Historic Terraced Vineyards,Impressive Witnesses of Vernacular Architecture

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Historic terraced vineyards: impressive witnesses

of vernacular architectureClaude Petit , Werner Konold & Franz HchtlPublished online: 15 May 2012.

To cite this article:Claude Petit , Werner Konold & Franz Hchtl (2012) Historic terraced vineyards: impressive

witnesses of vernacular architecture, Landscape History, 33:1, 5-28, DOI: 10.1080/01433768.2012.671029

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ABSTRACT

English

The history of viticulture has been widely studiedin Europe. Knowledge of the landscape history ofthe viticulture once widely practised on terracedslopes is lacking, however. This paper containsan outline of the history of such vineyards. Theforces driving the terracing of steep slopes arediscussed, as are the advantages of buildingterraces and of using dry stone walls as retainingstructures. The building fabric of historicterraced vineyards located in south-westernGermany and in the Swiss canton of Valais wasanalysed employing a historical landscapeanalysis. The construction and function of thedifferent elements of the vineyards, and theirinteractions, were a particular focus. Also

presented are insights into how the buildingfabric may provide indications as to the ownersand the construction history of suchwinegrowing areas. Finally, strategies for thepreservation of these terraced vineyards, whichare of great value from both a nature and aheritage conservation perspective, are presented,as are the benefits of continued research.

German

In Europa ist die Geschichte des Weinbausweitgehend gut erforscht. Zu der

Landschaftsgeschichte der ehemals starkverbreiteten Form des Terrassenweinbausbestehen jedoch kaum Erkenntnisse. Der Artikelbehandelt die Entstehungsgeschichte dieserWeinberge, zeigt Triebkrfte fr dieTerrassierung von steilen Lagen und die Vorteiledieser Landschaftsgestaltung sowie derVerwendung der Trockenmauertechnik auf.Anhand einer historischen Landschaftsanalysewurde die Bausubstanz historischer

Terrassenweinberge Sdwestdeutschlands unddem Schweizer Kanton Wallis untersucht.Hierbei wurden Fragen ber die Konstruktionund Funktion der einzelnen Bauelemente sowiederen Zusammenwirken behandelt. Ferner wirddargestellt, inwiefern, die Bausubstanz unsHinweise auf die Entwicklungs- und

Besitzgeschichte solcher Rebflchen liefern kann.Abschlieend werden Strategien zum Erhaltdieser naturschutzfachlich und kulturhistorischwertvollen Weinberge sowie der Nutzen ihrerErforschung aufgezeigt.

KEYWORDS

History of viticulture, terraced landscape, drystone masonry, heritage conservation

INTRODUCTION

Crossing over into the Gundelsheim area . . . onemight think one has entered a new clime, a placewhere the practice of viticulture finds itself on amuch higher cultural plane. The imposingmasonry of the stone vineyards (named thus forthe many quarries once present here, where wallthrones upon wall, where walls with heights of1225 feet are built upon overhanging cliffs,upon which they are supported, all of this to winfrom the soil a few rods of land) provides a

certain mark of the wealth of the owner, also thecareful construction, and especially the sopurposeful use of the walls, that I have notencountered anywhere else, instil in thebeholder the opinion that something remarkablewas produced here that justified the great effort(Bronner 1837a, p. 39).

At the foot of such terraced vineyards, wherewall thrones upon wall, as Johann Philipp

DOI: 10.1080/01433768.2012.671029

Historic terraced vineyards:impressive witnesses ofvernacular architecture

Claude Petit, Werner Konold and Franz Hchtl


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Bronner put it in 1837 in his Abhandlungenber den Weinbau im Knigreich Wrttemberg,the notion that something remarkable was onceproduced there really is conveyed. And shouldthe beholder have the opportunity to walkthrough a steep, artistically constructed terracedvineyard there is the chance that he may actuallybecome dizzy (Pl. I). Long drawn out stairs,often with many hundred steps, render thevineyard accessible, from the valley bottom upto the crest of the ridge. Gazing across the view,he can appreciate the arduous work done by thevintner, who has to carry with him his heavy,grape-filled basket.

Arresting moments like this arecommonplace when viewing almost all terracedlandscapes. These can be found in numerousparts of the world (Lewis 1953; Johnson & et al.

1982; Williams 1990; Ambroise et al. 1993;

Treacy & Denevan 1997; Evans & Winterhalder2000). Familiar examples include rice terracesfrom China and the Philippines, and arableterraces in Peru, Lebanon and Nepal. Thestepped surfaces serve not only the cultivationof cereals and vines but also of vegetables, fruitsand olive trees. Viticultural use was particularlypredominant in the historic terraced vineyardsfound across Europe: in the Cinque Terre regionof Italy, by Banyuls-sur-Mer on theMediterranean coast and Condrieu in the RhneValley in France, along the Douro in Portugal,on the Peljeac peninsula in Croatia, in AustrianWachau, and in the Swiss cantons of Ticino,Vaud and Valais. In Germany, too, one of theEuropean countries with a rich tradition ofwinegrowing (Unwin 1996, p. 3), terracedviticulture still takes place: for example, in the

valleys of the Ahr, Elbe, Mosel, Neckar and

6 LANDSCAPE HISTORY

Plate I. Historic terraced vineyards: impressive witnesses of European landscape culture (Photograph C. Petit).


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Rhine, and in their side valleys. To underline thehistorical significance of winegrowing inGermany the peak of viticulture in Germanyoccurred at the end of the Middle Ages (Hahn1956, p. 18) some statistics are given. In theduchy of Wrttemberg there were around45,000 hectares of vineyard in 1624 (Schrder1953, p. 67), compared to just c. 11,300 hectarestoday (Breitbarth 1999, p. 25). In Franken thesituation is much the same: there were around40,000 hectares of vineyard in 1560 (Leicht 1985,p. 8; Schenk 1992, p. 191), with currently only6,000 hectares under management (Breitbarth1999, p. 25). In the vicinities of Naumburg,Freyburg and Bad Ksen, in the Saale-Unstrutwine region, the high point was from thefifteenth to the mid-sixteenth century. Herethere were once between 6,000 and

10,000 hectares of vineyard, reduced to only480 hectares today (Coburger & Thrnhardt1995, pp. 29, 249).

The primary characteristic of historicvineyards is the network of dry built walls andstairs that accompanied the terracing of thesteep slopes. These vineyards are referred to ashistoric because today no one would buildwalls and stairs when newly establishing avineyard (Gunzelmann 2005, p. 7). It is inrelation to this fundamental construction that theinterests of heritage and nature conservation

meet. In historical terms, these vineyards bearwitness to historic viticulture and the agriculturaltechniques of our ancestors, to the cultivation ofsteep sites, and to the craftsmanship of dry stonewalling. From the nature conservationperspective they are a secondary habitat fornumerous animal and plant species with aprimarily Mediterranean or continentaldistribution, which, through their adaptation todry, hot site conditions, predominantly appearon natural cliff faces and similar arid locations.The historic terraced vineyards have beensubjected to far-reaching alterations, however.Declining cost effectiveness and the demandingphysical labour required in the largely manualmanagement of such sites, by comparison withthe predominantly mechanised modernvineyards, are the catalyst for the ongoingdecline. Land consolidation efforts have led tothe destruction of their essential building fabricand the corresponding historic and nature

conservation value. The abandonment ofmanagement is usually followed by the naturalsuccession of vegetation and even reforestation.At the margins of towns, the vine slopes are alsosought-after locations for residential use nowonder given that the south-facing slopes offerwarm locations with pleasant views. The threatof their loss from within also looms large. A lackof awareness, appreciation and knowledge, andthe insufficient financial means of the managersto maintain the basic fabric of the dry builtelements, has led to a creeping decay of theholdings. In the absence of countermeasures,there is a danger that they will disappearentirely.

