Historic Preservation Program

Historic Preservation

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Overview

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Columbia University’s Historic Preservation Program prepares leaders to address the great challenges of protecting the world’s architectural, cultural, and historical heritage in the face of profound change. The multi-disciplinary program has set the standard in the dynamic field of historic preservation and heritage conservation since James Marston Fitch founded it in 1964 as the first such program in the United States.

The program’s renowned faculty uses the architectural and historic riches of New York City as its laboratory, while encouraging study throughout the United States and the world. The Columbia University curriculum stresses the development of analytical thinking and effective communication, coupled with a strong base of knowledge in history, theory, conservation science, planning and policy, and design. Students graduate with the necessary skills and knowledge to advance this rapidly evolving field and thus join the vibrant network of alumni who are already redefining the boundaries and practice of heritage conservation around the world.

Andrew Dolkaert, Director

413 Avery Hall@GSAPP_HP

[email protected]

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Faculty

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Historic Preservation - Faculty

Andrew S. DolkartProgram Director

Jorge Otero-PailosAssociate Professor

Erica AvramiAssistant Professor

George WheelerAssistant ProfessorDirector of Conservation

Classes are taught by a large group of dedicated full-time and adjunct professionals in the field of preservation that create a valuable network for students. This renowned faculty is larger and more diverse than that of any preservation program in the world.

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DegreeRequirements

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DegreeRequirements

Studio I(4 pts)

Semester 1Fall

Semester 2Spring

Semester 3Fall

Semester 4Spring

American Architecture I

(3 pts)

American Architecture II

(3 pts)Elective Elective

Conservation Science(4 pt)s

Theory & Practice of HP(3 pts)

Elective Elective

ElectivePreservation

Planning and Policy(3 pts)

Elective Elective

16-19 pts 16-19 pts 12-19 pts 12-19 pts

ElectiveBuilding Systems

and Materials(3 pts)

Studio II (4 pts)

Thesis(4 pts)

Historic Preservation Colloquium + Thesis

(3+1 pts)

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Curriculum

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Columbia University’s Historic Preservation Program offers a curriculum of extraordinary diversity. The curriculum includes a series of core courses, providing each student with basic knowledge of the field, and then broadens, allowing each stu-dent the opportunity to develop his or her own focus.

The core curriculum is the focus of a student’s first semes-ter. The centerpiece of this semester’s work is Studio I, a class that teaches documentation and interpretation skills, focus-ing on a specific New York City neighborhood. Students work individually and in groups within a studio environment, meeting one-on-one with each of the studio faculty. Key to the core curriculum is a course entitled “Theory and Practice of Historic Preservation” that provides each student with a grounding in the historical ideas behind the field. Students also take Pres-ervation Planning and Policy, an introduction to planning as a preservation tool; Building Systems and Materials, which intro-duces building techniques and materials, and American Archi-tecture I, a history of architecture in the United States through the 1880s.

Several of the first semester courses continue into a stu-dent’s second semester. Studio II focuses on particular timely preservation issues. All students also take American Architec-ture II which introduces students to the built world from the mid-nineteenth century to the present. Conservation students who lack scientific training will also take a basic science course.

During the summer between the first and second year, the Historic Preservation Program strongly suggests the completion of one or more internships or work experiences as part of a student’s education and career development.

During the second year of study, students take Preserva-tion Colloquium, a class that analyzes issues introduced in the first year and prepares students for the completion of a thesis. By the beginning of the second year, students have finalized their thesis topic. Preliminary thesis presentations will be made during the first semester, but the bulk of thesis work will occur during winter break and during the second semester. All other classes during the second year are electives that may be taken from the offerings of the Historic Preservation Program, the School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation in general, or from classes in other departments and schools at Columbia.

Students are encouraged to focus their work, particularly in the second year, and to acquire depth in at least one of the following areas: Conservation, Design, History and Theory, and Planning and Policy.

