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HISTORICAL LITERACY COMPETENCE AS A TYPE OF MEDIA LITERACY AMONG GERMAN LANGUAGE UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS
CHANG SHI WEN
FBMK 2019 55
i
HISTORICAL LITERACY COMPETENCE AS A TYPE OF MEDIA
LITERACY AMONG GERMAN LANGUAGE UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS
By
CHANG SHI WEN
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in
Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
August 2019
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COPYRIGHT
All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,
photographs, and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia
unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for
non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may
only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of
the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts
HISTORICAL LITERACY COMPETENCE AS A TYPE OF MEDIA
LITERACY AMONG GERMAN LANGUAGE UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS
By
CHANG SHI WEN
August 2019
Chairman : Associate Professor Ang Lay Hoon, PhD
Faculty : Modern Languages and Communication
A current development in Malaysia: the young generation is exposed to an
overwhelming number of media (e.g. social media, printed media, broad-cast, film) on
daily basis. The convenience of internet access has resulted in the dependency of people
towards online information without critically judging its reliability. The study of this
development indicates that the young generation lacks media literacy competencies. As
part of media literacy (ML), historical literacy (HL) plays an important role in
strengthening the development of media literacy among people. When it comes to
foreign language learning, historical literacy competencies are particularly important,
because one of the best ways to learn a foreign language comprehensively is to
understand the culture including the history of that particular target language.
Leveraging on historical feature film to learn history has become a common approach in
the education field, the development of historical literacy competencies becomes
essential in helping learners to critically understand and regard historical feature film as
learning material.
The purpose of this study is to describe the current state of the historical literacy
competencies (HLC) among students. This study focuses on evaluating the dimension
of HLC, which includes content knowledge (CK), narrative analysis (NA) and historical
empathy (HE) among the participants. There are two research questions for this study,
which are: (1) what is the current state of the participant’s historical literacy
competencies (HLC) by evaluating its dimensions (CK, NA and HE) among them?; and
(2) how have content knowledge (CK), narrative analysis (NA) and historical empathy
(HE) contributed to historical literacy competencies (HLC)? This study applied a
descriptive case study method, with a group of 21 students as participants. A class project
called “Exploring World War II – A Historical Feature Film Project” with 7 historical
feature films and face-to-face interviews was applied as the instrument in this study. The
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data collected were analysed using inductive approach. The findings from this study
indicated that content knowledge, narrative analysis, and historical empathy have fairly
displayed among the students. Additionally, the findings also signified that content
knowledge, narrative analysis, and historical empathy contributed to the historical
literacy competencies via critical thinking. Results from this study will provide an
insight for the researcher that interested in explore historical literacy as part of media
literacy.
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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sastera
KOMPETENSI LITERASI SEJARAH SEBAGAI SALAH SATU JENIS
LITERASI MEDIA DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR SARJANA MUDA
PENGKHUSUSAN BAHASA JERMAN
Oleh
CHANG SHI WEN
Ogos 2019
Pengerusi : Profesor Madya Ang Lay Hoon, PhD
Faculti : Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi
Di Malaysia, generasi muda terdedah kepada perbagai media (sebagai contoh: media
social, media cetak, siaran, filem) setiap hari, hal ini telah menjadi perkembangan
semasa. Akses mudah ke internet telah mengakibatkan kebanyakan orang bergantung
kepada maklumat dalam talian tanpa penilaian kritikal terhadap kebenarannya. Kajian
mengenai perkembangan ini menunjukkan bahawa generasi muda kurang kompetensi
terhadap literasi media. Sebagai sebahagian daripada literasi media, literasi sejarah
memainkan peranan penting dalam mengukuhkan perkembangan literasi media di
kalangan orang ramai. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa asing, kompetensi literasi sejarah
adalah amat penting kerana salah satu cara yang terbaik untuk belajar bahasa asing secara
komprehensif ialah mamahami budaya termasuk sejarah bahasa asing tersebut. Oleh itu,
pengunaan filem berciri sejarah untuk belajar sejarah telah menjadi pendekatan umum
dalam bidang pendidikan. perkembangan kompetensi literasi sejarah menjadi semakin
penting dalam membantu palajar untuk memahami dan mengendali filem berciri sejarah
sebagai bahan pembelajaran secara kritikal.
Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk menerangkan keadaan semasa kompetensi literasi sejarah
di kalangan pelajar bacelor sastera pengkhususan bahasa Jerman di Universiti Putra
Malaysia. Terdapat dua soalan untuk kajian ini, iaitu: (1) Apakah keadaan semasa
kompetensi literasi sejarah para pelajar dengan menilai dimensi (pengetahuan
kandungan, analisis naratif, dan empati sejarah) dalam kalangan mereka?; dan (2)
Bagaimanakah pengetahuan kandungan, analisis naratif, dan empati sejarah
menyumbang kepada kompetensi literasi sejarah? Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah
kajian kes deskriptif dengan 21 orang pelajar sebagai peserta. Kajian ini menggunakan
satu kelas projek bernama “Meneroka Perang Dunia II – Projek Filem Berciri Sejarah”
dengan tujuh buah filem berciri sejarah dan wawancara bersemuka sebagai instrumen
kajian. Penemuan dari kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa pengetahuan kandungan, analisis
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naratif, dan empati sejarah muncul dalam kalangan pelajar dengan secukupnya. Di
samping itu, penemuan juga menunjukkan bahawa pengetahuan kandungan, analisis
naratif, dan empati sejarah menyumbang kepada kompetensi literasi sejarah melalui
kemahiran pemikiran kritis. Hasil daripada kajian ini akan memberi pandangan kepada
para penyelidik yang berminat untuk menjelejah literasi sejarah sebagai salah satu jenis
literasi media.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. Torsten Schaar, for
motivating me and helping me with his expertise. I am truly grateful that he helped to
facilitate the film project. I learned a great deal of historical knowledge from him through
the film project. It is impossible to complete this research without his diligent support.
Secondly, I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to the chairman of my
supervisory committee, Dr. Ang Lay Hoon, for her constant guidance and
encouragement. I am very grateful for her precious time and effort to go through drafts
and provide constructive suggestions, for the sake of improving the quality of this thesis.
Thirdly, I would like to thanks my parents, for their unbelievable moral support. They
are the most important persons in my life, and I dedicate this thesis to them.
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Declaration by graduate student
I hereby confirm that:
this thesis is my original work;
quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;
this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree at
any institutions;
intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by
Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012;
written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-
Chancellor (Research and innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of
written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,
proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture
notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra
Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly
integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)
Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software
Signature: ________________________ Date: __________________
Name and Matric No.: Chang Shi Wen, GS43094
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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee
This is to confirm that:
the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;
supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate
Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) were adhered to.
Signature:
Name of Chairman
of Supervisory
Committee:
Associate Professor Dr. Ang Lay Hoon
Signature:
Name of Member
of Supervisory
Committee:
Dr. Miroslava Majtanova
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
APPROVAL vi
DECLARATION viii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvi
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 4
1.3 Research Objectives and Research Questions 6
1.4 Research Limitations 6
1.5 Significance of The Study 8
1.6 Operational Definition 8
1.7 Conclusion 10
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 11
2.1 Historical Feature Films (HFF) 11
2.2 Historical Literacy (HL) 12
2.3 Historical Feature Films as a Pedagogical Tool 13
2.4 Personal Research Experiences 16
2.5 The Theory of Five Important Historical Literacy
Competencies (HLC) 17
2.6 Conclusion 22
3 METHODOLOGY 23
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Theoretical Framework 23
3.3 Conceptual Framework 26
3.4 Adaption of Irwin’s class project model 26
3.5 Research Procedures and Instruments 29
3.5.1 Instrument 29
3.5.2 Research Samples 32
3.5.3 Research Procedures 34
3.5.4 Data Analysis Method 41
3.6 Pilot Study 45
3.6.1 Pilot Study Process 45
3.6.2 Synopsis of the Chosen HFF – Stalingrad (Germany,
1993) 46