THE VITICULTURAL CULTIVATION OF THE

SLOPES

ON THE AGE OF TERRACED VITICULTURE

Vines have been cultivated on the left side ofthe Rhine since the Roman Iron Age (Cppers1987). Literary sources and the confirmedremains of wine press houses attest to Romanviticulture along the Mosel in the third andfourth centuries (Gilles 1995; Matheus 1997,p. 506). In particular, the poem Mosellaby the

Roman poet Decimius Magnus Ausoniusdescribes the Mosel as a river decorated byvines, where golden wine is made (Ausonius1824; Matheus 1997). The location of theuncovered wine press houses indicates that thevineyards were primarily established on theclimatically favourable slopes (Gilles 1995;Matheus 1997). However, certain archaeologicalproof of viticulture in Roman south-westernGermany (right bank of the Rhine) does notexist (Reuter 2004, p. 37). Documentation forthe right side of the Rhine dates back only as faras the seventh and eighth centuries (Dornfeld1868; Salzmann 1930; Schrder 1953).

The beginning of terraced viticulture1 incentral Europe is assumed to date back to theperiod from the tenth to the thirteenth century(Lamprecht 1886, p. 566; Shn 1913, pp. 7-8;Schrder 1953, pp. 43, 61; Weiter-Matysiak 1985,p. 13; Volk 1993, pp. 59, 61). However, there areno known unequivocal archival or

7HISTORIC TERRACED VINEYARDS


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archaeological proofs for or against theconstruction of terraces or dry stone walls. Thereasons given for their construction are basedon the conclusion that vine cultures on steepslopes require terracing and, on the basis ofstatements of place and the spatial attribution offield-names, viticulture only managed to gain afoothold in these areas during this period.Examples include the expansion of viticulture inthe shell limestone valleys of Wrttemberg(Schrder 1953) and the first cultivation of thefamous slopes of the right bank of the Rhinebetween Mainz and Bingen (e.g. Reinhardt 1911;Shn 1913). According to Gilles (1995, pp. 2, 17)and Matheus (1997, p. 507), the location of theexcavated Roman wine press houses at the footof steep valley slopes indicates that, contrary tothe current assumptions on its beginnings,

terraced viticulture began as early as the fourthor fifth century. The assumption that theappearance of terraced viticulture at that timewas somehow linked to the as yet unknownterrace and dry wall building techniques(Schrder 1953, pp. 42-3; Welter, 1975, p. 118;Weiter-Matysiak, 1985, p. 13; Volk, 1993, pp. 60-1) must be viewed critically. There is noquestion that the experts of the time weretechnically capable of terracing the vineyards,also with the help of dry masonry walls.Indications of constructions employing dry

walling techniques can be found in various partsof Europe dating far back into the past. InCornwall, for example, the remains of the IronAge village of Chysauster reveal dry stone walltechniques using granite rubble in theconstruction of houses (Hoskins 1955, p. 23);houses which share striking similarities in theirconstruction with more recent vineyard wallsare found in Germany (Pl. II). In Germany thereis evidence for the application of dry masonrytechniques in the construction of Stone Ageburial mounds (Anon. 1975). The dry stone wallconstruction technique was also applied in theconstruction of fortifications and weirs in theearly Middle Ages (Piper 1912). Ancientexamples of terracing may also be found in theGreek and Roman territories (Price & Nixon2005). Assuming that knowledge of dry stonewall and terrace construction techniques did notexist in central Europe prior to the arrival of theRomans, it remains very probable that this

knowledge was introduced as the RomanEmpire established a foothold, and, at the verylatest, with the early arrival of missionary monksfrom Ireland and Scotland who were also incontact with the Mediterranean area.

The problem in determining the age ofterraced viticulture stems from the fact that earlysources provide scant information about thevineyards themselves. They are only referred tosimply as vineyards (Latin: vineae), often in thecontext of the formal statements of theindividual rights of titleholders. In some cases,mention is made of the plot size and of theneighbouring landowners. Site details are oftenunattributable and the documents provide noinformation about the nature of the terrain orthe cultivation methods (cf. Haffke 1994).Details about the work to be done in the

vineyards are limited to the soil preparation, the

8 LANDSCAPE HISTORY

Plate II. In Klingenberg am Main the corners of thevineyard walls display construction characteristics similar tothose of the remains of the walls of houses built in the Iron

Age village of Chysauster (cf. Hoskins 1995, p. 23).Relatively large stones placed vertically were used in theconstruction of corners (Photograph C. Petit).


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fertilisation, the tending of vines (e.g., thepruning, the binding and the regeneration ofvines), and the grape vintage (cf. Staab 1993).The first written references to dry masonry wallsin German vineyards derive from leasecertificates from the fifteenth century, in whichmention of the maintenance of the walls andterraces is made, in the context of bringingsevere erosion problems under control (Volk1993, p. 100). The earliest representations ofterraced vineyards known to the authors areplans from Saxony referring to vineyards in theElbtal from the early seventeenth century. Aplan from the year 1617 shows the arrangementof walls, stairs and ditches on the slopes ofHoflnitz (Huth 2005). In 1601, Dr Martin

Aichmann, originally of Wrttemberg, wascalled to the Elbe in Saxony in order tointroduce into model vineyards the cultivationpractices employed in Wrttemberg (Pl. III).This included among other things theestablishment of terraces and retaining walls,since as far as it is known today there wasno terraced viticulture practised in north-easterncentral Europe at this period in time (Weinhold1973, pp. 54-5; Waldau 1978). In Wrttembergitself the local plan of the free imperial town ofEsslingen at the close of the seventeenthcentury, developed by Andreas Kieser, revealsvineyards with pronounced wall terracing(Kieser 1985).


Plate III. This plan, drafted around the year 1617, shows the arrangement of a terraced vineyard behind Hoflnitz, in thevicinity of Radebeul (near Dresden, Saxony) (Huth 2005). This is the oldest known graphic illustration of the constructionof dry stone walls, terraces and drainage installations in central European vineyards (source: original and reproduction:Schsisches Staatsarchiv, Hauptstaatsarchiv Dresden, 10077 Kollektion Schmid, Amt Dresden, Vol. V Nr. 12).


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The situation with regard to the origins ofterraces in neighbouring France is comparable.Ambroise et al. (1993, p. 66) raised a complexquestion: were the terrace systems introducedby the Romans or the Egyptians, or were they anidentical answer to the same circumstances,arrived at by different societies, as is suggestedby the striking similarities in their arrangementin such widely removed regions as, for example,Nepal and the Andes? This idea can be appliedin central Europe, too. Where there wereproblems in the cultivation of slopes and, as aconsequence, a need for this agriculturaltechnology, it is possible that necessity becamethe mother of invention. More probable,however, is that the knowledge of terracingspread through exchange between thepopulation groups of Europe.