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The conservation curriculum is unique among preservation programs in its depth and breadth. The track prepares students for employment with building conservation, architecture and engineering firms and develops skills in documentation, field assessment, specification writing, conservation treatment, materials testing, analysis and identification, and project management. Conservation courses rely on lectures, laboratory and field work, and individual research (including thesis projects) and focus on developing knowledge and skills in the history and technology of architectural materials, systems and processes, properties of architectural materials and their deterioration and conservation, development and evaluation of conservation materials and methods, and conditions monitoring. Within the university, the program maintains close associations with the Fu School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and the Department of Art History and Archaeology, and, in New York City with the Conservation Center of the Institute of Fine Art of New York University and the Department of Scientific Research and the Sherman Fairchild Center for Objects Conservation at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Conservation

Creating replacement materials in the Historic Replicas class

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Design concentrates on the development of skills for architects to intervene in historic buildings either to conserve, restore, modernize, or adapt them to new uses. Training is meant to tangibly advance our graduates careers, positioning them competitively in the growing market of adaptive re-use and sustainably sensitive architectural commissions. Specialized courses include the joint Architecture and Historic Preservation Studio, which is conducted together with the Advanced Architectural Design program, and offers students the possibility for experimenting with preservation design in a cross-cultural and global context. The work of past Joint Studios has addressed World Monuments in Oslo, Venice, Mexico City, Chandigarh, Rio de Janeiro, Casablanca, and Caracas. Design theses are in depth projects involving original design work, and demonstrating a deep knowledge of the science and technology of building preservation.

Design

Woodlawn Cemetery Mausoleum Project

Woodlawn Cemetery Mausoleum


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History is a basic tool of historic preservation, providing the arguments for preserving elements of our heritage. A focus on history allows for the development of a deeper understanding of the issues manifest in our physical heritage and of the theoretical justifications of efforts to understand and preserve it. Students are exposed to the complex intellectual issues facing practitioners, and asked to connect present day work to broader patterns in the history of ideas, buildings, and environments. Students focus on the history of architecture, vernacular architecture, cultural landscapes, and other issues, as well as practical ways in which history can be employed as a tool for preservation.

History & Theory

Studying rare pattern books in Avery Library as part of the American Architecture class

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Students in this sector examine the role of historic preservation within the broader contexts of cultural resource management, urban planning, and public policy. Emphasis is placed on the social, environmental, and economic contributions preservation can make to sustainable development. In the past half century, population has more than doubled, the world is more urban, and the planet’s capacity to sustain life is challenged by the overconsumption of land and resources. Globalization has likewise contributed to dramatically different social and economic conditions, as well as architectural acculturation, as communities and markets become increasingly connected. Yet issues of difference and “otherness” continue to divide society through conflict and inequity. This sector seeks to prepare the next generation of preservationists to adapt to and address these emerging challenges through innovative planning approaches and policy development. The curriculum covers a range of subjects, including planning theory, history, and methodology; heritage planning and management; preservation and land use law and policies; neighborhood planning tools; sustainability and the built environment; and the socio-economic benefits of preservation.

Planning & Policy

Trip to Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater as part of the Cultural Site Management course


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Studio I is the central focus of the first semester of the Historic Preservation Program. The goal of this studio is to give students the skills to read and document buildings – their design, their context, and their history – by using a wide array of tools. This studio course provides the foundation necessary to understand and document buildings, to place them in their cultural continuum, and to make a case for their preservation.

Studio II builds on the Studio I experience, expanding students’ work in order to solve timely preservation problems, again using neighborhoods or resources in New York as study areas. The areas and issues focused upon vary each year. Recent studio projects include:

Flushing Meadows-Corona Park Preservation Plan

Red Hook Grain Elevator Adaptive Reuse

Yorkville Historic Preservation Plan

New Life within the Ruins: Roosevelt Island Visitor Center

Preserving Post-War Public Schools in Manhattan

Post-Sandy Preservation: Response, Recovery, and Resiliency

A Preservation Plan for the IRT/ConEd Powerhouse, West Side of Manhattan

World Pollution Archive & Museum: Proposals for Adaptive Re-Use of McKim Mead & White’s Former IRT Powerhouse

Studios

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Upholstery preservation in the Furniture Conservation class


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Photographing post-war architecture in Moscow for Soviet Avant-Garde workshop

Student internship work with Central Park Conservancy monument conservation

Building Conservation Associates Internship

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Historic Preservation Theory & PracticeThis lecture course is an introduction to historic preser-

vation theory and practice, as it developed in the West, from the Enlightenment to the present moment of globalization. We focus especially on how preservation theories and experimental practices helped to redefine and advance new conceptions of architecture, cities and landscapes. We will focus on under-standing the relationship between historic preservation and the social, political and economic context in which it acquired cur-rency and value. Finally, we will ask questions about how theory and practice relate to one another, and how a solid grasp of the discipline’s history can help us articulate new ways of thinking and doing historic preservation.