3.6.3 Pilot Study Findings 48
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3.6.4 Pilot Study Conclusion 49
3.7 Trustworthiness, Credibility and Authenticity 50
3.8 Conclusion 51
4 RESULTS 52
4.1 Introduction 52
4.2 Analysis of Group Assignments 52
4.3 Analysis of Participants’ answers 55
4.3.1 Content Knowledge (CK) - “Sophie Scholl – The
Final Days” (2005) 56
4.3.2 Content Knowledge (CK) - “Lore” (2012) 59
4.3.3 Summary for Content Knowledge (CK) 63
4.3.4 Narrative Analysis (NA) - “The Grey Zone” (2001) 64
4.3.5 Narrative Analysis (NA) - “The Pianist” (2002) 70
4.3.6 Summary for Narrative Analysis (NA) 75
4.3.7 Historical Empathy (HE) 76
4.3.7.1 Perspective Recognition (PR) -
“Süskind” (2012) 76
4.3.7.2 Empathy as Caring (EC) - “Der
Untergang/Downfall” (2012) 80
4.3.8 Summary for Historical Empathy (HE) 83
4.4 Analysis of Interviews 84
4.5 Conclusion 88
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 89
5.1 Discussion of Results 89
5.2 Recommendation for Future Research 92
5.3 Conclusion 93
REFERENCES 94
APPENDICES 110
BIODATA OF STUDENT 139
PUBLICATION 140
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.2.1 The attribute of each component of the theory of five important
HLC
25
3.5.1.1 Brief Information for all 7 historical feature films (HFF) 30
3.5.3.4 Schedule of screening and HFF chosen by each group 40
3.6.1.1 List of group member and shortlisted HFF 46
3.6.1.2 Group’s reasons on choosing Stalingrad (Germany, 1993) 46
4.2.1 Number of Questions According to Each HLC 53
4.2.2 Matching of Group Questions with the Attributions of each
HLC
53
4.3.1.1 Description for “Sophie Scholl – The Final Days” (2005) 56
4.3.1.3 Matching of Each Attribution of Content Knowledge (CK)
Sophie Scholl – The Final Days (Germany, 2005)
57
4.3.2.1 Description for “Lore” (2012) 60
4.3.2.3 Matching of Each Attribution of Content Knowledge (CK) Lore
(Germany & Australia & UK, 2012)
61
4.3.4.1 Description for “The Grey Zone” (2001) 65
4.3.4.3 Matching of Each Attribution of Narrative Analysis (NA) “The
Grey Zone” (2001)
67
4.3.5.1 Description for “The Pianist” (2002) 70
4.3.5.3 Matching of Each Attribution of Narrative Analysis (NA)“The
Pianist” (2002)
72
4.3.7.1.1 Description for “Süskind” (2012) 77
4.3.7.1.3 Matching of Each Attribution of Perspective Recognition (PR)
“Süskind” (2012)
78
4.3.7.2.1 Description for “Der Untergang/Downfall” (2004) 80
4.3.7.2.3 Matching of Each Attribution of Empathy as caring (EC) “Der
Untergang/Downfall” (2004)
81
4.4.2 Matching of Interview with The Attributions of Each HLC 86
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
3.3.1 Conceptual Framework 26
3.4.1 Irwin’s Class Project Model 27
3.5.1.2 Interview Questions 31
3.5.3.1 Flow Chart for Research Procedure 35
3.5.3.2 Guideline for “Exploring World War II – A Historical
Feature Film Project”
37
3.5.3.3 Member and Film Distribution for “Exploring World War II
– A Historical Feature Film Project”
38
3.5.4.1 The Process of Inductive Content Analysis 42
3.5.4.2 The Model of The Abstraction Process 43
3.5.4.3 The Connection between The Conceptual Framework, The
Content to be Analysed and The Inductive Analysis Process
44
4.3.1.2 Abstraction process CK1 56
4.3.2.2 Abstraction process CK2 60
4.3.4.2 Abstraction process NA1 65
4.3.5.2 Abstraction process NA2 71
4.3.7.1.2 Abstraction process PR1 77
4.3.7.2.2 Abstraction process EC1 80
4.4.1 Abstraction process for interview 85
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
A1 Course Syllabus of BBD3101 110
A2 Consent to Take Part in Case Study 112
A3 Guideline for “Exploring World War II – A Historical Feature
Film Project”
114
A4 Sample of Written Report 116
A5 List of Topics, Movies and Codes of Group Members 130
A6 Sample of Individual Assignment 130
A7 Interview Transcripts 134
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ML Media Literacy
HL Historical Literacy
CK Content Knowledge
NA Narrative Analysis
HE Historical Empaths
DP Discernment of Presentism
HCP Historical-Cultural Positioning of A Text
HFF Historical Feature Films
HLC Historical Literacy Competencies
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CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Media literacy (ML) itself can be considered as a wide field. Virta (2007) termed
analogical literacies such as: visual literacy, cinematic literacy, historical literacy (HL)
and etc as “Subject-Specific Literacy”. All these “Subject-Specific Literacy” could be
categorized under the umbrella term “media literacy” because they all share a common
basic idea, which is “the ability to read, write, and create” (pg.11, pg.13 & pg.14). This
common ground makes each literacy relate to, and support each other. In other words,
integrating these literacies can also help to cultivate each competency, for example,
using HL to establish and enhance media literacy competencies such as finding and
processing information.
