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1
Historical and Personal Background of the Divine Comedy
By Joseph Crane
May 2012
This essay is to accompany Between Fortune and Providence: Astrology and the Universe
in Dante’s Divine Comedy.
What follows is the overview and timeline I wish I had when I first started reading the
Divine Comedy. Many commentaries of the Divine Comedy give background historical
information, usually consisting of a general introduction and brief explanations when specific
characters and events come up within the poem. Here I will proceed sequentially, beginning
centuries before Dante’s birth and concluding in the year of his death. When I first mention a
historical person whose character appears in the Divine Comedy, the name will be in bold,
followed by page references from Between Fortune and Providence. Because this section gives
an overview specific to the Divine Comedy, Italy and the city-states of northern Italy, especially
Florence, is our focus.
This essay is partly organized according to the modern astrological practice that uses
cycles of the modern planets Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. When relevant, we will look at outer
planet configurations when they form conjunctions, opening squares, oppositions, and closing
squares that correspond to New, First Quarter, and Full, and Third Quarter Moons. Since many
readers of Between Fortune and Providence are astrologers or are interested in modern
astrology, this will be useful for them. Those who are not astrologers can pass over this
material.
Here’s a preliminary summary of some the interacting themes of Church, politics, and
economics that provide some background for the Divine Comedy.
Religion: Understanding the medieval Church takes a special leap of the imagination.
The Church had a dominant role in organizing and giving cohesiveness to Europe over a very
long time. Yet the Church had its ups and downs, politically and spiritually. Because of its
wealth and political power, the Church was also vulnerable to being abducted by strong secular
rulers, and this is the case throughout the medieval era. In this essay we first encounter the
Church as largely controlled by secular authorities, but reform movements were afoot that
would help give it greater independence and spiritual authority over time. As the Church grew
stronger, however, it would become more empire than religion and at times was unbelievably
worldly.
Over the centuries the papacy sometimes inaugurated some attempts to reform the
Church. There were also reform movements from the monastic side. Other Church reform
movements, like the orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans, began with charismatic leaders.
2
There were also some failed attempts that have come down to us as “heresies.” Two centuries
after Dante’s death, one heretical preacher, Martin Luther, would help launch the Protestant
Reformation.
Politics: In Dante’s lifetime, the Italian peninsula was comprised of many autonomous
and economically diverse regions. In the south were the vulnerable but cosmopolitan kingdoms
of Sicily and Naples. The central region was governed by the Pope. In the wealthier and more
urbanized north, including Florence, there were many independent and prosperous city-states
that were frequently at war with each other and with the larger political entities around them.
Beginning around the time of Dante’s birth, the “Holy Roman Empire” was a loose
confederation of warring German princes and their territories that were governed by an
Emperor – at least in theory. In the centuries before Dante, the Holy Roman Empire was more
dominant in Italian affairs.
Just before and during the poet’s lifetime, however, the French monarchy had become
a major player in European affairs. Dante resented this greatly. He was nostalgic for a renewed
Roman Empire, but the reality was the perpetually disappointing contemporary “Holy Roman
Empire.” Dante did not know that Europe’s future would favor not empires but nations like
France, England, and Spain.
Economics: The monetary and banking systems of Dante’s world would be more familiar
to us than its religious and political institutions. Unlike the more rural and feudal Europe to its
north and west, northern Italy contained commercial and banking institutions similar to ours.
Italy benefited from its proximity to major trade routes and, with the Crusades, more traffic
that moved back and forth across the Mediterranean. Toward Dante’s lifetime, Florence was a
prosperous banking center and was also known for its textile industry. Dante loathed the
commercialization of Florence and northern Italy in general. Yet this commercial activity would
help bankroll Italy’s greatest eras in the centuries to come.
In short, Dante’s conceptions of the flow of history into the future turned out to be
completely wrong. He longed for a renewal of times that would never return.
3
905: A Fine Place to Start
We begin in an
astrological manner by noting
that there was a Neptune/Pluto
conjunction in 905.
Neptune and Pluto are
the two outermost planets and
their cycles represent the life
span of long-term historical
patterns. Neptune suggests an
era’s ideals, while the grim task
of turning them into reality
belongs to Pluto. The beginning
of a cycle, like the New Moon, is
in the dark, but suggests a
future that will manifest more
clearly in the quarter, halfway,
and three-quarter positions of
the cycle.
This particular Neptune-Pluto cycle that began in 905 found much of European culture
and civilization at a low point. The previous century had seen destructive Viking attacks
throughout Europe. This had done great damage to the fragmenting Carolingian Empire
(named after Charlemagne) that then included present-day France, Germany, and northern
Italy. It is more likely, however, that rivalries within the Carolingian dynasty caused their rulers
to become weaker and their Empire to become more fragmented throughout the previous
century.
Italy was also fragmented and was surrounded by greater powers. To its east were
invasions by the Magyars and this particularly impacted Italy; to the south and south-east and
in the Mediterranean Sea were the Muslims who by 905 had control of Sicily and much of
southern Italy. The Byzantine Empire also had holdings in southern Italy. Fearing the Muslims
over all, this would drive the Church in Rome into the hands of the secular powers of the north
(Carolingian rulers) and the east (Byzantine rulers) for protection.
At this time northern Italy was within the “Kingdom of Italy” and theoretically governed
by the Carolingian Empire and dominated by an older Lombard and Frankish aristocracy. But
this area’s regions were relatively free politically and had become more economically
4
independent.
The year 905 was close to the end for the Eastern Carolingian kings who would be
gradually replaced by the Ottonian emperors. The Ottonians directly controlled an area roughly
where Germany is now, but they were quite interested in north Italy’s wealth and relative
stability. During this century Ottonian emperors would sometimes govern north Italy but this
was resented by other secular authorities. The Ottonian empire would become the “Holy
Roman Empire” that would have such an important role to play in the centuries ahead.
In 905 was also the beginning of the gradual diminishing of the Viking invasions
throughout Europe. A few years afterwards a group of Vikings were given a kingdom of their
own in on the Eastern coast of France; descendents of the Normans (“North-men”) would
dominate much of southern Italy for several hundred years. The 900’s became a period of
(very) relative peace that saw the growth of serfdom and of the feudal system, especially in the
remnants of the Carolingian Empire, yet these structures of social and economic relationship
never took firm hold in northern Italy with its stronger city life. There will be more of that to
come.
With greater security there was renewed political and commercial activity, and so there
would be more markets for the commercial cities of northern Italy. Its commercial activity and
proximity to the Mediterranean gave the area a more fluid political and class structure. At this
time the most prosperous Italian cities were Milan, Genoa, and Venice; Florence would join this
group much later.
