois state legislator, and a one-termmember of the United States House of Representatives, but failed in two attempts at a seat in theUnited States Senate. He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband, and father of fourchildren.

y Lincoln was an outspoken opponent of the expansion of slavery in the United States, which hedeftly articulated in his campaign debates and speeches.[1] As a result, he secured the Republicannomination and was elected president in 1860. As president he concentrated on the military andpolitical dimensions of the war effort, always seeking to reunify the nation after the secession of theeleven Confederate States of America. He vigorously exercised unprecedented war powers,including the arrest and detention, without trial, of thousands of suspected secessionists. He issuedhis Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and promoted the passage of the Thirteenth Amendmentto the United States Constitution, abolishing slavery.

y Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including UlyssesS. Grant. He brought leaders of various factions of both parties into his cabinet and pressured themto cooperate. He defused a confrontation with Britain in the Trent affair late in 1861. Under hisleadership, the Union took control of the border slave states at the start of the war and triedrepeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond. Each time a general failed, Lincoln

substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded in 1865. A shrewd politician deeply involved withpatronage and power issues in each state, he managed his own re-election in the 1864 presidentialelection.

o 43.Stephen Arnold Douglasy was an American politician from the western state of Illinois, and was the Northern Democratic

Party nominee for President in 1860. He lost to the Republican Party's candidate, Abraham Lincoln,whom he had defeated two years earlier in a Senate contest following a famed series of debates.He was nicknamed the "Little Giant" because he was short of stature but was considered by manya "giant" in politics. Douglas was well-known as a resourceful party leader, and an adroit, ready,skillful tactician in debate and passage of legislation.

y As chairman of the Committee on Territories, Douglas dominated the Senate in the 1850s. He waslargely responsible for the Compromise of 1850 that apparently settled slavery issues. However, in

1854 he reopened the slavery question by the highly controversial Kansas-Nebraska Act, thatallowed the people of the new territories to decide for themselves whether or not to have slavery(which is known as "popular sovereignty"). The protest movement against this became theRepublican Party.

y Douglas supported the Dred Scott Supreme Court decision of 1857, and denied that it was part of aSouthern plot to introduce slavery in the Northern states; but also argued it could not be effectivewhen the people of a territory declined to pass laws supporting it.[1] When President JamesBuchanan and his Southern allies attempted to pass a Federal slave code, to support slavery evenagainst the wishes of the people of Kansas, he battled and defeated this movement as


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undemocratic. This caused the split in the Democratic Party in 1860, as Douglas won thenomination but a breakaway southern faction nominated their own candidate, Vice President JohnC. Breckinridge. Douglas deeply believed in democracy, arguing the will of the people shouldalways be decisive.[2] When civil war came in April 1861, he rallied his supporters to the Union withall his energies, but he died a few weeks later.

o 44.Radical Republicanso were a loose faction of American politicians within the Republican Party from about 1854

(before the American Civil War) until the end of Reconstruction in 1877. Theycalled themselves "radicals" and were opposed during the war by moderates and afterthe war by self described "conservatives" (in the South) and "Liberals" (in theNorth).

o During the war, Radical Republicans opposed President Abraham Lincoln's policies interms of selection of generals and his efforts to bring states back into the Union;Lincoln vetoed the Radical plan in 1864 and was putting his own policies in effectwhen he was assassinated in 1865.

o Radicals pushed for the uncompensated abolition of slavery, and after the war supportedCivil rights for freedmen (the newly freed slaves), such as measures ensuring the rightto vote. They initiated the Reconstruction Acts, and reduced rights forex-Confederate soldiers. The Radicals were vigorously opposed by the Democratic

Party and usually by moderate and Liberal Republicans as well.

o 45.transcontinental railroado is a contiguous network of railroad trackage that crosses a continental land mass with

terminals at different oceans or continental borders. Such networks can be via thetracks of either a single railroad, or over those owned or controlled by multiple railwaycompanies along a continuous route.

o Although Europe is crisscrossed by railways, the railroads within Europe are usually notconsidered transcontinental, with the possible exception of the historic Orient