Previous research done in the field of ML about each “Subject-Specific Literacy” is all
over the academic world. In a nutshell, ML is ramification of media education. The
relationship between media education and ML remained rather vague until Fedorov
(2003) collected and sorted out the opinions of 26 media education experts from 10
countries. According to his survey, most of the experts agree that the definition for Media
Education should include: firstly, the enabling of people to gain understanding of the
communication media used in their society and the way they operate, as well as,
acquiring skills using these media to communicate with others, and secondly, ensuring
that people learn how to analyse, critically reflect upon, create media text and interpret
the messages and values offered by the media (pg.5). Additionally, the definition of
Media Literacy includes: (1) a capable recipient and creator of content, understanding
and socio-political context, and using codes and representations systems effectively to
live responsibility in society and the world at large; and (2) the ability to access, analyze,
evaluate, and communicate message in variety of forms (pg.7). If there is a need to
clarify the definition between “ Media Education “ and “ Media Literacy “, then “Media
Education” can be described as a “process” of learning through media; while “Media
Literacy” can be perceived as the “outcome” from that “process” (pg.6) .
Based upon the basic idea of ML, which is “the ability to read, write, and create” (Virta,
2007, pg.14), historical literacy (HL) is known as an instrument to form a framework for
making sense of the past (Rüssen, 1993; Lee, 2005; Virta, 2007). It is also a set of “skills,
such as interpretation, inference, using historical sources, and argumentation” (Perfetti,
Britt, Rouet, Georgi& Mason, 1994, pg.260-262; Lowenthal, 1997, pg.50-51; van
Sledright&Frankes, 1997; Virta, 2007, pg.14). As a result of the increasing popularity
and importance of using visual media for educational purposes, scholars have started to
include historical feature films as an approach to develop history literacy competencies.
In 2007, Metzger termed commercial films with historical themes as “historical feature
film” (pg.67). In 2010, Marcus, Metzger, Paxton and Stoddard also labelled “historical
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feature film” as “history movie”, which “explicitly dramatized and fictionalized
accounts of the past” (pg.5). In this study, the term historical feature film (HFF) will be
specifically used, as Metzger used this term when he defined the theory of five important
historical literacy competencies (HLC) in 2007. The theory of five important HLC refers
to a number of essential skills to understand the connection between past, present, and
future (Metzger, 2007, pg.69).
These five HLC includes: (1) content knowledge (CK); (2) narrative analysis (NA); (3)
historical-cultural positioning of a text (HCP); (4) historical empathy (HE); (5)
discernment of presentism (DP). In 2007, Metzger mentioned the importance of HFF in
influencing the way adults learn and think about the past. Thus, he defined the theory of
five important HLC to acknowledge the dedication of historical feature film to historical
literacy (pg.67). Through these five competencies, one can acquire deeper insight in
historical thinking and perceive film critically. He used film-based lessons to put the
theory of five important HLC into practice, and proved its practicability.
According to Metzger (2007), each component of the theory of the five important HLC
has a unique characteristic, and each component has the countless ties relation with each
other. Firstly, content knowledge (CK) enables students to learn factual information
about a historical topic while being entertained (by the action scenes, human stories or
emotional subplots). It also helps students discern significant historical information,
distinguish fictional elements, and consider the film as an historical statement created by
filmmakers to present particular themes and interpretations of the past (pg.69). Secondly,
narrative analysis (NA) refers to an ability to analyse historical narratives. It helps
students to see the past as constructed narratives supported (or unsupported) by evidence
and interpretation. To be literate, students can learn to analyse historical narratives by
reading a film for explicit meaning and subjects, corroborating or challenging a filmic
account of the past across other sources (such as textbooks), and to recognize alternative
accounts to the one presented by the film (pg.70). Thirdly, historical cultural positioning
(HCP) enables viewers to consider what relationship the director, writer, or producer
have to the events depicted. Furthermore, by considering the cultural positioning of a
HFF, viewers can also think about how a film’s themes and images conform to, or
contrast with the broader culture of its time. It relates to the deeper nature of films as
texts. (pg.70 & pg.71).
Fourthly, historical empathy (HE) refers to an emotional and psychological competency
that requires the viewer to recognize and respect potentially foreign perspectives (pg.71).