The Papacy had politically allied themselves with the Carolingians and then with the
Ottonians. As a result, the Papacy was dominated by these secular powers. Ottonian rulers
could appoint and depose Popes and other church officials; the moral and religious authority of
the Papacy was at a low point throughout the tenth century.
There were other trends that began early in this century. The Church saw the
beginnings of a major reform movement when the first Cluniac monastery began in Burgundy in
910. Unlike the other Church institutions at this time, this monastery did not answer to local or
regional secular authorities but rather answered directly to the Pope himself. The Cluniac
movement aimed toward reducing the corruption of the Church and promoting a greater
separation between Church and secular authority. Although monastic in nature, this
movement would greatly affect the Church as a whole and promote a gradual renewal
throughout the next two centuries. This was the first of many reform movements during the
centuries prior to the life of Dante.
987: A New Set Of French Kings
In 987, the he last king of the Carolingian dynasty in the west died and Hugh Capet (p.
61) was elected king of (what we call) France by the nobility of the area. This began the
Capetian Dynasty that would last for several hundred years. We meet Capet in Purgatorio 20
5
among the avaricious, and his appearance gives Dante a chance to criticize the line of French
kings as insufferably greedy.
Often when we think of French kings in history we think of very powerful and arrogant
individuals like Louis XIV of the seventeenth century. This was far from the truth for much of
the medieval period, when the area we call France was made up of many small principalities
governed by various ruling families and the king was often little more than a figurehead..
Additionally, much of what we now call France was held by England. During the next few
centuries the power of the French monarchy would gradually increase; by Dante’s time they
had become dominant in Europe and in the fourteenth century the Papacy itself moved to
Southern France.
1077: The Investiture Conflict.
We move forward a century and find a resurgent Papacy. From its nadir in the 900’s the
church itself moved to become more self-contained and respondent to the spiritual needs of its
believers. This process culminated in the mid-eleventh century.
The investiture conflict involved the major question of who appoints Church officials,
including appointing new popes. Was this a role for the secular authorities or the Church itself?
In a fundamental way this was an early controversy about the respective functions and powers
of Church and State.
Here is some background. In the middle of the eleventh century, before becoming Pope,
Gregory VII (then Hildebrand)1 was a senior advisor to Pope Leo IX who was attempting to
reform the church and centralize papal authority. Pope Leo and Pope Gregory aimed to (1) have
popes elected by senior clergy, not appointed by an Emperor, (2) enforce priestly celibacy, (3)
forbid the buying and selling of church offices, or “simony,” (see Inferno 19) and (4) turn over
the power of appointing bishops (“investiture”) to the Church hierarchy, not to secular leaders.
[Another of Pope Leo’s chief advisors, from the monastic side, was Peter Damian (p. 127-128)
who we meet in Paradise’s sphere of Saturn, Paradiso 21.]
When Pope Gregory sent an edict forbidding secular rulers from appointing clerics,
Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor, appointed his own bishop in defiance. Gregory responded
by excommunicating the Emperor (excluding him from the church and its sacraments) and
proclaiming him deposed as secular ruler. If Henry didn’t repent within a year these two
proclamations would be made permanent.
In an attempt to be reconciled with the Church, Henry traveled over the Alps in the
winter, put on the garb of a penitent, and waited barefoot in the snow for three days awaiting
Pope Gregory. The place of this famous encounter between Emperor and Pope was the castle
in Canossa (north of Florence) occupied by the countess Mathelda (p. 71, 78-80). She was the
dominant noble in Northern and central Italy at the time and was strongly associated with the
1 He should not be confused with Pope Gregory the Great from the late sixth century.
6
Church reform movement and Pope Gregory. This is the same name as the woman Dante
places as forest deity of the Earthly Paradise. It’s possible that that Dante was alluding to the
best relationship between secular and religious authorities: a reformed but commanding
church and a humbler and wiser secular ruler. If so, this “improved” relationship was illusory.
The meeting between Pope and Emperor did not solve the issue of lay investiture.
Although it looked very differently at the time, this was a shrewd political move by Emperor
Henry: as leader of the Church, the Pope had to “forgive” the Emperor. This gave Henry the
time and opportunity he needed to augment his position in Germany. A few years later Henry
came back to Italy with an army and
Gregory was forced to flee and he soon
died in exile.
Of interest to the astrologer is the
Neptune-Pluto cycle. At this time Neptune
(in mid-Gemini) was in an opening square
to Pluto (in mid-Pisces). Unlike the
conjunction in 905 that is about hidden
beginnings, the opening square is a turning
point of manifestation. This encounter
between Emperor and Pope would be
emblematic of many centuries of conflict
between religious and secular authorities
in Europe. This chart is set for January 15,
1077.
The investiture conflict continued
past the lifetimes of both men and was
formally resolved in 1122.
The issue was part of the much
larger question of ultimate authority for Europe. Would the continent become a secular
theocracy, whereby its temporal rulers also governed the church? Or was it to be a papal
theocracy, whereby the pope was the universal leader and bestowed authority to the secular
rulers? For centuries, momentum went back and forth between the two sides.
By Dante’s time, however, both Empire and Papacy had become seriously weakened,
which had resulted in generations of political chaos and violence in northern Italy before the
poet was born. The long-term result of this impasse was that Europe became neither a secular
nor a papal theocracy.
7
1090 or 1091: Birth year of Cacciaguida2
In the middle of the Paradiso, while visiting the sphere of Mars reserved for crusaders
and martyrs, Dante the pilgrim meets his ancestor Cacciaguida from five generations before the
poet’s birth.
In Paradiso 15 and 16, the old crusader tells of his life, the life of the Florence of his era
and compares it (quite negatively) to the Florence of Dante’s day. Cacciaguida tells of a
Florence that was quite different from the large prosperous and politically conflicted city that
Florence has become. During his lifetime, he relates, Florence was smaller, less commercial,
and more homogenous. According to the account given by Cacciaguida, Florence during his
lifetime had fewer large homes, less conspicuous consumption by the wealthy, and people
dressed in a simpler style.
The city hadn’t expanded and become integrated with people from surrounding areas.
As stated by Dante’s character, the “original” medieval Florentines considered themselves
directly descended from the Romans and their society had degenerated due to the inclusion of
outsiders.
Historical records of Florence at this time are sparse but a few things are known.
Florence at this time was hardly more than a village surrounded by old Roman walls. It was
during Cacciaguida’s lifetime that Florence began to defeat and to assimilate many of the
surrounding feudal families and many of the neighboring cities. A generation after
Cacciaguida’s death, new city walls were constructed that tripled the city area.
