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Historical Historical Overview of Overview of
Methodologies in Methodologies in ESLESL
English 6010 Week 2English 6010 Week 2
Key TermsKey Terms
ApproachApproach
a well informed set of assumptions a well informed set of assumptions and beliefs about the nature of and beliefs about the nature of teaching and learningteaching and learning
MethodMethod
a generalized set of rules that should a generalized set of rules that should be followed when teaching language be followed when teaching language
primarily concerned with the primarily concerned with the teacher and the students’ roles as teacher and the students’ roles as opposed to subject-matter objectivesopposed to subject-matter objectives
TechniqueTechnique
specific activities manifested in the specific activities manifested in the classroom classroom
consistent with a method and consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an therefore in harmony with an approach as wellapproach as well
Curriculum/syllabusCurriculum/syllabus
a design for carrying out a particular a design for carrying out a particular language programlanguage program
consists of specification of linguistic consists of specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated group of the needs of a designated group of learners in a defined contextlearners in a defined context
MethodologyMethodology
a theoretical frameworka theoretical framework pedagogical practices in general and pedagogical practices in general and
considerations involved in “how to considerations involved in “how to teach”teach”
based on an epistemological stance based on an epistemological stance (how do we learn)(how do we learn)
Historical Overview Historical Overview of ESL Educationof ESL Education
Classical Period Education as an arm of theocracy
Purpose of education was to teach religious orthodoxy and good moral character
Emphasis on learning to read and writeLittle importance on placed on higher education
Latin Grammar SchoolsLatin and Greek to Understand the Holy Scriptures
Modern Languages were learned by studying abroad or from private tutors
American Revolution to the Civil War
The Age of EnlightenmentExpanding trade and commerce
Cultural NationalismCareers available in book-keeping and foreign trade for children of the upper-class
Secular control of educationEmergence of academies and high schools
Modern and Foreign Language TeachingBegins in the mid-eighteen century and it was considered a “frill” subject; not enough of a mental discipline
The “Boom Period”—Civil War to World War I
Tax-Supported Public Education (response Tax-Supported Public Education (response to influx of immigrants), to influx of immigrants), Decline of private academies
Decline in Latin and Classical Studies,German and French the most popular languages
Dominance of traditional methods, Emphasis on memorization and grammar-translation methods; reading as a foreign language
continuedcontinued
Establishment of the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) in 1883Stressed need for L2 study as intellectual discipline
Emergence of psychology as a science and psychological theory and practice influence teaching methods and learning theory
Introduction of the “Direct Method”Role of L1 and L2 is assessed
World War I to 1952
Post-War IsolationismDisillusion with American omnipotence in world affairs
Goal to educate all America’s childrenFocus away from education of the elite; foreign language study only for the “college bound”
The “Melting Pot”Assimilation or “Americanization” of immigrants stressed as the role of the public schools
Continued
Emergence of cultural anthropology and linguisticsLeonard Bloomfield criticizes L2 methodologies; declares “primacy of oral language”
BehaviorismB. F. Skinner and Verbal Behavior, stimulus response learning theory; emphasis on scientific methods of observation
1950s Trends that Last into the 1960s
Age of Material comfort and psychological discomfortEra of bomb shelters, “hippies” rise of subcultures, the “Great Society”
Expanding academic, vocational and general education programsPublic schools seen as the vehicle for progress and social change
New Approaches to teachingTeam-teaching; non-graded classes; open classrooms; individualized instruction; programmed instruction; flexible and core curriculum scheduling
ContinuedContinued
The Audiolingual MethodA marriage of stimulus response (B. F. Skinner) learning theory and linguistics
Rise and fall of media and computer technologyDiffusion and later abandonment of the language laboratory; growing expansion of technology
Continued
1952—William Riley Parker’s National Interest and Foreign LanguagesExpounds on how expanding global interests of the United States require people who are multilingual and multicultural for business, industry, foreign relations, education
1957 Chomsky’s Syntactic StructuresEmergence of generative-transformational grammar; the competence/performance distinction