Inspired by Barton and Levstik (2004), Metzger distinguished two modes of empathy
for making sense of the past, which is perspective recognition (PR) and empathy as
caring (EC). PR involves rational examination of past perspectives, explaining historical
actions in terms of the attitudes, beliefs, and intentions of the people of the past, while
EC involves making personal connections to history through topics we want to learn,
through moral judgments, and through a desire to help by applying what we learn from
history to our world today. Lastly, discernment of presentism (DP) refers to an important
competency which emerges from historical empathy. “Presentism” refers to “the act of
viewing the past through the lens of the present… a way of thinking that requires little
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effort and comes quite naturally” (Wineburg, 2001, pg.19). Discernment of presentism
enables students to recognize the presentism in the film.
According to Metzger, using the theory of five important HLC wisely could help
students to develop essential skills to understand the connection between past, present
and future (pg.69). In 2016, Downey & Long claimed that historical literacy allows
students to interpret the past in a critical way. According to them, students can also use
historical literacy as a tool to think conceptually about the society. At the same time,
historical literacy also allows students to analyse contemporary issues, and to understand
the connection between these issues to the past (pg.12). Downey & Long’s statement
happened to coincide with Metzger’s statement.
However, the potential of HFF to contribute to ML has not yet being explicitly defined.
Robert Rosenstone can be regarded as the pioneer, who considered and used HFF in the
classroom as a new form to develop historical understanding. In his book titled “History
on Film”, first published in 2006, he mentioned the change of his position from being
against the use of historical feature film for learning purposes to strongly supporting it,
as a result of participating in a film production (pg.179). In the book, he indicates: “Film
changes rule of the game and creates its own sort of truth, creates a multi-level past that
has so little to do with language that it is difficult to describe adequately in words”
(pg.181). Rosenstone wrote that, when it comes to the historical world created by films
and by written text, a film on a historical theme is potentially more complex (pg.182) in
shaping the discourse on the past, because historical feature film “include both what
happened and what might have happened” (pg.186). He further claimed that HFF more
than just challenges the traditional form of history, but nonetheless helps the audience to
return to a kind of starting point. In this so called starting point, the audience will get a
sense that it is in fact impossible for them to truly understand the past. However, HFF
offers the audience a medium to constantly think about, reconstruct, and make sense of
the past from existing information (pg.186). From his statement alone, it can be
concluded that HFF can contribute to fostering historical literacy related skills, such as
historical thinking. As mentioned earlier, since HL could be considered as part of the
ML, thus, it can be inferred that HFF can also contribute to ML directly.
Regarding the relationship between HL and ML in media education, there are on-going
discussions about the suitability of HFF for pedagogical purposes. The claimed or
perceived authenticity of a historical feature film often raises concern when educators
intent to use it with the purpose of teaching historical facts. According to Francia (1995),
historical truth is “no more and no less than the set of all possible worlds that agree with
all historical sources” (pg.408). Hartmann (2002) regarded authenticity as “an illustrious
superstition”, while Wormald (2011) described it as “something never quite achievable,
and this is especially true with regard to film, which traditionally has had a difficult
relationship with the concept of historical authenticity” (pg.51). When historical
presentation becomes “historical truth”, Wormald (2011) claimed that locations, props
and costumes portrayed in the film in fact are able to challenge the viewer’s
understanding of history (pg.52).
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In historical feature film, various efforts are made by film producers in order to create a
visually authentic picture of history, for example, filming at the original locations; the
use of period relevant costumes, hairstyles, make-up, and detailed set-designs; music
related to the respectable time; the inclusion of historical documentary film material and
the use of historians as advisors (pg.54). Schaar (2015, pg 5) summarized: “Feature films
as authentic and entertaining art products – which visualize extraordinary historical
events, introduce new ideas and offer a unique interpretation of “historical truth” –
undoubtedly have the ability to decisively shape ideas of the past and influence the
culture of remembrance. Historical films in the form of documentaries, docu-dramas or
feature films have proven to be the most successful medium in conveying history to large
audiences and have even replaced classical historiography.”
This study aims to describe the current state of the historical literacy competencies
among a group of BA German Students (participants) in a public university in Malaysia.
This study focuses on evaluating the dimension of HLC, which includes content
knowledge (CK), narrative analysis (NA) and historical empathy (HE) among the
participants. Likewise, the core of the study is to describe how content knowledge (CK),
narrative analysis (NA) and historical empathy (HE) contribute to historical literacy as
part of media literacy.