DISTRIBUTION OF HISTORIC TERRACED VINEYARDS

The examples of dry masonry, comprisingcountless individual stones, reveal to us thebuilding capabilities of our ancestors. Theconstructions include retaining walls and sidewalls, inflected arches, espalier stones, storageniches and dugouts or shelters in the walls,clearance cairns (linear collections of stonesremoved from the soil), various means of stairconstruction, and sluices to channel away water

(see below). The term dry masonry orconstruction is used as the natural stones weredeftly and durably arranged without the use ofmortar, in other words without a bonding agent.The dimensions of these construction works areoverwhelming. In south-western Germany, nearStuttgart, the roughly 18 hectare-large RowagerHalde terraced vineyard encompasses 26.7 kmof dry stone wall (Schmid et al. 2004). In theMauerberg and Schlossberg of Baden-Baden/Neuweier the remaining dry builtretaining walls stretch to about 3.7 km on anarea of 1.9 ha. In the Swiss canton of Valais,where the terraced vineyard area occupies atotal of 1,511 ha, the total length of the walls isestimated to be 3,000 kilometres (Pralong 2001).In Germany2 the area of terraced vineyards withdry stone walls3 is approximately 1,300 ha(Hchtl et al. 2011). The major part of this areais located in Wrttemberg. Estimates of thedimensions of the dry-built basic fabric do not

exist, however. This is difficult as the terracearrangements are very heterogeneous. The walllength per hectare depends on the slope, theterrace declivity and the terrace width. In theaforementioned Rowag, one slope issubdivided by up to thirty terraces with anelevation difference of c. 60 metres; inKlingenberg am Main (Bavaria) up to eightyterraces account for a difference in elevation ofaround 110 metres.

FORCES DRIVING THE TERRACING OF STEEPLYSLOPED LANDSCAPES

The discrete examples referred to oftenmerely a fraction of the dry wall terracedvineyards once present give only animpression of the enormous effort required justfor the erection of the walls. One must also addto this the work involved in acquiring the stone,the earth moving and the soil improvementmeasures, as well as in the construction of thestairs. Varying climatic conditions, arising fromregional differences or warmer periods of time,as well as acreage restrictions, fluctuatingpopulation densities, an altering demand forwine and changing demands with regard towine quality were the driving forces thatinfluenced the choice of site for winegrowing(Dornfeld 1868; Salzmann 1930; Dion 1959;

Schenk 1992; Volk 1993; Koch 1993; Unwin1996; Glaser 2001). It may be that in northerlyareas there was no option but to cultivate theclimatically favourable slopes, as it was onlyhere that the grapes ripened in the autumn, andthat the risk of frost was lower. Elsewhere thecompetition for land with other crops and formsof use may have been decisive for thecultivation of the steep slopes. The competitionfor land and the demand for wine due to thehigh consumption of wine and thecorresponding opportunities to generate income

were so great in parts of Germany at the timeof the peak of viticulture between the fourteenthand sixteenth centuries that unsuitable cold siteswere also cultivated and tillage was pushedback onto the flat sites (Dornfeld 1868, pp. 115-16; Schrder 1953; Leicht 1985, p. 8; Schenk1992, p. 191; Dbele-Carlesso 1999, p. 37). Theproximity to distribution centres the costs oftransport across land were relatively high and

10 LANDSCAPE HISTORY


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the economic strength emanating from cities especially the willingness of wealthy citizens toinvest played a decisive role in site selectionfor viticulture (Unwin 1996; Krmer 2009).

THE ADVANTAGES OF TERRACE CONSTRUCTION

The construction of terraces was not onlyprompted by the degree of slope. From aerialand terrestrial photographs showing largelyintact historic vineyards prior to the firstvineyard consolidation measures in thetwentieth century it becomes apparent that moregently sloping areas were also terraced. Thisrealisation is confirmed by the worldwidedistribution of terraces on slopes with inclinesof varying degrees (Treacy & Denevan 1997,

p. 93). In historic viticulture the terracing of theslopes fulfilled a variety of functions (ibid.,pp. 93-5). The most important advantage wasrendering the land usable (Pl. IV). A furthercritical gain to be had from subdividing avineyard into multiple levels was themanagement of water. This brings with it areduction of erosion (Blanco-Canqui & Rattan2008). The significance that controlled waterdeflection and the reduction of erosion had upuntil recent decades until which time the soilbetween the vines was regularly hoed as ameans to combat weeds, with loose soilparticularly susceptible to erosion is evidentfrom the historic literature. There are numerousreferences to the problem of soil erosion(Schiller 1767; Sprenger 1767; Sprenger 1778;


Plate IV. View of the terrace architecture of the Rowager Halde. The terraces provide numerous advantages for theviticultural use of slopes. They provide greater ease of management, facilitate soil improvement, controlled drainage, andcontribute to the improvement of the microclimate and the optimisation of the water balance (Photograph W. Konold).


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Sommer 1791; von Gok 1834; Bronner 1837a,1837b) (see also section below: Watermanagement). A further benefit was the greaterease of management, as more gently inclinedsites were easier to traverse. The terraces werenot completely levelled, however, but remainedslightly cambered. In some cases a steep camberwas the result of a lack of building material(Bronner 1837a, pp. 4-5). There is a highprobability that the incline of the terraced arearepresented a compromise between wateravailability and the reduction of erosion. Onsteeply inclined slopes runoff is high, whereason those that are more even infiltration is higher(ibid.). An adaptation of the slope to the soiltype and the prevailing precipitation preventsthe soil from becoming too dry in the summer.It should be noted here that the working of a

loose topsoil also leads to a higher rate ofinfiltration (Battany & Grismer 2000, p. 1291).The arrangement of the dry stone wallssupporting the terraces also influences the waterbalance in the terraces. In wet periods theypromote drainage, whereas in dry periods theyhelp to retain moisture (Laureano 2001, p. 219).In addition to effects on water availability anderosion, the slope also has an impact on theirradiation of the terraces (Evans & Winterhalder2000). Further parameters influencing irradiationare the altitude, the degree of latitude, the

topography and the time of year. The energycaptured is greatest where the angle of the sunsrays to the ground is highest (Schmedding 1969;Aerni 1997). In southern Germany, south-facingslopes with an incline of 2530 degrees receivethe highest solar irradiation (Schrder 1953; Vogt& Schruft 2000). Whereas on the Equator levelterracing would serve to increase the directirradiation of a south-facing slope with anoriginal incline of 30 degrees by 15per cent, theannual net irradiation at the forty-fifth parallelwould be 21per centless (Evans & Winterhalder2000, p. 273). The alteration of the slope in thedirection of the slope line would, as aconsequence, serve to impair the irradiation.The exposition was improved by a lateralalignment of the terrace (cf. von Gok 1834,p. 93): for example, a vineyard with a westerlyexposition, where the northerly lateral walls ofa plot raise the terrace towards the south. Theslope of the terraces ultimately reflects the

necessity to reduce erosion and to ensuresufficient water availability, the availability ofstones and the optimisation of irradiation.