A growing merchant class would help initiate moves toward self-government that would
be called the “commune movement”. Not to be confused with modern alternative living
arrangements, communes were set up in different places in Europe but especially in the more
urbanized northern Italy. It is likely that communes began as informal associations of groups
with common interests, such as town maintenance, defense, and especially by a dislike for
arbitrary taxes levied by surrounding nobles and Emperors. By acting on their own behalf, cities
were able to make alliances with Church, Emperor or King to obstruct the various nobles who
often surrounded the cities with their estates. Gradually these city groups would elect leaders
that were likely from a town’s aristocratic families – this was a system that had features of
democracy and features of oligarchy, where those from wealthy and connected families were
routinely the city’s leaders. By Dante’s time the different guilds were dominant in this system
of self-government, and Dante became one of its leaders.
During this time and for centuries afterwards people in northern Italy were inclined to
2 Commentators usually cite 1091 as the birth year for Dante’s ancestor. In Between Fortune and Providence, page
119, I discuss the provocative lines of Paradiso 16.37-39, where Cacciaguida states that Mars has returned to its position 580 times since the Annunciation. Recently it’s come to light that the correct interpretation of the Almanac that Dante used gives not 580 but 579 synodic periods that would bring us to 1090 when indeed Mars was in Leo. (Personal communication R. Martinez 3/21/2012) The birth year of the summer of 1090 also gives us a Mars-Jupiter conjunction that would certainly fit in well with the poet’s righteous ancestor.
8
think of themselves not as Italian but as members of a particular city and during the medieval
period Italian cities frequently went to war with one another, including in Cacciaguida’s
lifetime.
Although there is no independent record of this man Cacciaguida, there is no reason to
doubt his existence.
1095: First Crusade called.
We return to the larger world.
In previous decades and far to the east of Italy, the Seljuk Turks had taken over a large
area including most of Asia Minor (our modern “Turkey”) from the Byzantine Empire. The
Byzantine Emperor had appealed to Pope Gregory for help, but at that time the Pope was too
busy feuding with Emperor Henry. Times changed though, and in November 1095 Gregory’s
successor Urban II called upon all Christians to “take up the cross” and recapture the holy lands
from the Muslims. This also occurred as Uranus was approaching a closing square to Neptune,
bringing about a focus on religious and secular structure.
Two years later an expedition later identified as the “First Crusade” left for the East and
by 1099 had conquered and occupied significant land held by the Muslims, especially
Jerusalem. The victorious crusaders established Latin-speaking medieval states in the original
Holy Land and on the Eastern Mediterranean coast.
This would be a financial windfall for Italian coastal cities (particularly Venice) that could
transport troops to the Holy Land and who could profit from the increased economic activity
military activity brings. Florence would also become involved in increased trade.
In spite of its idealistic agenda, the Crusades brought great pillage and unnecessary
slaughter. Future crusades were no more virtuous than the first, and they were less militarily
successful. In spite of the cavernous gap between ideal and reality, the activity of crusading as
taking up the cross for God remained powerful in the European imagination from the medieval
times up to the present day. Dante was no exception to this; in the Divine Comedy the poet
waxes nostalgic for the crusading ideal and, in his conversation with his ancestor Cacciaguida
who ostensibly had died on the Second Crusade, the poet casts himself also as a crusader.
1138: Astrological texts translated into Latin.
During this time and in different parts of Europe, important astrological works from the
Islamic areas were being translated into Latin. In this year Plato of Trivoli translated Ptolemy’s
Tetrabiblos, making the ancient writer of natural astrology available to the Latin West. Two
years earlier Hugh of Santilla translated the Centriquium, falsely attributed to Ptolemy, which
contained basic principles of applied astrology. Previously Adelard of Bath translated Arabic
astronomical tables, works of Abu Masar from the Arabic, and constructed an astrolabe.
The Jewish poet and astrologer Abraham Ibn Ezra, born late in the 11th century, lived in
9
Italy and wrote many of his astrological works there. His writings were one of Dante’s sources
for astrology. Some of them are now available in English translations.
1145: Second Crusade and Bernard of Clairvaux.
In 1144 the Muslims recaptured the city of Edessa in present-day Iraq. Pope Eugenius III
called for another expedition to the Holy Land to take back Edessa and to continue the
conquest of the Holy Land for Christendom. The “Second Crusade” was an embarrassing
failure.
One who enthusiastically promoted this new crusade was Bernard of Clairvaux (p. 100,
129, 154-158). As the head of the Cistercian monastic order that was an offshoot of the Cluniac
movement, Bernard was the model of the disciplined and contemplative life. He was a writer,
preacher, strong adversary, and one of the most respected religious people of his age. Bernard
attributed the Second Crusade’s failure to the spiritual deficiencies of European Christendom.
Bernard was a staunch opponent of the new scholarly attraction for Aristotle whose
writings for the first time were widely available in the Latin west (“widely” being a relative
term, of course). Bernard was also highly critical of the dialectical method that has come down
to us as “scholasticism.” In particular he spared no effort in making life miserable for Peter
Abelard, one such dialectical intellectual. Instead of an approach of scholarship, Bernard
promoted personalized and experiential methods of religious practice and in particular
promoted the cult of the Virgin Mary. In the Divine Comedy Bernard appears only at the very
end of the poem, replacing Beatrice as the pilgrim’s guide to lead him to the Virgin Mary and
the vision of God.
Along with many kings and nobles, the Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad III took part in the
Second Crusade. One of his soldiers was the knighted Cacciaguida who died on the crusade.
See Paradiso 15.139-148.
10
This chart is set for noontime on
December 5, 1151. This is the midpoint
in the Pluto/Neptune cycle that began in
905. At this time Western Europe saw a
tremendous amount of political and
religious activity: the second Crusade
had failed, the fight between Emperor
and Pope for northern Italy was just
beginning (as we will see just below),
and (as stated above) the conflict
between religious conservatism and the
new styles of philosophy had begun.
(The third quarter square occurred soon
after Dante’s death.)
1156: Emperor Frederick Barbarossa stirs up trouble.
The year 1156 saw an important meeting between Pope (Adrian IV) and Emperor
Frederick I (or Frederick Barbarossa, “Red-Beard”). The Emperor, far stronger than his
predecessors, had come to Italy with his army, subdued a popular revolt that had exiled the
Pope from Rome, and insisted that the Pope give him the crown. Reluctantly and after a short
impasse, Adrian crowned Frederick Holy Roman Emperor. In Germany there had been much
conflict between Frederick’s family and its German rivals, the “House of Welf”. the Emperor’s
first order of business was to bring some amity between rival factions. Being crowned by the
Pope was certainly one way of doing this.