Express.o Transcontinental railroads helped open up unpopulated interior regions of continents to

exploration and settlement that would not otherwise have been feasible. In manycases they also formed the backbones of cross-country passenger and freight

transportation networks.

o 46. Grangerso in 1867, Kelley formed the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, a fraternal

organization complete with its own secret rituals.o Local affiliates were known as "granges" and the members as "grangers."o In its early years, the Grange was devoted to educational events and social gatherings.

o 47.national market system plano is a structured method of transmitting securities transactions in real-time. In the United

States, national market systems are governed by section 11A of the Securities ExchangeAct of 1934.

o In addition to processing the transactions themselves, these plans also emit the price and

volume data for these transactions. Information on each securities trade is sent toa central network at the Securities Industry Automation Corporation (SIAC) where itis then distributed, consolidated with other trades on the same "tape".

o There are three major tapes in the United States: Tape A and Tape B (which together arecalled the "Consolidated Tape"), and Tape C.

o 48.Panic of 1893o was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in that year.Similar to

the Panic of 1873, this panic was marked by the collapse of railroad overbuilding and


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ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court that people of African descent imported into the United Statesand held as slaves (or their descendants,whether or not they were slaves) were not protected bythe Constitution and could never be U.S. citizens.

y The court also held that the U.S. Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in federal territoriesand that, because slaves were not citizens, they could not sue in court.

y Lastly, the Court ruled that slaves, as chattels or private property, could not be taken away fromtheir owners without due process. The Supreme Court's decision was written by Chief JusticeRoger B. Taney.

y 54.) Northwest ordinance

y The Northwest Ordinance was an act of the Congress of the Confederation of the United States.

y The primary effect of the ordinance was the creation of the Northwest Territory as the firstorganized territory of the United States out of the region south of the Great Lakes, north and west ofthe Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi River.

y On August 7, 1789, the U.S. Congress affirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications under the

Constitution.

y 55.)spanish american war

y The SpanishAmerican War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States.[6]Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by

Americans; there had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873.

y By 189798 American public opinion grew angrier at reports of Spanish atrocities, magnified by the"yellow journalism".

y After the mysterious sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor, political pressures

from the Democratic Party pushed the government headed by President William McKinley, aRepublican, into a war McKinley had wished to avoid.\l

y 56.)u.s. mexico war

y The MexicanAmerican War was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of itsterritory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution.

y In addition to a naval blockade off the Mexican coast, American forces invaded and conquered NewMexico, California, and parts of what is currently northern Mexico.

y

Another American army captured Mexico City, forcing Mexico to agree to the sale of its northernterritories to the U.S.

y 57.)business management practice in late 1800s

y Founded in 1851, Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company (MassMutual) is a leadingmutual life insurance company that is run for the benefit of its members and participatingpolicyholders.


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y The company has a long history of financial strength and strong performance, and althoughdividends are not guaranteed,

y MassMutual has paid dividends to eligible participating policyholders every year since the 1860s.

y

58.)U.S. territory acquired after spanish america wary Manifest Destiny was the 19th century American belief that the United States was destined to

expand across the North American continent,

y From the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean.

y It was used by Democrats in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico; the concept was denouncedby Whigs, and fell into disuse after the mid 1800s.

y 59.)samoa

y Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa, formerly known as Western Samoa and GermanSamoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean.

y It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main islands of Samoa are Upolu andone of the biggest islands in Polynesia, Savai'i.

y The capital city Apia and Faleolo International Airport are situated on the island of Upolu.

y 60.)ida wells

y Ida Bell Wells-Barnett (July 16, 1862 March 25, 1931) was an African American journalist,newspaper editor and, with her husband, newspaper owner Ferdinand L. Barnett, an early leader inthe civil rights movement.

y She documented the extent of lynching in the United States, and was also active in the women's

rights movement and the women's suffrage movement.y Idas father James was a master at carpentry and known as a race man. He was also very

interested in politics, but he never took office.