The 1960s Wedding of Disciplines
1964—Emergence of psycholinguistic theory and interest in childhood vs. adult education
Emergence of eclecticismThe “great debate” over L2 methods resulting from disillusion with audiolingual method; impact of cognitive psychology; examination of L2 teaching “mythology”
Continued
Competence-based EducationAge of social engineering; emergence of the behavioral objective and Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive and effective objectives
Rise of Humanistic PsychologyStudent-centered classrooms; explorations in values education; cognitive styles; attitudes and motivation; group dynamics
1966- TESOL is founded
Back to the Basics Movement
Disassembling of “innovations”; emphasis on accountability reforms in teacher education to emphasize knowledge of subject matter vs. pedagogy
Abolition of language requirementsDe-emphasis of grammar instruction; focus on pragmatic L2 instruction and communicative competence
Incorporation of research findings in L2 theory and teachingExamination of the nature of language proficiency in varying contexts
Language Education 1970 to the Present
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 and 1974(Title VII) and Lau vs. Nichols. Emphasis on second vs. foreign language studies. Rise of Paolo Freire’s critical pedagogy; cultural pluralism; acculturation; multicultural education. Focus on teaching L2 culture in the classroom
Continued Emergence of new methodologies and
curriculum modelsInnovative methods include the Natural or Communicative Approach; Social therapeutic orientations such as Community Learning, suggestopedia; the Notional-Functional Syllabus
Theorists link cognitive and linguistic development and explain bilingual language development and competence
Shift in emphasis to literacy and content area instruction
Continued
Constructivist theory leads to Whole Language Movement and renewed study of the role of language proficiency in reading and writing; Methods focus on integration of language and content area teaching such as Sheltered English, Integrated Thematic Instruction
English-Only versus English plus Movements
There was a heated debate in political arenas and the public sector over the role of foreign languages and bilingualism in American society; emergence of immersion vs. transitional and two-way bilingual models. Rise of the English-only movement; Proposition 227 in California virtually eliminates bilingual education programs; “Sheltered Immersion” becomes the state-mandated model of instruction; bilingual education preserved and expanded in Texas, New York and Florida.
Overview of Overview of MethodsMethods
The Grammar Translation The Grammar Translation MethodMethod
Vocabulary is taught in the form of Vocabulary is taught in the form of lists or isolationlists or isolation
Long explanations of grammar rulesLong explanations of grammar rules Readings of classical difficult textsReadings of classical difficult texts Grammatical analysisGrammatical analysis Little or no attention to Little or no attention to
pronunciationpronunciation
The Direct MethodThe Direct Method Classroom instruction exclusively in the Classroom instruction exclusively in the
target languagetarget language Grammar was taught inductively (teacher Grammar was taught inductively (teacher
is a facilitator)is a facilitator) New teaching points were taught through New teaching points were taught through
modeling and practicemodeling and practice Both speech and listening comprehension Both speech and listening comprehension
were taughtwere taught Correct pronunciation and grammar were Correct pronunciation and grammar were
emphasizedemphasized
The Audiolingual MethodThe Audiolingual Method
New material is presented in New material is presented in dialogue formdialogue form
MemorizationMemorization Set phrasesSet phrases DrillsDrills Tapes, language lab, visual aidsTapes, language lab, visual aids Successful responses immediately Successful responses immediately
reinforcedreinforced
Cognitive code learningCognitive code learning
Deep structure of languageDeep structure of language Chomsky LAD (language acquisition Chomsky LAD (language acquisition
device)device) DeductiveDeductive Conscious awareness of rulesConscious awareness of rules Generative transformational Generative transformational
grammargrammar
““Designer” Methods of the Designer” Methods of the Spirited 1970sSpirited 1970s
Separation of ESL and linguistics as Separation of ESL and linguistics as a field of studya field of study
Language acquisition studies based Language acquisition studies based on language learning inside and on language learning inside and outside of the classroomoutside of the classroom
Innovative methods were conceivedInnovative methods were conceived
Community Language Community Language LearningLearning
Language learning was visualized as Language learning was visualized as a counseling sessiona counseling session