Relative calm in Germany and legitimization by the Pope helped Emperor Frederick with
his next goal – appropriation of the relatively prosperous areas of northern Italy. These urban
centers were theoretically part of the Holy Roman Empire.
Frederick’s dreams of greater empire ran into strong but uneven opposition. Pope
Adrian and his successors were rather displeased with Frederick’s claims and the independent
cities resisted him. The red bearded Emperor invaded northern Italy six times but never could
establish a permanent foothold there. At times he would dominate the region but then chaos
in the German states would bring him back home.
Some regions in Italy allied with Frederick, others with his German opponents.
(Florence, closer geographically to the Papal States, generally supported the Pope but stayed
out of the fray.) After Frederick captured and burnt Milan to the ground in 1162, many of the
11
nearby city-states formed the Lombard League, eventually routed Frederick’s troops in battle,
and the two sides settled in 1183. Although officially part of the “Holy Roman Empire”, these
cities retained their functional independence. Florence, to the south of the Lombard alliance,
was more firmly under the control of the Emperor, and had to work with competing needs from
the commune self-government and that imposed by the Empire.
Frederick then set his sights upon the Norman kingdom of Sicily and, to begin a claim to
that throne, married off his son to the niece of the Sicily’s ruler. This was to have major
consequences in the century ahead. But on his way to a Third Crusade, Frederick died in 1190.
These events helped set the stage for the Italian politics of the thirteenth century that
Dante was born into and that constitute much of the Divine Comedy’s background. Supporters
of the House of Welf (the rival German princes) became Italy’s “Guelfs” who would usually take
the Pope’s side in a dispute; followers of the Hohenstaufen family became the “Ghibellines”,
named after a Hohenstaufen castle named Waibingen. (You try to find an Italian equivalent to
“Hohenstaufen.”) Dante would be part of the Guelfs who dominated Florence during this
lifetime.
1181: Heresies threaten the religious status quo.
In 1181, Pope Alexander III designated two religious groups as heretical. One was called
the Waldensians, named after its founder Peter Waldo. This charismatic preacher, who had
once been a merchant, gave away his possessions and preached poverty, the superiority of the
simpler apostolic life, and self-study of the Bible. The other movement was even more
dangerous to the religious status quo. Slowly emigrating from the East were the Cathars who,
when they began to dominate southern France, were known as Albigensians. They promoted a
view that the world of matter was in the realm of Satan and therefore the Christian incarnation
was impossible. They also promoted a class of saintly people called the perfecti. This was not a
Christian reform movement but an entirely new religion. Aided by indifferent or sympathetic
local lords these groups began to attract many followers and became influential in southern
France and parts of northern Italy.
1187: A Virtuous Pagan Takes Back Jerusalem.
In 1187, Saladin and his force of Muslim troops recaptured Jerusalem and nearby
Crusader States from their Christian occupiers. Previously Saladin had managed to unite Egypt
and the area of Palestine and was a forceful political and military leader. Although a non-
Christian, Saladin was considered virtuous by his Christian contemporaries. (Unlike the
Christians in the eleventh century, Saladin spared Jerusalem’s inhabitants when he captured
the city.) We see Saladin in Dante’s first circle of Hell that is reserved for the virtuous pagans.
The result of Saladin’s success was another invasion from the west that history calls the “Third
Crusade.” This was the campaign that claimed the life of Frederick Barbarossa who accidently
12
drowned. The Third Crusade ended in 1192 with a truce between Saladin and Richard “The
Lionhearted” and there was no re-conquest of the Holy Lands
1194: Emperor Henry, Constance and the young Frederick.
The Norman king of Sicily died without a male heir and Emperor Frederick’s son Henry
had a claim on the Sicilian throne, having been married to Constance (p. 102, 104, 105n), the
daughter of the previous king. We hear of Constance twice in the Divine Comedy. Manfred, one
of the last Hohenstaufen rulers, introduces himself in Purgatorio 3 not as the son of his father
but the grandson of “Constanze imperadrice”, “Empress Constance”. In Paradiso 3, in the
sphere of the Moon, Constance is next to Piccarda who speaks of her as having been taken
from cloistered life and forced to marry for political reasons.
With a claim to its throne, Frederic Barbarossa’s son Henry VI invaded and appropriated
the previously-Norman Kingdom of Sicily that included southern Italy. By this time the Normans
had been in control of this region for well over a century. Henry was also the Holy Roman
Emperor and had claim to Germany and northern Italy. He ruled for seven years.
Henry unexpectedly died in 1197, leaving his widow and a son three years old.
Constance had the good sense to name Pope Innocent III the young boy’s guardian, who in turn
proclaimed the toddler King of Sicily.
Innocent III would have been a natural ally of Sicily’s rival, the Welf-allied Otto IV in
Germany. The Pope crowned Otto Emperor but soon became disillusioned with him and
instead backed the young Frederick. Pope Innocent was hoping to take advantage of the young
heir’s minority even if that meant the Pope backing a Hohenstaufen. This strategy would
backfire, and Frederick II would become the Papacy’s affliction for decades.
1200: The University System and Aristotle
The year 1200 conventionally marks the beginning of the university system which
became the basis for the intellectual renaissance of the thirteenth century. The university
system became a fertile ground for the transmission of the works of Aristotle and others to the
medieval culture. During the 1200’s universities specialized in different studies: people flocked
to Bologna to study law, Salerno to study medicine, and notably the university at Paris to study
theology. There was a wide divergence of opinion on the relationship between these new
“pagan” sources and the Christian doctrine.
Accompanying the writings of “the Philosopher” were also the commentaries by the
Islamic Averroes that became the basis for a more radical Aristotelianism; opposing them were
those for whom philosophy was, at best, the “handmaiden of theology”. These new teachings
based on Aristotle were exciting and feared and there was conflict over them for decades. The
epicenter for this conflict was Paris although it would manifest throughout the intellectual
circles of Europe and take many forms.
13
This was the time of the Uranus-Pluto
conjunction that signals radical
departures from orthodoxy
At this time the Catholic Church
was controlled by its most powerful
Pope, Innocent III. In Uranus-Pluto
fashion, there were many great
challenges to church orthodoxy. The
Cathars or Albigensians were at their
peak of popularity in Southern France;
in the universities, occasional bans on
the teachings from the pagan
philosopher and Islamic commentators
were usually ignored by university
professors and their students. This
chart is set for July 28, 1201.
1208: Dominic and the Albigensians.