1.2 Problem Statement
In recent years, due to the increasing popularity of using social media, people tend to
receive and consume more and more information and news online, especially via
Facebook. According to the Pew Research Canter, an independent public opinion
research organization in the U.S.: as of 2017, about two-third of the population (66%)
uses Facebook1, and most of them receive news from the site (Shearer & Gottfried, 2017).
While in Malaysia, according to an internet users’ survey initiated by Malaysian
Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC), a regulator party for the
converging communication and multimedia industry in Malaysia: in 2016, 97.3% of 21.9
million social media users have a Facebook account (pg.15). Imperceptibly, social media
users also spread news over social media regardless of its authenticity. Such acts have
raised concern about the growth of fake news – deliberately invented news articles that
could mislead readers. (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017, pg.213; Manfra & Holmes, 2018,
pg.91).
A Chinese idiom says “三人成虎” – “sān rén chéng hǔ” (Liu, n.d), which means, “A
repeated slander makes others believe”! This clearly reflects the potential risk of letting
fake news spread freely over social media. Fake news frequently serves as a tool to
promote political propaganda or biased thought. The spread of fake news can cause
negative impact such as changing the way people respond to the verified news (Shu,
Silva, Wang, Tang & Liu, 2017). The existence of fake news challenges today’s youth’s
media literacy and information literacy skills. Pasquantonio (2017) mentioned that
1 Facebook: An online social media platform.
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students need to be taught the ability to navigate, evaluate, and assess all sorts of
information they obtained from all sorts of online platform. Additionally, Manfra &
Holmes (2018) also believe that the young generation, especially students, should be
media literate enough to differentiate between judgement and journalism (pg.91).
Along with the implementation of the Anti-Fake News Act, which is an act to deal with
fake news and related matters by the (former) Malaysian government in 2018, the
importance of media literacy has raised debate among local academics. For instance,
Basir (2018) indicates “a media literate community is the key to staving off the
challenges posed by the cyber and digital era … while laws like the Anti-Fake News Act
were preventive in nature, it was more important to educate the public to be media
literate”. Furthermore, it can be assumed that, a lack of media literacy awareness among
people is the main reason for the distribution of fake news.
Additionally, local social media scholar, Sara Chinnasamy (2017) addressed her concern
in an online local news column: “… the complexity of the contemporary media
environment is becoming more difficult to access due to the freedom of expression
through social media”. Thus, she believes that media literacy must play an important
role to help people to distinguish the reliability of information. In the same local news
column, Salleh (2017) also shares her view on the importance of media literacy in
nowadays Malaysia’s society as she noticed that information can be manipulated to fulfil
personal agenda. Thus, she claimed that the whole society, especially the young people,
should hold critical thinking skills in order to become an active audience. Additionally,
she believes that media literacy can empower individuals to create social change and
contribute to nation-building.
Although media education is already being applied in Malaysia for almost half a century,
there is significant evidence which shows that media education is not yet fully
functioning in Malaysia. According to Abdul-Hamid and Mustaffa (2007), there is
hardly any existing research which discusses the acquisition of ML of Malaysian adults,
especially television related topics (pg.111). It has resulted in a shadowy space that is
waiting for local scholars to be explored thoroughly.
Most of the academic papers done in recent years about ML focused either on children
(Shanthi, 2013), or on other analogical literacies like information literacy (Abu Husin,
Ibrahim, & Baharom, 2013) or financial literacy (Ali, A. Rahman & Bakar, 2014). Take
Shanthi as an example, although her study in 2013 was focused on children, yet she
pointed out one value statement: “the absence of ML initiatives in the Malaysian
curriculum setting also means that school classroom do not create platforms for the
facets of ML that involve debates on media access, representation, ethics, media analysis,
and children’s own practical media work” (pg.81). Also in 2013, together with Prasad,
Shanthi has further underlined that, the lack of ML effort taken in the Malaysia
curriculum resulted the effort of developing ML among students in Malaysia becomes
challenging (pg.96). Prasad and Shanthi also urged the necessity of improving media
literacy practice among students, because a considerable level of media literacy, which
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is knowing how to use skills and knowledge in the context of modern life (Batelle for
Kids, n.d.) is essential for students in the 21st century.
All of the above mentioned previous researches suggest that, in Malaysia, media
education in general is still underdeveloped. Consequently, the growing of ML is
restricted among young adults. Based on the very limited research done in Malaysia in
this field, it can be assumed that the incomprehensive structure of media education across
school curricula leads to an uncritical attitude towards media among many Malaysians,
especially technology-savvy young adults. It can be postulate that it is worth to explore
more room to develop ML within school curricula under current limited condition.