Rogers’s views on language learningRogers’s views on language learning Avoids threatening environmentAvoids threatening environment Deductive learning (when A then B, Deductive learning (when A then B,
knowledge is “transferred” from the knowledge is “transferred” from the teacher to the learner, information teacher to the learner, information according to established knowledge)according to established knowledge)
SuggestopediaSuggestopedia
Language learning occurs under the Language learning occurs under the right conditionsright conditions
Students are asked to be “child like”Students are asked to be “child like” Business enterpriseBusiness enterprise
The Silent WayThe Silent Way
Learning is facilitated by physical Learning is facilitated by physical objectsobjects
Problem solving involving the Problem solving involving the material to be learnedmaterial to be learned
Rods to introduce vocabularyRods to introduce vocabulary Charts to introduce pronunciation Charts to introduce pronunciation
models, grammatical paradigmsmodels, grammatical paradigms
Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response
Commands are givenCommands are given Listening and actingListening and acting No verbal response is necessaryNo verbal response is necessary
KrashenKrashen
Acquisition Learning Hypothesis (learning Acquisition Learning Hypothesis (learning vs. acquisition)vs. acquisition)
The Natural Order (grammatical rules are The Natural Order (grammatical rules are learned in a predictable way)learned in a predictable way)
The Monitor Hypothesis (checks and The Monitor Hypothesis (checks and monitor output of what has been learned)monitor output of what has been learned)
The Input Hypothesis (I + 1) a little The Input Hypothesis (I + 1) a little beyond the comprehension levelbeyond the comprehension level
The Affective Filter Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis (motivation)(motivation)
The Post-method The Post-method EraEra
The Pull of MethodsThe Pull of Methods
Teachers want to believe that if they Teachers want to believe that if they just do X their students will learn just do X their students will learn language.language.
Students also want to believe that Students also want to believe that there is some magic pill that if the there is some magic pill that if the teacher would just give it to them, teacher would just give it to them, they would learn.they would learn.
Positivist vs. critical Positivist vs. critical perspectiveperspective
Postivist (or scientist) orientation: Postivist (or scientist) orientation: empirical-analytic approach, claims of empirical-analytic approach, claims of objectivity, how we teach is based on objectivity, how we teach is based on knowledge derived through experimental knowledge derived through experimental researchresearch
Critical theory: all knowledge is social, Critical theory: all knowledge is social, cultural, and political; produced in a cultural, and political; produced in a particular economic, historical context; particular economic, historical context; claims to knowledge represent the claims to knowledge represent the interests of certain individuals or groupsinterests of certain individuals or groups
But…But…
Researchers still do not know Researchers still do not know exactly how we learn a second exactly how we learn a second languagelanguage
Human learning can’t be reliably Human learning can’t be reliably studied with experimental research studied with experimental research designsdesigns
So…we cannot produce the “magic So…we cannot produce the “magic bullet”!bullet”!
Discussion What is Prabhu’s problem with people saying “There is no best
method”? What does Pennycook mean when her says that “all education is
political” and that “all knowledge is ‘interested’” (p. 590)? Use the example of English education in Puerto Rico (or language education in another context that you know well) to illustrate his two claims.
What is Pennycook’s problem with the concept of Methos as published by different scholars? (see pp. 599-606)
Pennycook argues that the concept of Method is patriarchal (it imposes ideas developed by mostly male linguists on the mostly female workforce of ESL teachers) and imperialistic (it assumes that Methods, developed in the West, are the best way to teach ESL across the world). Do you agree with Pennycook? Why or why not?
What do you think is the relationship between method and what teachers actually are doing (and have been doing) in the classroom?
PrabhuPrabhu
Best method varies from context to Best method varies from context to contextcontext Still left with search to find the best Still left with search to find the best
method for a particular context.method for a particular context. There is truth in every methodThere is truth in every method
But which parts are true?But which parts are true? Objective method evaluation is Objective method evaluation is
impossibleimpossible
PennycookPennycook