Through terracing, the volume of earth thatcan be penetrated by roots and the waterstorage capacity could also be increased; forexample, on shallow shell limestone slopes.Soils with a high skeleton content were clearedof stones and adjacent cliff faces broken up andin part removed (Sommer 1791). Terraces withdeep soils are slow to freeze through duringcold winters (cf. Laureano 2001). In the lower,mostly flatter, parts of the slopes, the terracesraise the land relative to cold air pockets. Thedeeply dug sunken lanes, rarely found today,and which in some areas crossed the vineyardslike large furrows, also led to a better outflow ofcold air. The dry masonry walls store the days

warmth and radiate it out again at night,ameliorating the low night-time temperatures.The design of the landscape served to reducethe danger of late frosts in the spring andextreme cold temperatures in winter. The formerthreaten bud burst and the latter can cause thevines to freeze. The relevance of this isconsiderable because failed harvests as a resultof extremes of weather (e.g. hail) orunfavourable weather conditions (e.g. Mayfrosts, wet and cold conditions, severe winterfrosts) during flushing, flowering of the vines

and the ripening of the grapes occurred morefrequently in historic viticulture, and their effectswere more profoundly negative, especiallythose of failures in successive years (Salzmann1930, p. 19; Deichmann & Wolf 1950; Decker1984; Winter-Tarvainen 1992, p. 140; Landsteiner1999; Thumm 2003, p. 533; Perkins 2004,p. 348).

It is not possible to discern from theliterature which particular functions of terracingwere ultimately decisive or of the greatestpriority (cf. Treacy & Denevan 1997, p. 95). It isclear, however, that a lasting and successfulviticulture practised on steep slopes demandedthe construction of terraces.

THE ADVANTAGES OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF DRYSTONE WALLS

The terraces in most of the historic vineyards aresupported by dry-built retaining walls. An



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alternative are earthen banks. These requiremore space, however, and serve to reduce thecultivable area further. Nevertheless, banks ofthis kind were on occasion used in historicviticulture: for example, in areas whereviticulture played only a minor economic roleor was practised only over a limited time period.Elsewhere the absence of stones resulted in theconstruction of earthen banks. In loess areas,such as the Kaiserstuhl in Baden, banks werepreferable to dry stone walls as the loess couldbe readily formed. In recent times the use ofearthen banks has experienced a renaissanceunder the cross terracing practices employed inmodern, mechanised viticulture.

Dry masonry walls have considerableadvantages over mortared retaining walls.Firstly, because only stone is required for their

construction. Mortar is expensive and it wouldhave had to be transported to the building siteson the steep slopes, along with the waterrequired for mixing. The dry constructionmethod also meant that the walls were not fixedstructures, but remained flexible and allowed forslight movements in the terrain. Therefore, thefoundation of a dry stone wall does not need tobe protected against frost. Another advantage isthat water cannot build up behind such a wall,a characteristic from which the vines also benefitas they do not tolerate water-logging (Dion

1959, p. 35).Two types of wall are found in terraced

vineyards: retaining walls running at right anglesto the slope, which carry the main weight of theterrace, and the lateral walls, the so-calledcheek walls or wing walls. The latter oftenreveal a lesser technical quality as, compared tothe retaining walls, they are required towithstand considerably less pressure. The earthpressure is determined by the density and theangle of internal friction of the soil and its watercontent (Schegk & Brandl 2009). In the case ofclayey, heavy, cohesive soils this pressure isgreater than with sandy or gravelly, non-cohesive soils. Technically, dry-built retainingwalls correspond to gravity walls, which counterthe downward pressure of the slope with theirmass. As the walls are slightly inclined towardsthe slope the batter angle their relativestrength is improved. The batter angle variesfrom one vineyard to the next, and is often

below the values recommended in the literature(e.g. 1016per centcited by Tufnell et al. 1996,p. 69). There are probably two reasons for this(ibid.). On the one hand, the builders tried tominimise the loss of the cultivable area thegreater the batter angle, the smaller thecultivable terrace area. On the other hand, overthe long duration of their lives, the walls havebeen propped up by the constant downwardpressure exerted by the slope.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

THE HISTORIC VINEYARDS PROJECT

To counter the developments outlined at the

outset of this paper, the Institute of LandscapeManagement of the University of Freiburg(Germany) initiated the project Historicvineyards: winegrowers, heritage conservationand nature protection in tandem (Hchtl 2007).The aim behind the transdisciplinary researchproject was to heighten the awareness of theusers and protectors of the values of historicvineyards, in order to hinder both anunsustainable intensification of their use and,elsewhere, the complete abandonment of theirmanagement. On the basis of criteria

corresponding to both use and protectionrequirements, a practice-oriented method wasdeveloped in the form of a guideline for theconservation and development of the vineyards(Hchtl et al. 2011). The intention was toharmonise the interests of winegrowers and ofnature and heritage conservation, and so tooptimise the way forward for an integralmanagement of the cultural landscape. Itinvolved analysing the history, the architecture,the current use and the perception of historicvineyards, to provide a basis upon which toscrutinise current nature and heritageconservation principles and to advance these ina lasting way. The research carried out as part ofthe project concentrated on six study areas(Fig. 1):

the Castellberg near Ballrechten-Dottingen (Markgrflerland, Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald district, Baden-Wrttemberg);



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Fig. 1. The study areas incorporated in the historic vineyards project.


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the Rowager Halde (Lower Enztal,Ludwigsburg district, Baden-Wrttemberg);the Neuweier Schlossberg and Mauerberg(Ortenau, Baden-Baden district, Baden-Wrttemberg);the Pulvermcher vineyard in Kernen-

Stetten (Lower Remstal, Rems-Murr district,Baden Wrttemberg);the Schlossberg in Klingenberg (Lower MainValley, Miltenberg district, Bavaria);the vineyards in Salgesch (Rhne Valley,Valais, Switzerland).The selection of these sites was based on

four criteria: differing geological substrates,especial heritage value, a high nature protectionvalue, and a clear desire to maintain andmanage the vineyards on the part of the mainlocal stakeholders.

METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURE

The foundations for this publication were laidwith a historical landscape analysis(Schwinekper 2000; Rippon 2004). The centralsteps in this procedure were:

the analysis of historical and more recentliterature;field data collection in the study areas;expert interviews and oral history;

site visits to other historical vineyards.The literature review included various worksfrom the historical literature on the subject fromthe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Schiller1767; Sprenger 1778; Sommer 1791; von Gok1834; Bronner 1837a; Bronner 1837b. Thesedocuments contain contemporary descriptionsof the vineyards and viticulture, and have thecharacter of primary literature. They alsoprovide recommendations for the establishmentof vineyards. The earliest evaluable literature on

the subject stems from the eighteenth century.Instructional writings from the early modernperiod, such as the Hausvterliteratur, a literarygenre which existed in the German-speakingarea between the sixteenth and eighteenthcenturies and targeted educated landowners,mostly nobles, providing guidance on land andhousehold management, differ from theaforementioned literature in their focus. Theevaluation of more recent literature focused on

the expert literature on the techniques of drymasonry construction and the structure ofterraced landscapes from France, Britain,Germany and Switzerland (Brooks 1983; Blanc1984; Leicht 1985; Blanchemanche 1990; Rieger1990; Rieger 1991; Ambroise et al. 1993; Tufnellet al. 1996; Laureano 2001; Rouvire 2002;Lassure 2003; Coste et al. 2008).