Seeing HLC as part of ML, the capabilities of historical feature films (HFF) to contribute
to the HLC has yet to be investigated. This study will accommodate HFF to the current
circumstances of the school setting in UPM, Malaysia, and use it as an instrument to
evaluate the different dimensions of HLC as a part of ML among a group of BA German
students.
1.3 Research Objectives and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to describe the current state of the historical literacy
competencies (HLC) among a group of students. This study focuses on evaluating
certain dimensions of HLC, which includes content knowledge (CK), narrative analysis
(NA) and historical empathy (HE) among the participants. The goal of this study is to
describe in detail on how content knowledge (CK), narrative analysis (NA) and historical
empathy (HE) contribute to historical literacy as part of media literacy among a group
of students of UPM’s German BA programme.
As discussed in 1.2 Problem Statement, the potential of HFF to contribute to HLC is still
underexplored, and it remains a gap in this field. In order to fill in this research gap, a
descriptive case study method was employed to examine the following two research
questions:
1) What is the current state of the participant’s historical literacy competencies
(HLC) by evaluating its dimensions (CK, NA and HE) among them?
2) How have CK, NA and HE contributed to their historical literacy competencies
(HLC)?
1.4 Research Limitations
The limitations of this study narrate mainly to limited literature, to the role of the
researcher and the context. Firstly, there is lack of existing research about exploring
historical literacy (HL) as part of media literacy (ML), especially in Malaysia. Hence, it
might increase difficulties while conducting this study. To mitigate this limitation, a few
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publications which indirectly mention the potential of HFF to contribute to HL as part
of ML are well addressed in this study in order to support the readers’ understanding of
this study.
Secondly, the researcher gathering data, filter and analysing the data through the
researcher’s worldview, values, and perspective. In that case, the researcher’s mind-set
may or may not parallel with the readers’ (Merriam, 1998, pg.22 & Coulthard, 2016,
pg.143). This has caused the study might somehow include the researchers’ own
perspective and bias. In order to provide an enlightened perspective to the reader, hence
they can make their own judgement while reading this study, the role of the researcher
has been fully documented in the methodology.
The context of this case study is a class project named “Exploring World War II – A
Historical Feature Film Project” for the course titled “BBD3101 (Historical Survey of
Germany)” offered by faculty of Modern Languages and Communication at Universiti
Putra Malaysia (UPM) in Selangor, Malaysia. This case study involves the behaviour of
only one single group, which is 21 (16 female, 5 male) first year BA German students
from 2015/2016 intake. Homogenous sampling, a type of purposeful sampling was used
to meet the objective and characteristic of the study. Result from this study may be
suggestive with other similar educational institution. However, additional research
would be required to prove whether findings from one study would generalize with other
study.
Limited lecture time creates another problem during screening session in this context.
Every time, film screening can only take part within lecture hours (mostly during
German History class), each session have maximum two hours. This makes film with
more than two hours difficult to screen in the class, so the whole class have work for
alternative solutions, such as extend lecture time. At the same time, limited lecture time
restricts time for the class to have in depth discussion. Each session for discussion after
screening is maximum one hour. Under such restriction, lecturer has to decide which
question should be discussed with students in the class. Take the interests of the whole
into account, discussion on characters in the film is often neglected.
Based on the pilot study in 2015 (see 3.5 for pilot study), assigning 10 films per group
was overwhelming, student’s hands are tied because there are too many films to watch
and discuss. In such case, the number of film distributed to each group was narrowed
down from 10 to 4 films each group for the major study in 2016. From the pilot study in
2015, it can be noted that, due to the overwhelming numbers of film assigned to each
group, which is 10 films per group, group leader has to distribute 1 or 2 films to each
member, because it was impossible for all of the group member to watch all 10 films
together. This is because everyone has different daily routine, stay in different places.
Plus, during group discussion, students deliver opinion and make argument solely based
on the film they watched and their genre preference. Thus, it can be assumed that
student’s opinion and group decision on choosing which film for screening was bias.
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1.5 Significance of The Study
The significance of this study is that it provides an insight for researcher that interested
in putting effort to the development of ML. It also acquaint researcher in relevant field
with the possibilities of employing different analogical literacies to aid to the
development of ML. By contributing to interest groups’ awareness and understanding in
this area, future study in this field may be surely impacted. In summary, this study builds
a traceable connection for HL to cultivate ML, within the context of a class project of a
foreign language history course.