Building Systems and MaterialsThis course focuses on historic architectural materials

(stone, brick, terra cotta, metal, concrete, cast stone, mortar, paint, wood). The course model is to explore: sourcing and pro-duction of the materials, identification, use in the fabrication of architectural elements, basic properties that limit or allow their use and performance as architectural materials.

American Architecture IThis course examines the development of American archi-

tecture beginning with the earliest European settlements and culminating in the creative work of Henry Hobson Richardson and his peers in the late 19th century. Beginning with the ear-liest Spanish, French, Dutch, and English colonial architecture, we will explore the American adaptation of European forms and ideas and the development of a distinctly American archi-tecture. The course lectures and readings examine high style and vernacular architecture in rural and urban environments throughout the settled parts of the United States. The course is supplemented with walking tours and the examination of original drawings and early architectural publications in Avery Library.

Preservation Studio I: Reading BuildingsStudio I is the core course of the first semester, and re-

volves around the study of a section of New York City – in this academic year, the study area was Midtown East. Additional field survey work will be carried out at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx. The goal of this Studio is to give the student the skills to read and document buildings – their design, their context, and their history – by using a wide array of tools, from using one’s eyes and other senses to using drawing, photography, and research. Studio I gives students the foundation necessary

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to understand and document buildings, to place them in their cultural continuum, and to make a case for their preservation. Studio work includes graphic presentations, written assign-ments and oral presentations.

Preservation Planning and PolicyThis course is a comprehensive introduction to preserva-

tion planning that examines the history, theory, methodologies, and practices of historic preservation as a form of land use planning and public policy. The curriculum will include the de-velopment of international conventions and charters, US federal legislation and programs, as well as municipal level regulations and practices, so as to analyze the institutional and professional development of preservation within a broader context of urban policy and governance.The course will emphasize a critical understanding of the field’s history and evolution, to form a robust foundation from which to examine current policy tools and planning methods and their application to various heritage typologies, and will also explore emerging trends in the field.

American Architecture IIThis course is a survey of architecture built in the United

States, starting with the modernism of the Chicago School and ending with the postmodernism of Deconstructivist architec-ture. It is designed to provide an understanding of the major protagonists, schools of thought, and events shaping the devel-opment of American architecture. It is also intended to devel-op competence in identifying, understanding, and analyzing historic buildings, their significance, types, and styles. Students will build proficiency in the use of the historiographical, visual, and intellectual tools necessary to grasp fully the meanings of historic buildings in their various historical, cultural and politi-cal contexts.

Preservation Studio IIIn Studio II, students explore real-world preservation

problems, focusing on issues in the New York region. Studio II projects in recent years have included preservation/planning studies, historical analysis, interpretation of historic resources, and design issues. Groups strategize on preservation issues distinct to each problem and in their analysis develop proposals which consider the historic resources as they relate to design issues, aesthetics, history, local zoning, economic realities, and other issues.

Historic Preservation ColloquiumPositioned at the mid-point of the curriculum, Colloquium

is structured as a collective inquiry into preservation practice and theory, and as an opportunity for participants to reflect not only on preservation’s role in the world, but on their own roles within preservation as well. The class is a structured workshop

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Students in the Concrete, Cast Stone and Mortar course

Archival research in MoMA’s Frank Lloyd Wright collection


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to aid students in forming their own professional identities within this expanding and shifting field, by reinforcing their understanding of its intellectual content and by encouraging them to participate actively in the discursive process by which it unfolds in theory and in practice.

Architectural FinishesArchitectural Finishes in America is about the decoration,

ornamentation, and protection of buildings with a wide variety of finishes. Buildings and preservation should not merely be about the outer shell of the building but how people saw them-selves and expressed themselves in the finishes of their homes and public buildings. We cannot cover every finish but we will look at paint, wallpaper, plaster, stucco, twentieth century wall and ceiling finishes, tile, linoleum, and glass. The course will be a mix of lectures, site visits, and conservation treatments. As part of this course, the class will work on a field conservation project performing trial conservation treatments. The site of the project changes each year. Several sessions will involve trav-el time to sites for investigative and conservation work.