The collection of field data in the projectstudy areas was carried out as follows: based ona cultural landscape cadastre, all stonelandscape elements were recorded and mapped(cf. Fehn & Schenk 1993; Broermann 2003).Historically significant plants were also recordedduring this step in the procedure. The plantsrecorded included those species indicative ofthe management methods once commonlypractised in viticulture, such as the frequent

hoeing of the soil, and those which remind us ofthe long passed polycultural use of thevineyards, namely the parallel cultivation of thevines together with various vegetable types,herbs and fruit trees. The inventory anddocumentation of the landscape elements andplants was supplemented by a detailed analysisof the main elements made of stone: theretaining walls and stairs, the water deflectionelements. The objective in relation to the stepsand hydraulic installations was to investigate thenature of the accessibility of the vineyards and

the management of the resource water, namelythe incidental surface water and the slope water.In the case of the walls, the focus of the researchwas on the building phases and the pastownership structures.

To this end, a typological method specificallyadapted to the historic vineyards was developedin cooperation with the Landesamt frDenkmalpflege (Stuttgart regional council).Incorporated into this method were aspects ofhistoric building research (Gromann 1993;Petzet & Mader 1995). It covers four phases: siteinspections with data collection, devising atypology of the constructed elements, themapping of the types, and the analysis of theresults.

The field inspections served to identify andto make a qualitative recording of the spectrumof the three element categories (walls, stairs andwater deflection elements) present in a researcharea. There was a smooth transition from the



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first to the second phase. In this step the variousforms of constructed elements were identifiedand categories formulated, each of which weredocumented in pictures and text. In the case ofthe walls, the classification was based onappearance, whereas for the stairs and waterdeflection elements it was based on functionaland construction aspects (e.g. form and positionrelative to the walls). In this way, a generallyapplicable typology could be developed for thestairs and water deflection elements, requiringsome amendments for application in otherareas, whereas in the case of the walls relevanttypes were identified for each study area. Forthe classification of the walls in one researcharea, therefore, all of the walls that differed fromone another in terms of appearance werephotographed during the site inspection. The

photographs were subsequently sortedaccording to similar characteristics. Thesecharacteristics were the bond, the stratification,the shape and size of the stones, the jointclearances, the use of wedges, and theconstruction of the cap stones and otherpeculiarities such as racking (see below). In thethird phase, the types belonging to the threeelement categories were mapped in the field,with the aid of high resolution orthophotos, andthe data subsequently transferred to a GIS(Geographical Information System). Additional

features such as building joints, recycled stonesand inscriptions were also documented in a listof findings, and in the orthophotos. The fourthphase comprised the analysis and evaluation ofthe maps created in the GIS. The cartographicpresentation of the elements allowed for theassessment of the distribution and the functionallinks between the elements.

A group interview with experts (three dry-stone wallers from Germany and Switzerland,and a geologist) and elements of oral historysupplemented the landscape analysis. Duringthe group interview, wall and stair constructionwere discussed on site in the study areas, aswere specific construction details, the workingand acquisition of the stones, the terraceassembly, drainage, renovation, and thepreservation of the dry stone craft. Elements oforal history flowed into the research primarilyduring the field visits, through largelyspontaneous, but also in part organised, talks

with local vintners and dry-stone wallers, andthe contents subsequently noted down (Fogerty2001). Older vintners and dry stone-masons, inparticular, are living witnesses of a traditionalform of viticulture, as practised up to the time ofthe large land consolidation schemesimplemented from the 1960s. In the foregroundof these discussions were the significance,construction and the local naming of specificlandscape elements. This approach, whichadmittedly must be viewed critically due to itssubjective nature, provided some very revealinginformation not yet recorded in the literature. Italso made clear how far advanced the erosion oftraditional cultural knowledge really is.

Numerous visits to other historic terracedvineyards in the main and side valleys of therivers Neckar, Rhine and Mosel in Germany, the

Mosel and Sauer in Luxemburg, in the Swisscanton of Vaud, and in the Cvennes region ofFrance served to supplement and verify thefindings obtained from the study regions.

RESULTS

THE VARIOUS APPEARANCES OF THE DRY STONEWALLS

Due to the basic construction requirements andthe essentials of the craft, dry stone walls foundacross the world are similar in their construction(Villemus 2004). Only when examined moreclosely do regional and even local differencesbecome apparent. The wall faces, for example,reveal contrasting basic patterns: a masonrybond with vertically arranged stones, stonesarranged in a herring-bone pattern, horizontalstone arrangements and cyclopean masonry(Brooks 1983; Ambroise et al. 1993; Rouvire2002; Lassure 2003; Coste et al. 2008) (Pl. Vad).

The transitions between the different basicpatterns are relatively smooth and not alwaysdistinct. The choice of one pattern over anotherwas determined by the construction material,the building techniques, aesthetic preferenceand the specific functions of the wall.

The walls found in the central Europeanterraced vineyards are predominantly horizontalto cyclopean in their construction. Walls built



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Plate Vad. Nine wall types were distinguished in the Neuweier study area by Baden-Baden (site area: 1.9 ha). Of the roughly3.7 km of retaining wall, approximately 1.3 km were typed. The remaining walls could not be attributed to any particular

type, were not visible, had collapsed, were concreted over or had been mortared. The stone material used consisted ofvariously coloured porphyrs, granite and greywacke, as well as recycled stones of various origins. Consequently, theappearances and the bonds of the walls analysed also differed. Layered wall constructions with quadratic or polygonal forms

were found, as were walls with cyclopean bonds. The joint clearances and the compactness of the outer wall mantle alsovary considerably. The coping is not especially conspicuous, or consists of ashlar stones (Photographs C. Petit).

with vertically arranged stones or employing aherring-bone pattern are seldom found. Uponcloser examination additional differences in theappearances of the walls can be seen. It isnoticeable that the differences are due first andforemost to the stone used, as this determined toa large extent the colour, the workability, thetexture and the geometric forms. The diversityof colour is impressive: red sandstone, green tored Schilf sandstones with dark red streaks, greyand bluish chalk with white occlusions, pinkporphrys, cream-coloured sandstones andalmost black schists.

An important principle in the arrangement ofthe historic vineyards was that of short routes.

The natural stones used were harvested on siteor from the immediate vicinity. As a result, thedry stone walls reflect the local geology.Numerous quarries on the margins of vineyardsremain testament to the brisk constructionactivity of earlier times. In abandoned vineyardsthat have not been managed for decades, andwhere reforestation has since occurred, one caneven find traces of stone extraction in themiddle of the vineyards. The recycling of stoneswas also a common practice. Stones serving asecond use can be found in large numbers insome vineyards and help to create a colourfulmosaic: headstones, window-frames andwindow lintels, barn door skirtings, stones with


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adornments or bevelled edges and otherrecovered stones were given a new life in thewalls. In addition to the type of natural stoneused in their construction, the appearance of thewalls is also influenced by how they wereworked. This depended on the workability ofthe stone and on the skill of the mason.Whereas soft sandstone can be readily workedwith a hammer and chisel, and horizontal bedjoints and vertical butt joints are relatively easyto assemble, this is not possible with hardcalcareous stone. In this case, the wall stonesprimarily have a polygonal form. The good eyeof the mason plays an even greater role,primarily in selecting the individual stones thatbest fit together.