Innocent III, having been unable to restrain the advance of the Albigensians, called a
crusade against them. At this time the French monarchy was now available for an armed
conflict and had an eye toward eventually expanding their realm into southern France to the
Mediterranean. This was also a golden chance for France’s northern nobility to engage in a
land-grab of territory confiscated from the Albigensians and their allies
Innocent III had tried to convert Albigensians back to Christianity more peacefully. A
few years earlier, arriving from the Spanish peninsula, Dominic de Guzman (p. 113-115) and his
bishop asked the Pope’s permission to preach to the non-Christians in the East. Seeing a greater
threat closer to home and surely impressed by Dominic’s abilities, the Pope instead sent them
to southern France to preach to the Albigensians.
Dominic, a brilliant and fierce defender of his contemporary church, encountered many
difficulties in southern France. The Church’s previous missions to France mostly communicated
the Church’s ostentatious wealth. Additionally, the Albigensian perfecti were generally quite
learned, and their ideas could be countered only by those skillful in dialectic. Dominic
presented himself as a less worldly man of God who was intelligent and adept at disputation.
Several years later his ministry grew into an international “Dominican Order. During the 1200’s
Dominicans would controversially dominate the universities in Europe.
In Paradiso 9 42-111, in the sphere of Venus, we hear from man who calls himself Folco
(p. 109). In 1205 he became the bishop of Toulouse, the major city in southern France and an
14
Albigensian stronghold. Folco was a major player in the Albigensian crusades. In Paradiso 9,
Folco discusses his previously changed life from troubadour to person of God, but not his
subsequent actions against the Albigensians. Yet his presence in the Paradiso speaks much of
Dante’s bias in that conflict.
Things would not turn out well for the Albigensians or the autonomous kingdoms of
southern France. As the crusading invaders captured more cities the region became involved in
warfare between the various rulers and sovereigns. After many years and much loss of life,
southern France was firmly under the control of the French king. In addition many Dominican
friars became inquisitors working to ferret out heretics, and the Albigensian religion was
annihilated.
1210: Charismatic wanderer goes mainstream.
In 1210, Francis of Assisi (p. 113-115) went to Innocent III, requesting that that he and
his followers be given official permission to preach and to become an officially sanctioned
order. Francis and his followers received an audience with the Pope (probably a miracle in
itself), who gave his blessings to what would be later called the “Franciscan Order.” Perhaps
the Pope was taken by the barefoot preacher’s saintly presence, but likely this was a pragmatic
move by Pope Innocent. Francis would begin a movement that could help inspire alternatives
to the worldliness and wealth of the current Church. Innocent’s “big tent” approach, to find
avenues for the truly religious but leave its institutions unchanged, helped give the Church an
additional three hundred years of being “catholic” or universal. Francis was one of the great
and influential personalities of his age. For Dante, he was a strong influence, a spiritual
troubadour who wrote poetry, a contemplative who also preached to the Sultan.
1215: A Blood Feud in Florence leads to civil war.
In 1215, a man named Buondelmonte de’ Buondelmonti was betrothed to the daughter
of one family but left her suddenly and instead married the daughter of Gualdrada Donati (a
family name we will encounter again). A member of the aggrieved Amidei family that was allied
with the Uberti family (another family name we will encounter again), murdered Buondelmonti
on a bridge near an old statue of Mars. Cacciaguida discusses this incident in Paradiso 16.142-
147.
This led to a split among the leading families in Florence that gradually took on political
dimensions as the Guelf/Ghibelline conflict. This would last generations and help plunge
northern Italy and Florence itself into civil war.
From the point of view of Florence, the Guelfs promoted greater city independence
from the Empire (not that they particularly wanted clerical rule) and the Ghibellines were allied
with Emperor Frederick II who had hegemony over Florence during much of his reign. Dante,
although a loyal Guelf, wanted a rejuvenated and powerful Holy Roman Empire to turn chaos
15
into order. In Dante’s view Florence’s independence was not an unmixed blessing.
1220-1250: The Era of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
After consolidating his gains in Sicily and buying off the nobles in Germany with large
concessions, Frederick II was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome by Pope Innocent’s
successor Honorius III. Frederick gained favor with the new Pope by promising to go on a
crusade about which he then dithered for years. He also promised the Pope he would not
attempt to unite Sicily and Naples with the Empire to the north.He didn’t keep that promise
either. The net result was that Emperor and Pope, this one and his successors, would be
combatants for the next three decades.
Advising the Emperor was Michael Scot (p.182), who, according to Inferno 20, had
skinny flanks and practiced “magic fraud”. Being born in 1175 he was an older man to the
young Emperor and was the Emperor’s personal astrologer. Previously he had translated
Aristotle into Latin and became steeped in the major philosophical trends of his day, wrote an
introductory book on astrology, and practiced different forms of sympathetic magic.
After years of dithering and then becoming excommunicated, Frederick II finally arrived
in the Holy Land. In a move that angered more orthodox Christians and Muslims, he made a
diplomatic deal with the Muslim leader of Jerusalem, the result of which was that Christians
could again occupy Jerusalem and surrounding areas for ten years. On his return to Italy in
1230, he made clear his intention to unite his Kingdom of Sicily and the city-states of northern
Italy -- sandwiching the Papal States in between. For the next twenty years, occasionally
interrupted by peace treaties, Frederick’s dream of a larger empire was opposed by both the
papacy and the northern cities. This would result in civil war among the cities of northern Italy
that would continue for decades, up to the time of Dante’s birth.
Like his grandfather who had the same ambition, Frederick’s plans to conquer and
control Italy were never realized. One difficulty was that he encountered a series of strong
popes who did what they could to thwart him. In addition to the use of military power and
material aid to Frederick’s enemies, the popes repeatedly excommunicated the Emperor,
making it more difficult for him to exert authority. In the 1240’s, Pope Innocent IV invited
everybody to join in a crusade against Frederick. In 1254 all of Frederick’s followers were
excommunicated by the Church.
For much of this time Frederick’s chancellor and personal confidant was Pier delle Vigne
(p 13, 19n), who was also a first-rate poet and man of letters. Pier delle Vigne had an abrupt
turn of fortune in the late 1240’s when he fell out of grace with Frederick. The once-favored
prime minister was jailed, blinded, and he eventually killed himself. We find delle Vigne
unforgettably portrayed in Inferno 13 among the suicides, as an elegantly speaking gnarled
bush.
16
Frederick was far more Italian than German, was multilingual (including Arabic), was
tolerant of Islam and stocked his armies with Muslim mercenaries, discoursed in philosophy,
wrote his own poetry, and was a thoroughgoing religious skeptic. He helped found the
university at Salerno that specialized in medicine that took from multiple sources. Frederick
helped make Sicily a place of culture and refinement and, critical to Dante’s poetic lineage,
helped introduce the troubadour tradition of poetry from Provence to Sicily, from where it
would eventually move to central Italy. Frederick well earned the appellation Stupor Mundi
that sounds much better in translation: “Wonder of the World”.