y 61.) muller vs. oregon

y Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908), was a landmark decision in United States Supreme Courthistory, as it justifies both sex discrimination and usage of labor laws during the time period.

y The case upheld Oregon state restrictions on the working hours of women as justified by thespecial state interest in protecting women's health.

y

The case was decided a mere three years after Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), in whicha New York law restricting the weekly working hours of bakers was invalidated.

y 62.) american federation labor (AFL)

y The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was one of the first federations of labor unions in the


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United States.y It was founded in 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a

national labor association.y Gompers promoted harmony among the different craft unions that comprised the AFL.

y 63.)yellow journalism

y yellow journalism or the yellow press is a type of journalism that presents little or no legitimatewell-researched news and instead uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers.

y Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism.y By extension "Yellow Journalism" is used today as a pejorative to decry any journalism that treats

news in an unprofessional or unethical fashion.

y 64.trusts :

y A special trust or business trust is a business entity formed with intent to monopolize business, to

restrain trade, or to fix prices.y Trusts gained economic power in the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.y Involvement in money and banks

y 65.theodore rooselvelt :

y Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt October 27, 1858 January 6, 1919) was the 26th President of theUnited States.

y He is noted for his energetic personality, range of interests and achievements, leadership of theProgressive Movement, and his "cowboy" image and robust masculinity.

y Born into a wealthy family, Roosevelt was an unhealthy child who suffered from asthma and stayedat home studying natural history.

y 66.nativist fears in early 1900s

y The main explanation for the origins of the American Civil War is slavery, especially Southern angerat the attempts by Northern antislavery political forces to block the expansion of slavery into thewestern territories.

y States' rights and the tariff issue became entangled in the slavery issue, and were intensified by it.y In different periods of American history, the role of Congress shifted along with changing relations

with the other branches of government, and was sometimes marked by intense partisanship andother times by cooperation across the aisle.

y 67.college enrollment in late 1800/early 1900s

y Mount Saint Joseph Academy is an all-girls, Roman Catholic college preparatory school in theBrighton neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts.

y The school is located within the Archdiocese of Boston, and is accredited by the New EnglandAssociation of Schools and Colleges.

y The first documented French visitor to the Kansas City area was tienne de Veniard, Sieur deBourgmont, who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River.

y 68.american socialists


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y The American Socialist Union was recognised in 1954 as the sympathising organisation in theUnited States of the International Secretariat of the Fourth International.

y Its best-known members were Bert Cochran, Harry Braverman and Paul N. Siegel. It dissolved in1959.

y

In the first decades of the 20th Century, it drew significant support from many different groups,including trade unionists, progressive social reformers, populist farmers, and immigrantcommunities.

y 69.william howard taft

y William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 March 8, 1930) was the 27th President of the UnitedStates and later the 10th Chief Justice of the United States.

y he is the only person to have served in both offices.y Riding a wave of popular support of President (and fellow Republican) Theodore Roosevelt, Taft

won an easy victory in his 1908 bid for the presidency.

y 70.crispus attucks

y Crispus Attucks (1723 March 5, 1770) was killed in the Boston Massacre in Boston,Massachusetts.

y He has been named as the first martyr of the American Revolution.y In the early nineteenth century, as the Abolitionist movement gained momentum in Boston, Attucks

was lauded as an example of a black American who played a heroic role in the history of the UnitedStates [2] Because Crispus Attucks had Wampanoag ancestors, his story also holds special

significance for many Native Americans.[3]

y 71.thomas paine

y Thomas "Tom" Paine (February 9, 1737 [O.S. January 29, 1736[1]] June 8, 1809) was an author,pamphleteer, radical, inventor, intellectual, revolutionary, and one of the Founding Fathers of theUnited States.

y He has been called "a staymaker by trade, a journalist by profession, and a propagandist byinclination."

y Born in Thetford, in the English county of Norfolk, Paine emigrated to the British American coloniesin 1774 in time to participate in the American Revolution.

y

72.george 3rd

y George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 1738[1] 29 January 1820 [N.S.]) was King of GreatBritain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death.

y He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lneburg ("Hanover") in the HolyRoman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814.

y He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two predecessors he wasborn in Britain and spoke English as his first language.[2] Despite his long life, he never visitedHanover.