The final fundamental characteristic of stonewalls is their coping. In historic vineyards one

finds three types of coping. These differ withrespect to their arrangement and the form of thecapstone used: large slab-like stones (often in aform similar to a triangle), ashlar stones andelevated stones. It is important that through theirform, their placement and their weight, theycreate a lasting and traversable cap. Elevatedcaps (bricks-on-end) are less commonly foundin vineyards than in freestanding dry stonewalls. Through elevation and wedging, acompact cap can also be achieved using smallstones. In the vineyards studied, the capstones

were largely laid horizontally. Many walls lackeda specially arranged coping, whether from a lackof suitable material, a lack of expert knowledgeor subsequent damage.

The quality of the finish of the vineyard wallsreflects the skill of the masons and the availableresources, such as building materials, labour andfinancial resources. The appearance of the wallsalso reflects, therefore, the (past) ownershipstructures within a terraced vineyard.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND ADDITIONALCONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

In addition to the general means of construction,a look at the special construction techniquesemployed in the vineyard walls is alsoworthwhile. Particularly noteworthy in thisrespect are alternating courses, theincorporation of inflected arches and racking.Alternating courses sections of the wall

where two courses of stone meet with a singlehigher course are not uncommon. Next tothese are special levellers on which, forexample, an edge has been broken off so as tofit with the neighbouring stone (Fig. 2a).Inflected arches shallow, dry-built vaults are used to stabilise taller walls, as they channelthe forces laterally (Rieger 1991; Rouvire 2002;Lassure 2003). These were also used to bridgeunstable foundations, such as at the outlets ofsprings, or they were built by adjacent cliffssusceptible to weathering (Pl. VId). The use ofracking, or the stepping back of eachsubsequent course in the wall, was analternative means to creating the batter (Rieger1991). Rather than giving each stone a slightinwards inclination, the subsequent stones areslightly recessed so that an offset results

between each stone layer (Fig. 2b). Each layer isrecessed inwards of the layer below by aboutone centimetre so that the walls can betterwithstand the downward pressure exerted bythe slope. This creates a flange in the front partof the lower stone, which means that the nextone up cannot be pushed out of the wall.


Fig. 2a. Course alterations: often in a layered wall twocourses or layers of stones meet with a single highercourse. Less common are special levellers (see the stone inthe picture with the snail) where the edge has beenchiselled so that the next stone could be fitted (IllustrationL. Apfelbacher).


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Further constructed elements in and next tothe vineyard walls supplemented the inventoryof the vineyards. Particularly noteworthy in thiscontext are espalier stones, wall niches anddugouts or shelters. Espalier stones are stonesthat protrude from the wall and have a hole in

their centre (Pl. VIa). It was possible to insertwooden stakes into the holes in order to trainvines up the wall. This espalier cultivationserved to maximise the cultivable area. It is alsocommon knowledge amongst vintners that thegrapes on the vines next to the walls ripen first.Small niches in the walls were used to hold toolsand provided shaded, cool storage places for thevintners provisions on hot summer days.Whereas vineyard huts first appeared with thebeginnings of pest management therainwater collected from their roofs was neededfor the preparation of spray mixtures previously it had been a wide variety of sheltersthat provided the winegrower with protectionagainst the elements and served as storageplaces for large tools. These were generally alsointegrated into the walls and terraces in such away as to save space; giant stone slabs or artisticvaults formed the roofs. From the elaborateshelters, in particular, it becomes obvious that

the actions of the builders focused not only onfunctionality but also on aesthetics and beauty(Pl. VIb).

THE UNAVOIDABLE STAIRS

Paths, trails, ramps and stairs connect the

terraces (Rieger 1988; Ambroise et al. 1993;Rouvire 2002; Lassure 2003). The internalaccessibility of the vineyard parcels wasprovided for mainly by stairs. As with the walls,their construction depended on the naturalstones available and the skill of the builders. Itis possible to distinguish two general types(Ambroise et al. 1993; Lassure 2003). The firstruns through the vineyard vertically ordiagonally, in a line from bottom to top (stairsbetween walls). Often these steps serve as

so-called water stairs to channel surface runoff(Pl. VIc). This function is recognisable where the


Fig. 2b. A racked wall: the layered construction of the wallwith a stepping back of each subsequent course is clearlyapparent (Illustration L. Apfelbacher).

Plate VIa. (Type 4) Espalier stones: stakes can be placedthrough the holes in these stones to train vines up the wall(Photograph F. Hchtl).


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steps are lightly sunken, in order to capture thewater from the adjoining terrace surfaces.Neighbouring landowners often shared a singlestairway so as to minimise the loss of surfacearea and the effort required in their construction.The centre of the stair represented the propertyboundary. On occasion boundary stones mayeven be found placed in the middle of a

stairway.The second type of stair runs parallel to the

retaining walls (stairs alongside walls). Theconstant efforts to keep the loss of cultivablevineyard area to a minimum mean that space-saving solutions were frequently preferred in theconstruction of these stairs. As a consequence,they were often inset in wall offsets, or theindividual steps might protrude from the wallsas brackets (Pl. VId). The arrangement of thestairs in vineyards was often such that thevintner could quickly move from one terrace tothe next.

As with the walls, the quality of the stairsprovides insights into the owners and theirfinancial circumstances. Wide stairs indicatewealthy owners; steps made of a single blockare optimal for safe footfalls. The stairs of poorervintners were very narrow by contrast, the stepsuneven, sometimes even rickety (Pl. VIc); someapparently only had grassy steps (Sprenger1778).


Plate VIb. A shelter with anatural stone vault built

into the terrace (Photo-graph W. Konold).

Plate VIc. Vertical stairs with steps made of two stones.Steps made of a single block are considerably morecomfortable (Photograph C. Petit).


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WATER MANAGEMENT

Bringing water under control on the terracedslopes was certainly one of the greatestchallenges facing the builders of the historicvineyards. Large quantities of water from heavydownpours and long periods of rainfall lead toerosion and the burdening of the retaining walls.The water increases the downward pressureexerted by the slope and the walls buckle. Inthe worst case this can result in landslides. Forthe same reason it was necessary to cap andchannel springs. Due to the need to maintain anexposed soil surface, as described previously(see above, Methodological approach), theloose soil was particularly susceptible toerosion.