After conducting decades of civil war in Italy, after some victories but many defeats,
Frederick II died of dysentery in 1250. After his death Italy would continue fragmented and
often at war with itself. Florence had been under the rule of Frederick, but it was quite divided
over whether this was a good thing, and Guelf and Ghibelline families fiercely contested the
matter. Frederick’s death prompted Florence toward greater self-sufficiency.
Where does one find Frederick in Dante’s afterlife? Dante mentions him only in passing:
he is in Inferno X in the place assigned to heretics. In the poet’s view Frederick would have
been the kind of ruler who could have brought order to Italy, and indeed Frederick’s dream of a
united Italy as the center of the Empire, was also Dante’s dream. However, Frederick, in
Dante’s eyes, was more religious skeptic (or even pagan) than Christian, nor could he have been
considered just or temperate. In Purgatory and Paradise we find many rulers but it seems that
the shadow of Frederick II hovers over all of them.
1252: Alfonse the Wise and his projects.
For 1252, we move to the Spanish peninsula, another place of international learning and
culture. This was another important year for the dissemination of astrology in the West.
Alphonse the Wise, king of Castille, had an abiding interest in astronomy and astrology. He
commissioned the “Alphonsine Tables” from an international group of scholars. These updated
the Toledan Tables from the second half of the 11th century and were in use for several
centuries afterwards. Alphonse also commissioned a translation of the Picatrix that became
the basic text for magic in the medieval era and the Renaissance.
1252: Florence’s gesture of independence.
Also in 1252, the city of Florence was looking to control its future. With Frederick II deceased
and his succession uncertain, Florence took the unusual step of introducing its own currency –
the florin – as gold coin. This was generally considered a matter for the Empire, not an
independent city. This move signaled Florence’s desire for autonomy in addition to its status as
a major economic powerhouse. This stable currency was soon in use throughout Europe. By
now an independent Florence had defeated many of its neighboring cities and became the
17
most powerful city in Tuscany.
1254: Manfred Inherits the Hohenstaufen Dynasty.
Emperor Frederick’s son Conrad IV, who had been King of Germany, succeeded
Frederick. Pope Innocent IV preached another crusade, this time against Conrad. However the
young emperor died in 1254 and was succeeded by his half-brother, Frederick’s illegitimate son
Manfred (p. 31-32). At this time the focus of activity was south Italy and Sicily, leaving the
central and northern city-states to fend for themselves and feud with each other. Naturally
Manfred’s accession was met with a divided Florence: to the Guelfs he would be considered a
major threat; to the Ghibellines he was the savior who could restore the old families.
1257: The Four Schoolmen of Paris.
At the university in Paris, doctorates were awarded to two renowned teachers, possibly
in the same ceremony: Bonaventure (p. 113, 115) the Franciscan and Thomas of Aquinas (p.
112, 115) the Dominican.3
Bonaventure later would become the head of the entire Franciscan order and is credited
with compiling the definitive biography of Francis of Assisi. His theology stressed the role of
faith, intuition and the good will to provide means necessary from our side for salvation (God’s
grace is the other side). Although well-schooled in the philosophical trends of his time,
Bonaventure had little use for many of the speculations of his colleagues and considered
philosophy the “handmaiden of theology”. Among many he is considered the second founder
of the Franciscan order.
Thomas was from southern Italy and his family was related to Frederick II and the
Hohenstaufens. As a young man he felt the call for the priesthood and only after outlasting
great family resistance (including locking him up) did he become a Dominican at the age of 19.
One year later Thomas went to Paris and met Albertus Magnus there. He later followed his
teacher to Cologne and spent eight years at the papal court, but twice more returned to Paris
to teach and write. During Thomas’ third stay in Paris, beginning in 1268, he wrote the
monumental Summa Theologica.
Thomas endeavored to take the intellectual fight to Siger of Brabant, the best known of
the “Latin Averroists,” named after the great Arabic commentator from the previous century.
This group took its Aristotle to heart and endeavored to pursue a purely rational philosophy
without attempting to reconcile it with Christian teachings. Siger promoted the idea of “two
truths” whereby conflicting conclusions of philosophy and theology could both be valid within
their own spheres.
Thomas of Aquinas would have none of this. There are truths of our worlds that can be
3 See Catholic Encyclopedia, online: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02648c.htm
18
discovered by empirical investigation and philosophical dialectic, and further by Christian
revelation, but only one truth. The grand plan for The Divine Comedy with its widening ranges
of truth as it proceeds through the regions of the afterlife follows Thomas’ presentation. There
was also a strong political influence. Unlike the Augustinian tradition that regarded the “City of
Man” as subordinate to the “City of God” (the Church), Aquinas and others argued that the
political life has its own place to support the development of virtue and to provide a supportive
environment for the work of human salvation. Dante’s political theory presented in The Divine
Comedy is close to this view.
In Dante’s Paradise we see all four schoolmen of Paris – Thomas, Bonaventure, Siger,
and Albertus Magnus -- together as glittering lights among the circular garlands of stars that
comprise the Sphere of the Sun (See Paradiso 10-13). Their difficulties with each other in life
served to promote a greater good.
1260: Florence Goes Back and Forth.
Although Florence was considered a Guelf city there was an important interruption. In
1260, in the battle of Monteperti near Siena, an alliance of Ghibellines led by Farinata degli
Uberti (p. 7, 16, 26) routed the Florentine Guelfs. Another participant in this battle was Bocca
delgi Abati (p. 17-18), a Ghibelline leader who pretended to defect to the other side and helped
turn the battle against the Guelfs. In Inferno 32, Abati is stuck in ice with only his head above
the surface. When Dante finds out who he is, he kicks him in the head.
After this battle the Ghibellines and their allies took over the city of Florence. In a
council of the victors, Farinata stood against Florence’s destruction and the city survived.
(Faranata had been the head of the Ghibellines in Florence for decades previously, was exiled
with his fellows in 1248 but returned three years later.) Cast as a haughty aristocrat speaking
grandly from a flaming tomb, Farinata is one of the more interesting characters of the poem.
See Inferno 10.
Ghibelline domination of Florence wouldn’t last long.