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y 73 . ) dr.benjamin rush

y Benjamin Rush (January 4, 1746 [O.S. December 24, 1745] April 19, 1813) was a FoundingFather of the United States.

y

Rush lived in the state of Pennsylvania and was a physician, writer, educator, humanitariany and a Universalist,[1] as well as the founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

y 74. Pontiac

y He lived by lands west of the Appalachians, settlers claimed Native American hunting grounds thatthe French had protected.

y He was an Ottawa chief that led the proclamation of 1763.y Within a few months Native Americans captured or destroyed British forts killing settlers.

y 75. Jehu Grant

y An enslaved laborer who escaped from his master and joined the colonists.y He saw liberty poles and people all engaged for the purpose of freedom,y A small amount of African Americans living in the colonies served in the continental army.

y 76. Henry Clay

y A member of congress from Kentucky, he was a war hawk. He organized his ideas into aneconomic plan called the American System.This system was based on the idea that a strongernational government would benefit each of the different sections of the country. also ,Claysupported the 1816 bill to increase tariffs. This bill passed.

y In 1816 congress faced whether or not to charter a new Bank of the United States. Clay supportedthe Bank arguing that it would stabilize the economy and encourage investments. The bill passed.

y Clay wanted the government to supply money for improvements such as roads. The south saw thebenefits. The north did not want this; they argued that there were roads and canals already. Theywould not directly benefit.Three of clays internal improvement bills were passed by congress andthen vetoed by three different presidents. Clay was disappointed that these Presidents paid so littleattention to internal improvements.

y 77. Daniel Webster

y Worked with Henry Clay during the bank crisis in 1832.y They knew how Jackson felt and planned to strengthen the bank and embarrass the president at

the same time.y Together they drafted a bill re-chartering the bank, even though the banks original charter still had

4 years remaining. They reasoned that Jackson would not dare to veto a bill in his reelection year.y The bill passed congress and reached the president in July 1832.

y 78. Daniel Boone

y Daniel Boone an American pioneer, explorer, and frontiersman whose frontier exploits made him


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one of the first folk heroes of the United States.

y Boone is most famous for his exploration and settlement of what is now the Commonwealth ofKentucky ,which was then beyond the western borders of the settled part of Thirteen Colonies .

y Despite some resistance from American Indian tribes such as the Shawnee, in 1778 Boone blazedhis Wilderness Road through the Cumberland Gap in the Appalachian Mountains - from NorthCarolina and Tennessee into Kentucky.

y 79. John C. Calhoun

y Was the seventh Vice President of the United States and a leading Southern politician from SouthCarolina during the first half of the 19th century.

y His redefinition of Republicanism was widely accepted in the South and rejected in the North at thetime.

y His defense of slavery became defunct, but his concept of concurrent majority, whereby a minorityhas the right to object to or perhaps even veto hostile legislation directed against it, has beenincorporated into the American value system.

y 80. Andrew Jackson

y His image as a no nonsense frontiersman who had worked his way up the ladder of societyappealed to many voters , but lost the election of 1824, causing the Democratic Republican party tosplit. Democrats supported him and won the election of 1828.

y Jackson was an active executive who vetoed more bills than all previous presidents. He believed inrewarding loyalty and appealing to the masses. He relied on an informal group of advisors calledthe "Kitchen Cabinet" to set policy instead of his real cabinet. During Jackson's presidency,sectional issues began to arise. Many Southern states wished to preserve states' rights. They wereupset over tariffs and when in 1832, Jackson signed a moderate tariff, South Carolina felt they hadthe right through "nullification" (the belief that a state could rule something unconstitutional) toignore it. Jackson stood strong against South Carolina, ready to use the military if necessary to

enforce the tariff. In 1833, a compromise tariff was enacted that helped mollify the sectionaldifferences for a time.

y In 1832, Jackson vetoed the Second Bank of the United State's charter. He believed thegovernment could not constitu

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