If the precious soil was washed away it hadto be returned from the foot of the slopes to theterraces, an arduous task. Pits were dug near thevineyards to collect soil to replace andcompensate for the losses of substance andnutrients from the slopes. The construction ofspecial drainage facilities in the vineyards servedto reduce or prevent entirely the dangersdescribed. Their arrangement and significance

is described in detail in the historic literature(Schiller 1767; Sprenger 1778; von Gok 1834).Together, these features form a hydraulic systemthat facilitated water runoff, drainage, theharmless deflection of water and, finally, the

retention of the eroded soil. The majority of thedrainage elements are visible in the landscape.Not visible on the other hand are the stonedrainage layers at the foot of the terraces or theinner life of spring taps. Through theirmortarless construction, and the generoushearting or backwalling, the dry masonry wallsalso have a draining effect on the terraces. Atthe foot of the walls are ditches that collect thedrainage and runoff water. The latter flows fromthe inclined terrace surfaces over the walls, intothe ditches. The batter the incline of the wall

to the slope helps to slow down the flow ofthe water (Sommer 1791; Oliver 2002) and socontributes to a lightened sedimentation ofwashed-away soil into the ditches (Fig. 3). Fromhere the water is fed on to the stairs or spillwaychutes without steps, which lead into the valley.At the end of these water stairs sedimentationditches were installed to capture more erodedsoil.


Plate VId. Stairs arrangedparallel to the wall occupythe least amount of space.This bracket stairs liesabove an inflected arch(Photograph F. Hchtl).


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In combination, the elements described forma functional network that is visible from adistance. In the vineyards of the Keuperformations of Wrttemberg, such as theEsslinger Neckarhalde or the Pulvermchervineyards and the Brotwasser vineyard of Stettenin Remstal, the walls zigzag as the terraces areinclined towards the stairs. Together they reveal

an unmistakable herring-bone pattern (Pl. VII).In the Enztal by Rowag, where the geologicalformation is shell limestone, the walls runhorizontally. The pattern of diagonal and verticalspillway chutes creates structures resembling acrowsfoot (Oliver 2002).

HISTORIC VINEYARDS AS A REFLECTION OFNATURAL CONDITIONS AND SOCIALCIRCUMSTANCES

The architecture of historic vineyards derivesfrom the interplay of natural conditions andsocial circumstances. As suggested in thepreceding sections, this interplay is revealed ontwo levels: the appearance of the complex as awhole, and the individual constructed elements.As a consequence, all terraced vineyards bearcertain similarities though they may differ intheir structure and in their construction. Long

and short sections of wall alternate. In someplaces terraces are wide, elsewhere they arenarrow. In some places the walls are particularlyhigh, whereas in others they are all of a similarheight. Sometimes the retaining walls run almostparallel to the contours and at other times theyintersect them. In some vineyards vertical stairspredominate, in others designs such as bracketstairs run parallel to the walls. Meticulously builtwalls with narrow bonds contrast strongly withwalls with wide bonds; perfect workmanshipand (seemingly) emergency solutions combineacross small areas. Standing next to purelypragmatic solutions such as, for example, simpleshelters, one finds vineyard huts erected withconsiderable craftsmanship.

A range of natural conditions, the geology,climate, the specific terrain such as gradient,

exposition and slope the soil type and depth,springs and surface water, all influence theappearance and structure of a historic terracedvineyard and the construction of its individualbuilt elements. The quality and availability of thebedrock is revealed, as discussed previously inrelation to the appearance of the walls, innumerous additional characteristics of thebuilding fabric. The construction of bracketstairs requires relatively long stones. These aremore commonly found in the Plattensandstein(Slab sandstone) areas of Baden-Wrttemberg

(Upper Red sandstone), in various layers of theshell limestone and in schist-like bedrock. Thelesser or greater occurrence of bracket stairs in


Fig. 3. Channels at the foot of the retaining wall were duginto the earth and, as can be seen in the illustration, werebordered in places with stone slabs. These channels take

up the runoff water and feed it onto the vertical stairs(Illustration L. Apfelbacher).

Plate VII. Seen from a birds eye perspective, the zigzagarrangement of the walls, in combination with the verticalsteps, creates a herring-bone pattern in the landscape(Photograph Beurer).


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vineyards follows accordingly. Readily workablesandstones also allow for the construction ofsuch stairs as they are easy to shape. Thecorrelation between the local stone material andthe shelter constructions follows a similarpattern. These are rarely vaulted where largeslabs are available, unless they are very spaciousconstructions. Occasionally large stone slabswere transported over many kilometres: forexample, in the Neckar valley at the transitionbetween shell limestone and red sandstone,where red sandstone slabs stand out amongstthe vineyards of the shell limestone hills. Thedistribution of espalier stones is also limited tothose areas where workable sandstones arefound, or were at least available.

The prevailing social circumstances at thesite of a historic vineyard are reflected in the

quality of the site, the property size and thedimensions of the constructed elements.Manorial vineyards and vineyards belonging towealthy owners are notable for their wide plotswith long, straight retaining walls. Theirappearance is seamless (Pl. VIII). Simplercircumstances are demonstrated by the moreunruly course of a wall, and by narrower plots.The locations of linear piles of field stones these were stacked along plot boundaries and of stairs (stairs between walls), boundarystones and masonry seams may also point to

earlier property boundaries. These pieces ofinformation are supplemented by thedistribution of the dry stone walls typedaccording to their appearance and subsequentlymapped.

CONCLUSIONS

The historic vineyards are monuments ofhistoric viticulture. The detailed study of theirbuilding fabric reveals that they are exceptionalexamples of everyday, vernacular architectureand they transmit in an impressive way thecultural knowledge of our ancestors in minutedetail. It is not inappropriate to refer to them asmonuments of our cultural landscape as theycombine agricultural technology, constructioncraft and nature inextricably. Of no littleimportance is also the fact that many of themremain the source of high-quality wines.

Epicures and lovers of culture will recognise thisas being their most important characteristic.

The threat of their disappearance poses anumber of significant challenges. How can thesealmost archaic vineyards be preserved into thefuture in view of increasingly mechanisedagriculture? Museum concepts (the waylandscapes are presented or conserved in amuseum context) only work locally and canpreserve the ecological and cultural diversity toonly a certain degree. Region-specific aspectscannot be considered in their entirety. Nor canthe individual binding of the local population totheir historic vineyards be comprehensivelysecured in this way. Integral strategies that linkall of the interest groups winegrowers,

citizens, nature conservationists, heritageconservationists and wine experts andaccommodate aspects of production, marketing,wall restoration, and support can contribute topreserving the management of the historicvineyards. Only through their continued use isauthentic and lasting conservation possible(Hchtl et al. 2011). In an increasinglyglobalised wine market, where the demand fora unique value proposition is great, the


Plate VIII. Section from a plan of Homburger Kallmuthfrom the year 1803 (cf. Heine 2004). The course of theRiver Main is depicted at the foot of the vineyard. Theappearance of the overall arrangement of the vineyard is

characterised by long, straight steps and sections of wall(red double lines). The term Wstung (= deserted site) inthe upper part of the plan indicates the earlier ditches (cf.section 4.4 Water management) (source: original andreproduction: Landesarchiv Baden-Wrttemberg,Staatsarchiv Wertheim, StAWt-F K 247).


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marketing opportunities that the historicalvineyards provide should not be ignored(Spawton 1993, p. 15; Bisson et al. 2002; Hchtlet al. 2011). Social and pedagogical perspectivesmay also play a role: for example, in the contextof restoration concepts for the damagedbuilding fabric of the terraced vineyards. Thispromotes, but also requires, the solidarity andco-operation of entire communities. Equally, theintegration of the issue in community-basededucational concepts designed to sensitiseyoung people to the value of the culturallandscape also holds promise. Historic culturallandscapes are ideally suited to communicatinghistory in a tangible and vivid way (Gotzmann2006; Rieger 2008; Hchtl et al. 2011).