Architectural MetalsThis course reviews the structural and decorative uses of

metals in buildings and monuments. The metals covered include iron and steel; copper and copper alloys including bronze and brass; lead; tin; zinc; aluminum; nickel and chromium. The sem-inar will examine the history of manufacture and use; mecha-nisms of deterioration and corrosion; and cleaning, repair, and conservation.

Basic Conservation ScienceThis course is required for students planning to focus on

materials conservation in the 2nd year. Offered in the spring as the foundational course for students interested in architecture conservation. The course includes laboratory basics of sam-pling, testing, and procedure; basic properties of building ma-terials; and the physical and theoretical considerations involved in building “conservation”.

Brick, Terracotta, and StoneThis course explores the group of traditional masonry

materials--brick, terra cotta and stone. The format includes lectures, demonstrations and field trips. The goals of the course are to provide: 1) an historical overview of their manufacturing and sourcing as architectural materials with a focus on the 18th century to the present; 2) an understanding of their fundamen-tal material properties in relation to their use and deterioration in a range of masonry construction systems; and 3) an explora-tion of the state-of-the-art means and methods of their repair, maintenance, and conservation.

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Concrete, Cast Stone, And MortarThe format of this course is lecture, laboratory exercises,

and field trips. It is one of a series of core courses on archi-tectural materials recommended to the students focusing on conservation issues.

Conservation WorkshopThis course will build on the techniques learned in earlier

course work and apply newly acquired knowledge of building materials to a historic building. The goal of this course is to train the student to look and learn how to investigate a historic build-ing using an actual site. There is also a hands-on component for conservation treatments incorporated into this course work. Exercises will include documentation, sampling, materials anal-ysis, synthesis of information, recommendations for conserva-tion and for the final project, conservation treatments.

Wood: Properties, Use, And ConservationStudents will examine the structure of wood and its physi-

cal characteristics, and learn to identify specific wood species commonly used in historic architecture. The history woodwork-ing, joinery, wood products and fasteners used in architecture will be reviewed. Mechanisms of physical and biological deterio-ration, including fungal and insect attack will be covered. Final-ly, students will learn historical and contemporary techniques used in the conservation and restoration of architectural wood.

Architecture and Development of New York CityThis course traces the development of New York City

through its architecture and will examine the history of archi-tecture as it is reflected in the buildings of the city. We examine the major architectural monuments of New York’s five boroughs, but also the more vernacular buildings that reflect the needs and aspirations of the city’s middle- and working-class resi-dents. The class focuses on the evolution of residential archi-tecture (row houses, apartment buildings, tenements, etc.), the central role commercial architecture (counting houses, lofts, skyscrapers, etc.) has played in the city’s history, and how New York became the American center for the construction of great cultural and philanthropic buildings. Class lectures are supplemented by several walking tours, including one given by students.

GIS for PreservationistsA geographic information system (GIS) allows us to visualize

and interpret data about places. The creation of maps using GIS can help us answer geographic questions in ways that are quickly understood and easily shared. For this reason, GIS has become a central tool in many fields, including historic preser-


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vation, where it has been used successfully in a variety of ways including documenting threats to historic resources and telling the stories of communities and places. In this class we will cover the basics of the popular software ArcMap with a focus on ways GIS can be integrated into the practice of historic preservation.

International Issues in Historic PreservationThis course will examine international policies and pro-

cesses in the preservation of cultural heritage, as well as their theoretical underpinnings. A primary aim of the course is to promote critical thinking about the various approaches to pres-ervation and the cultural values that inform them, with an eye toward better understanding US practice within a global con-text. The initial part of the course will focus on the infrastruc-ture of the international conservation arena, including pro-grams, entities, and the World Heritage system. The remainder of the course will be issue-driven, using cases, readings, and varying geo-cultural contexts to examine philosophies, policies, and professional praxis.

Interpretation and ArchitectureThis course is designed to introduce students to the theory

and practice of interpretation, a process of communicating the meanings of a cultural resource to an audience. Through read-ings, class discussion, and case studies, students will explore such topics as philosophies of interpretation, methods of inter-pretation, and current issues and challenges in interpretation. The course draws upon literature from historic preservation, museum studies, public history, and related disciplines. As in-terpretation is based on sound scholarship, this course stresses the importance of linking research and analysis to the site in question and examines methods of presenting the resulting of this scholarship to the public in informative, provocative, and engaging ways.