During this time Guido Bonatti (p. 182-183) was the celebrity astrologer to various
Ghibellene leaders although not (as far as we know) to Farinata. At one time Bonatti worked for
the governor of Padua, Ezzelino da Romana (p. 109), known for his cruelty. Ezzelino appears in
Inferno 12 cast into a river of blood. Bonatti also worked for Count Novello who was the
Ghibellene leader of Florence after the battle of Montaperti. The great astrologer also worked
for Guido da Montefeltro (p. 204-205), a military and political leader who the poet assigned to
the place in Hell for evil counselors (Inferno 27).
19
1265: Dante’s birth.
In 1265, the future poet was born to a notary father and a mother from family of minor
nobility. His family owned some land outside the city walls. Dante had one sister. Their mother
died when he was a child and their father died when he was a teenager.
1266: The Hohenstaufen Dynasty Ends; Sicily goes French.
In 1266, Manfred the son of Frederick II was killed in battle at Benevuto. Pope Clement
IV had previously excommunicated Manfred and formed an alliance with Charles of Anjou
(brother of Louis IX the king of France). Bankrolled by Florentine bankers, Charles sent a force
against Manfred who was betrayed by his own barons and was killed. Manfred makes a
dramatic appearance in Purgatorio 3 still showing the wounds of battle. Manfred’s son came
down from Germany to challenge Charles but he was captured and beheaded. This was the end
of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and began the long decline of the Holy Roman Empire. The
Empire would become a polyglot of German principalities; Dante would resent the Emperors’
neglect of Italy during his politically turbulent lifetime.
Charles of Anjou took over areas in southern Italy held by the Hohenstaufen but formed
an alliance with Venice and aimed his intentions east. Sicily would stay in French hands until
1272, when the Sicilians overthrew and massacred the French in the “Sicilian Vespers.” This
would result in further warfare and political complexity that would again reverberate to the
north.
1266: Peaceful Florence.
The Guelfs took back Florence for good in 1266, which ended the Ghibelline presence in
the city. Farinata’s family was exiled once again. Dante would grow up in a relatively peaceful
Florence. Later the political situation in Florence would once again become deadly as the
Guelfs themselves split into factions.
1274: Life-Changing Events.
At the age of nine the lad Dante first saw Beatrice and fell in love with her on the spot.
Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure both die.
1283: Dante’s Early Life.
In 1283, the teenage Dante was married to Gemma Donati whose ancestors we have
met and whose relatives we will meet soon enough. Dante and Gemma had four children and
appeared to have had a relatively happy marriage. Beatrice herself was married in 1287 to a
man from a family with similar wealth and social standing as hers. Dante mentions neither
marriage in his poetic writings.
20
During his early adult years Dante may have spent time in University of Bologna. In
Florence one of his teachers was probably Brunetto Latini (p. 16-17), from whom Dante likely
learned classical literature and to read Virgil. Latini was also an example of a politically involved
literary person as Dante himself would become.
The Alighieri family had property outside of Florence, some of which was rental
property, and managing this property was a source of income for Dante and his family at this
time.
1289: Florence Victorious.
In 1289, Dante participated in the battle of Campaldino, where Florence and her allies defeated
neighboring Arezzo and their Ghibelline allies. In Purgatorio 5 we meet the Ghibelline leader
Buonconte da Montefeltro (p. 39-40), son of Guido who is in hell, who like Manfred was a late
penitent. This battle’s outcome insured that Florence would dominate Tuscany.
1290: Beatrice dies.
1291: End of the Crusader Era.
We take one last look at the Holy Lands. After laying siege to the city, the Muslims
captured the city of Acre, the last of the Crusader States, thus effectively ending the era of the
Crusades in 1291. The Divine Comedy, particularly the Paradiso, waxes nostalgic for the bygone
times of the crusades.
1293-1294: Dante the Poet.
From 1293-1294, Dante composed the Vita Nuova, (“New Life”) containing sonnets and
commentary that told of his love for Beatrice. It also provides a narrative of his poetic and
spiritual growth. The Vita Nuova, along with Dante’s other early poetry, helped established him
as an important poet in Florence. During this period he experimented with different contents
and poetic styles that would serve him well later.
The content of Dante’s poetry stemmed in part from the poetic troubadour tradition
that began in Provençal France, moved from Sicily (thank Frederick II) and then to the city-
states in central and northern Italy in the years before Dante’s birth. Over time this tradition
changed from a focus on love and affairs of the heart to include a more spiritual dimension
whereby personal love brings the lover closer to God.
In Purgatorio 26 we meet Guido Guinizzelli (p. 64, 68), a poet from Bologna in the
previous generation. As befits fashioners of love poetry, Guinizzelli and his fellow penitents are
purifying lust. Dante feels indebted to Guinizzelli, who defers to the Provençal poet Arnaut
Daniel (p. 68) from earlier in the century.
21
1294: Dante’s Important Friend.
In 1294, Dante met and became fast friends with Charles Martel (p. 107-109, 215-216).
Martel was the grandson of Charles of Anjou and son of the king of Sicily, heir to many
kingdoms, and briefly stayed in Florence on his way to Naples. In Paradiso 8 Dante and Charles
Martel converse as old friends reuniting. Martel also may have inspired Dante to enter political
life.
1294: Boniface VIII.
In 1294, Boniface VIII was elected Pope to replace Celestine V who had abdicated.
Celestine had considered himself more a contemplative than a public person. When called to
public life he preferred his private life. Celestine’s “Great Refusal” (see Inferno 3) was a refusal
of the call to becoming active in the world. A century after the papacy of Innocent III, Boniface
was convinced he could wield the same kind of power, but times had changed greatly. Even
contemporary historians view the new Pope Boniface VIII as “haughty, overbearing, vain, and
incredibly ambitious.”4 This is fairly charitable compared to Dante’s treatment of him. Later, it
was with his collusion that the Black Guelfs took over Florence and Dante was exiled from his
city.
We will discuss the tragic ending of Boniface’s reign below.
1295: Dante becomes a politician.
The year 1295 sees the the poet entering a period of active participation in the affairs of
Florence. Based on the increasing power of the trade guilds, there had been a reform of the
commune system in Florence. To qualify for holding office, Dante had to be a member of a
guild. He chose to become a member of Guild of Physicians and Apothecaries (he was neither).
Dante was quite successful as a man of influence, becoming known as a very persuasive
speaker with strong convictions.
April 1300: the time of the Divine Comedy’s narrative.
Spring-Summer 1300: Setting up Dante’s downfall.