Due to their character-giving role in thelandscape, their finesse in terms of agricultural

technology, their obvious and very great valueas witnesses to history, and due also to theirproduce (the wine), the terraced vineyards canhelp arouse consciousness for other, lessconspicuous historic cultural landscapes.Consequently, the issue of cultural landscapecan attain a greater focus in heritageconservation, nature protection and landscapeplanning, as rarely is the shaping influence ofman so apparent in the landscape as in thebuilt vineyards.

Understanding the past is essential for

managing the future (Rippon 2004, p. 35). Theexamination of historic cultural landscapesoffers clear opportunities. Their study providesnot only knowledge of their present form, theirhistoric development and their numerousvalues. It also provides us with indications as tohow to manage the landscape in the present,particularly with respect to the changing climateconditions and the improvement of culturaltechniques in countries of the third world(Easterling et al. 2000; Alley et al. 2003; Perkins2004; Antrop 2005; Jones et al. 2005; Blanco-Canqui & Rattan 2008). Throughout history,viticulture has been subject to climaticfluctuations and extremes of weather. Attemptswere made to counter unfavourable climaticconditions by designing the vineyardsaccordingly. Adaptations such as increasing thewater storage capacity, the controlled runoff ofwater and the corresponding retention of soiland nutrients, the prevention of water-logging

by means of drainage layers, and the optimalexploitation of the local climatic conditions areexamples of this. The knowledge of the culturalachievements of our ancestors and theirmanagement of natural resources has an evengreater significance for agriculture practised indeveloping countries. Problems such as soilerosion, nutrient losses, water shortages andwater retention and the lack of cultivable land particularly in mountainous areas or wherethere are growing populations are especiallyimportant (cf. Lewis 1953; Williams 1990; Treacy& Denevan 1997). Knowledge of theconstruction and of the advantages of terracesand dry stone walls from various parts of theEarth can contribute to the improvement of landuse systems in these areas. Few resources arerequired for the construction of terraces and dry

masonry walls, which is limited more by factorsrelating to the labour force than financialaspects.

As with all cultural landscapes, the historicterraced vineyards amount to a palimpsest ofdifferent landscape elements from differentepochs (Rippon 2004, p. 52). Many of thesevineyards still possess their basic structure asindicated on the plans for their establishmentdating back to the start of the modern era. Theinbuilt dynamic is also clearly apparent.Landscape elements were added over time,

whereas others were altered or lost. The waterdeflecting elements in the vineyards, forexample, are often relicts, and today only partsof these comprehensive hydraulic systems stillfulfil their original function. Above all, thepalimpsestic character is evident in the walls.Over the centuries, they were repaired and thechanges are often easy to identify. This briskbuilding activity is underlined by historicsources (Gunzelmann 2007; Graf & Hellwig2008). In spite of all of the repairs, one mayassume that some of the dry stone walls havestood since the initial establishment of avineyard. As precise statements regarding theage of terraced viticulture are difficult, the datingof these walls would be one means ofconfirming the existing assumptions. Of thedating methods available, luminescence datingof quartz grains is perhaps the most promising(Feathers 2008; Duller 2004; Roberts 1997;Clarke et al. 1999). This method is used to date



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the timing of the last effect of light on the objectin question. Using this approach it would bepossible to identify when the quartz grains wereshaded or buried. In this way, even short time-spans could be investigated albeit at a scale ofa few decades. The principal difficulty will bein finding the oldest and unchanged constructedelements in the vineyards. As the vineyardswere deeply dug over in the past, it is necessaryto find objects not affected by this process. Forthis reason, the foundations of the walls are themost suitable objects for measurement. Theassessment of the dry stone walls of a vineyardby experts, accompanied by historical studies,can contribute to the identification of largelyoriginal study objects. Apart from the walls,other constructed elements such as stairs mayalso serve for the purposes of luminescence

dating. In this context, it would also be worthstudying terraced vineyards that have since beenreforested, those where management was

abandoned at around the time of the ThirtyYears War in the seventeenth century.

Statements concerning the history of theestablishment and the building of historicvineyards that cannot be supported by sourcesare ultimately a matter of interpretation.According to Rippon, the . . . analysis of thehistoric landscape is a means of stimulatingfurther research, not simply an end in itself. Nohistoric landscape analysis should be left on theshelf to gather dust as interpretations are liableto be updated in the light of further research(2004, p. 6). In the case of the vineyards studied,interpretations unfortunately reflect a typicalproblem that goes hand in hand with theabandonment of traditional land uses, namelythe loss of knowledge. With the loss of theselandscapes so too is their value as witnesses to

history lost, and with it the last chance togenerate knowledge.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the Deutsche BundesstiftungUmwelt (Osnabrck), the Bristol Stiftung (Zrich), the FondsNational de la Recherche Luxembourg (FNR-AFR) and theLandesamt fr Denkmalpflege(Stuttgart regional council) fortheir generous support for the research undertaken by the

team and individual team members. The illustrations weredrawn by Lisa Apfelbacher (http://www.lisaapfelbacher. de),based on templates prepared by Hannes Napp and ClaudePetit.

NOTES

1. This topic is also broached in numerous otherpublications, yet the authors provide no indication ofthe origins of their knowledge, referring only to theknown sources or to one another reciprocally (Knll1903, p. 122; Hoops 1905, p. 563; Kriege 1911, pp. 6-7;Reinhardt 1911, p. 623; Will 1939, p. 11; Riede 1951, p.176; Deichmann & Wolf 1956, p. 6; Hahn 1956, p. 17;

Winkelmann 1960, p. 22; Gnnenwein 1963, p. 161;Wendling 1966, p. 33; Schmedding 1969, pp. 50-1;Weinhold 1973, pp. 54-7; Welter 1975, p. 118; Haffke1994; Schmitt 1997, p. 94).

2. In Germany terraced vineyards can be found in thefollowing winegrowing areas: Ahr, Baden, Franken,Hessische Bergstrae, Mittelrhein, Mosel-Saar-Ruwer,Nahe, Pfalz, Rheingau, Saale-Unstrut, Sachsen and

Wrttemberg.3. This does not include the area of earlier terraced

vineyards that are no longer managed. A largeproportion of these vineyards are now covered by forestand their extent is unknown.

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Natrliche Grundlagen, historische Entwicklung undaktuelle Probleme, in Der Wein in den Alpenlndern,ed. L. Carlen & G. Imboden (Brig), pp. 11-43.

Alley, R. B., Marotzke, J., Nordhaus, W. D., Overpeck, J. T.,Peteet, D. M., Pielke, R. A., Pierrehumbert, R. T., Rhines,P. B., Stocker, T. F., Talley, L. D., & Wallace, J. M., 2003.Abrupt climate change, Science, 299, pp. 2005-10.

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Antrop, M., 2005. Why landscapes of the past are importantfor the future, Landscape and Urban Planning, 70, pp.21-34.


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Documents

Historic Terraced Vineyards,Impressive Witnesses of Vernacular Architecture