1.6 Operational Definition
The following section outlines how key terms will be used in this study.
(A) Media Literacy (ML)
Originally, media literacy was defined as “The ability to access, analyse, evaluate and
create messages across a variety of forms” (Patricia, 1993). In order to include a wider
context, the Centre for Media Literacy in 2006 expanded the definition of media literacy
to “Media literacy is a 21st century approach to education. It provides a framework to
access, evaluate, create and participate with message in a variety of forms – from print
to video to the internet. Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media
society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizen of
a democracy” (Centre for media literacy, 2008, pg.22). Media literacy also means the
ability to select and choose, to question and to challenge, to be aware of the things
happening around oneself and not to be passive and becoming vulnerable (Thoman,
2003).
In this study, media literacy (ML) refers to a learning outcome, in which students could
achieve through practicing historical literacy competencies (HLC) with historical feature
films (HFF).
(B) Historical Literacy (HL)
According to Metzger (2010), historical literacy (HL) refers to the understanding of the
knowledge of history. While Nokes (2010) define HL as “the ability to negotiate and
create interpretations and understandings of the past using documents and artefacts as
evidence (pg.66). In 2013, Nokes further define HL as a set of skills, which historians
use it to create meaning from texts and other sources. In this study, historical literacy
(HL) means the ability to access, analyse, evaluate historical feature film (HFF) as a
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(C) The Theory of Five Important Historical Literacy Competencies (HLC)
Historical literacy competencies (HLC) can be defined as a set of skill to ponder over
how historical depiction in popular media effect historical thinking and public discourse
about the past (Metzger, 2007. Pg.68). In this study, the theory of five important HLC
means five separate ability to puzzle out the connection between past, present, and future.
These ability includes: (1) content knowledge (CK); (2) narrative analysis (NA); (3)
historical-cultural positioning of a text (HCP); (4) historical empathy (HE); (5)
discernment of presentism (DP).
In this study, content knowledge (CK) refers to an ability to learn and distinguish
remarkable historical content, and identify fictional elements in a film. With this ability,
students will able to view the film as a historical statement constructed by filmmakers to
present particular themes and interpretations of the past. Narrative analysis (NA) refers
to an ability to analyse historical narratives. This ability helps students to view the past
as constructed narratives, with or without the support of evidence and interpretation.
Historical-cultural positioning of a text (HCP) is a skill that facilitate students to think
about the relationship between the film director, scriptwriter, or producer have to the
events depicted in the film. Historical empathy (HE) refer to the ability to identify and
respect potentially foreign perspectives. There are two types of historical empathy (HE),
which is perspective recognition (PR) and empathy as caring (EC). PR refers to the
ability to provide rational examination of past perspectives and able to explain the
attitudes, beliefs, and intentions of the character depicted in the film. EC refers to the
ability being emotionally engage to the film, learn from the event depicted in the film
and apply the lesson learned in modern times. Discernment of presentism (DP) develops
from HE, this is a skill to recognize contemporary issue that depicted in the film.
(D) Historical Feature Films (HFF)
In 1995, historian Robert Rosenstone categorized historically themed films into three
broad categories, which is “history as drama”, “history as document”, and “history as
experiment”. He further defined “history as drama” as historical film, because it is the
“oldest and most common form of historical film” (pg.2). Ever since the term “historical
film” has become acquainted, numbers of scholars have coined similar terms with
similar meaning. Metzger refers HFF as “commercial movies set entirely or mostly in
previous time periods” (pg.67). In 2010, Marcus, Metzger, Paxton and Stoddard also
labelled “historical feature film” as “history movies”, which “explicitly dramatized and
fictionalized accounts of the past” (pg.5). In this study, the term historical feature film
(HFF) refers to commercial movies with historical themes, it can be focuses on
describing a specific historical event, a specific historical figure, or a group of historical
figures.
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1.7 Conclusion
In short, this chapter explained the background of this study along with the basic concept
of several important terms in this study and the relationship among them, which includes:
media education, media literacy (ML), historical literacy (HL), the theory of five
important historical literacy competencies (HLC) and historical feature films (HFF). The
lack of media literacy awareness among Malaysian young adults due to the
incomprehensive structure of media education in Malaysia and the unknown potential of
HFF to contribute to HLC was addressed as the problem statement. A few previous
studies related to the issues were mentioned in order to support the necessity to conduct
this study. The research objectives and two research questions were stated clearly
followed by three main research limitations and the significance of this study. This
chapter finished with the operational definition section.
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