4 Tierney, B. & Painter, S. p. 387
Because Boniface was still alive at the time of the Divine Comedy’s narrative, Dante has
to find another way to depict the pope’s eventual destination. In Inferno 19, Nicholas III, who was pope when Dante was a teenager, is placed with many others in a flaming baptismal font upside down, with his feet kicking in the air. Not seeing Dante but knowing somebody is nearby, Nicholas exclaims, “Se’ tu già costì ritto,/se’ tu già costì ritto, Bonifazio?” “Are you already standing there, are you already standing there, Boniface?” (Durling translation)
22
In 1300 Dante became one of Florence’s six Priors who would govern the city. One
would think this was good news for the poet, but he inherited a very difficult situation.
By this time Florence’s ruling Guelfs had split into “black” and “white” factions and a
family struggle between the Cerchis and Donatis and their respective allies. Dante belonged to
the whites, who were more willing to oppose the pope and church establishment than their
opponents.
Beginning at a May Day dance, violence had broken out between the two factions. To
restore order, the six new priors, including Dante, banished the leaders of both sides, including
Guido Calvacanti from the whites and Corso Donati from the blacks. Calvacanti returned to
Florence and died of malaria at the end of the summer; Donati’s exile continued.
Donati then appealed to Pope Boniface who asked the French nobleman Charles of
Valois (brother of King Phillip IV of France) to become Florence’s “peacemaker”. This created
an unholy alliance between a greedy Pope (Boniface), an ambitious French nobleman (Charles),
and a ruthless Florentine political leader (Corso Donati) and an evil brew for the poet turned
politician.
June 19, 1301: “Nihil fiat.”
Through his cardinal as emissary, Pope Boniface asked for military support from
Florence for an excursion into southern Tuscany. The white Guelfs opposed this proposal and
on this date Dante gave his famous Nihil fiat speech (“that nothing be done”). This only
increased tensions between the Florentine whites and the Pope.
November 1, 1301: The Black Guelfs take Florence.
At the instigation of (and with payment by) Pope Boniface, Charles of Valois entered
Florence with his army and occupied it. Although he had promised a peaceful occupation, he
let Corso Donati and other exiled black Guelfs back into the city, and within a week they had
complete control. Donati and his allies began a bloody purge of their adversaries while the
French looked the other way.
Dante, however, was elsewhere at the time of the takeover. He may have been on a
prior mission to the Pope to attempt an agreement with him, and he may have been detained
there when Charles and the Black Guelfs occupied Florence. Had Dante been in Florence he
could easily have been killed.
January 27, 1302: Dante’s Exile Begins.
The Black Guelfs controlling Florence condemned Dante and others of the white faction
on trumped-up charges of financial mismanagement and for defying the pope. They were
sentenced to banishment. On March 10 Dante was sentenced to death if he attempted to
return to the city. Dante never returned to Florence.
23
Once Dante had accepted the reality of his exile he continued studying and writing and
gradually built up to the Divine Comedy. He continued to write poetry, of course. He wrote but
did not complete De Vulgari Eloquentia about the evolution of language. He also wrote the
Convivio that contained philosophical speculations that would later appear (and sometimes to
be refuted) in the Divine Comedy. De Monarchia, which contains his political theory, was
written during his last years. Many of Dante’s letters also survive.
In Paradiso 17, Cacciaguida tells Dante about his life as an exile. Dante would try to get
back into Florence by allying himself with other white Guelfs but they turn out to be the wrong
people and their enterprise will fail. This would leave Dante, Cacciaguida says, “a party for
yourself.” The poet continued to be involved in politics, not as an office holder but as a partisan
and writer of polemics and occasionally as a diplomat. In exile he was generally hosted well,
yet, says Cacciaguida, to an exile the host’s stairs always feel heavier and the bread tastes
saltier.
September 1303: Pope vs. French King.
The papacy of Boniface VIII did not end happily. The French King Philip IV was as tough a
political fighter and the two feuded over the issue of taxing the French clergy. Eventually they
made a truce but Phillip emerged with the advantage. In September 1303, troops led by a
representative of Phillip went to a papal residence at Anagni. Some of them assaulted and
imprisoned Boniface, and the Pope, although freed quickly, died soon afterwards.
Dante was horrified by this incident. Although he detested this Pope, he likened Phillip’s
part to Pilate letting Christ be attacked. (See Purgatorio 20.85-90.) The following Pope,
Benedict XI, died shortly after taking office. His successor Clement V was a puppet of the
French monarchy. The
papacy itself moved to
Avignon in 1309 where
the French would call
the shots for the next
several decades.
The year of the
Uranus-Neptune
conjunction (1307) was
not momentous in the
history of northern
Italy, yet we will see
that in less than two
years the Papacy
would move to France.
24
Probably in the following year Dante began The Divine Comedy. This chart is for November 3,
1307.
1310: Florence threatened by one more Emperor.
The Black Guelfs ruled Florence in the early 1300’s but they faced many crises, particularly in
the next decade from an outside invader. Although the Holy Roman Empire had become weak
and divided since the times of Frederick II and Manfred, a new Emperor Henry VII of
Luxembourg was intent upon uniting northern Italy under imperial rule. By 1310 the exiled
Dante was writing letters to the people of Florence telling them to surrender to a legitimate
monarch and overall great person. The Florentines thought of the matter differently, however.
Backed by outside forces concerned about the balance of power, the city put up a tough
resistance and repelled Henry who died the next year. This clearly broke the poet’s heart. In
Paradiso 30.133-141, the pilgrim sees a seat in high Heaven that Henry will someday inhabit.
1308-1321: Divine Comedy and aftermath.
Dante began the Inferno in 1308 – probably. In 1312, Dante moved to Verona where he lived
well as favored guest of its ruler Can Grande della Scala. During his stay in Verona he finished
much of The Divine Comedy and he dedicated the Paradiso to its ruler. At least one of Dante’s
sons and possibly the rest of his family joined him there. Toward its completion, the Divine
Comedy had made Dante revered as a poet and as a regional celebrity. The Florentines offered
to take him back into the city if the poet portrayed himself as penitent, which he refused to do.
In 1319 Dante moved to Ravenna and finished the Paradiso the following year. On a diplomatic
mission Dante became ill and he died in September 1321.
Resources
Collins, Roger, Early Medieval Europe 300-1000 (1991) New York: St. Martin’s Press
Durling, Robert & Martinez, Ronald, Paradiso (2011) New York: Oxford University Press
Holmes, George, Oxford History of Italy (1997) New York: Oxford University Press
Hollander, Robert & Jean, Paradiso (2007) New York: Doubleday
Holmes, George, Oxford History of Italy (1997) New York: Oxford University Press
Lewis, R.W.B. Dante. (2001) New York, Viking.
Schevill, Ferdinand History of Florence (1961) New York: Frederick Ungar
Tierney, Brian & Painter, Sidney, Western Europe in the Middle Ages 300-1475. (1970) New
York: Alfred Knopf