Law for PreservationistsThis course is designed to provide students with answers

to the 10 questions all preservationists need to know about the law: 1) Where does government get the authority to regulate private property for preservation purposes? 2) What are the appropriate limits to government regulation of private prop-erty? 3) From a legal perspective, what are historic resources? 4) What regulatory tools exist to protect historic resources from private actions? 5) What regulatory tools exist to protect historic resources from government actions? 6) What are spe-cial legal considerations regarding the protection of religiously owned properties? 7) What laws address the protection of other specific historic resources? 8) What legal tools encourage the voluntary protection of historic resources? 9) What other legal strategies can be employed to save historic resources? 10) What are the latest trends and developments in preservation law?

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In the process of learning the answers to these questions students will develop an understanding of preservation law, its application, the legal system, and the interface between pres-ervationists and lawyers.

Old Buildings, New FormsThis seminar focuses on recent, cutting edge, architec-

ture transforming old buildings to produce new forms in the United States and world-wide. These projects are examined not as unfortunate hybrids but as provocative works of modern architecture made possible by contemporary ideas of sustain-ability, by new attitudes to buildings as transmitters of cultural and architectural meanings and by 20th century artistic devel-opments. The seminar includes site visits of projects in New York City with the architects, individual work by each student on specific buildings and lectures on the subject.

Preserving Modern ArchitectureThe buildings and sites of the recent past have become our

cultural heritage. This presents architects and preservationists with unprecedented challenges of a scale and complexity not anticipated in the preservation principles largely formulated in the 19th century. The first half of the semester will be dedicated to a general discussion of the issues, supplemented with case studies in both the US and abroad. The second half will probably focus on developing a preservation plan for Paolo Soleri’s Ar-cosanti, the utopian community focused on the sustainable city in the Sonoran desert in Arizona dating from the early 1970s.

Professional Practice and Project ManagementThis course is designed to introduce students to profes-

sional practice in the discipline of historic preservation. Stu-dents will learn how the technical knowledge gained through-out their academic studies becomes an integrated part of the larger whole that is professional life as well as about the many other, related components of a professional’s work life. We will explore the different career paths within the field of historic preservation; students will also gain an understanding of the roles of the various other types of professionals with whom preservationists and conservators typically have interaction. We will study the typical progression of a project through the design and construction phases, with a focus on the role of the preservation professional. Students will learn how a project manager develops an approach for a project and then uses that approach to develop a work plan.

Sustainability and PreservationPreservation can play an important role in creating and

managing a sustainable built environment, but significant changes in the policies and practices of the preservation field are required. This course examines the positive -- and nega-


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tive – effects of heritage conservation vis à vis sustainability, and explores tools and strategies for enhancing preservation’s contributions toward a more livable planet and society.

Working With Cultural Diversity: New Opportunities and Challenges for PreservationThe goal of this course is to give students the fundamental

tools for working with culturally diverse communities, at the level of both project management and policy development. The course begins by establishing a factual basis for discussion: who are we Americans, where do we come from, how did we get here? We then look at the leading strategies western democ-racies have adopted to incorporate diverse populations, with special attention to the set of policies known as multicultural-ism. We turn next to preservation itself, reviewing the history of cultural diversity initiatives, especially efforts to conserve Native, African American, Hispanic, and Asian heritage. Finally, we look forward. Taking what we’ve learned about preserva-tion’s successes and failures, we explore new policy frameworks for the future.

Design Workshop: Design With Historic ArchitectureThis is an architecture studio offered for both historic pres-

ervation students with a design degree and Masters of Archi-tecture students in their final year of study. The problem for the studio is a major addition to an existing building that requires an understanding of the meaning of the old building – all of the ways its form and materials express the values it sought to rep-resent and serve at the time – and the ways that meaning might or might not be extended, enriched and brought forward by the addition.

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Digital VisualizationThis workshop is about developing dexterity in architectural

representation in order to conceptualize and materialize the environmental, spatial and social aspects of an individual piece of architecture. We will take advantage of new developments in technology to build a three dimensional computer massing model, which can be effectively manipulated and reproduced. A set of graphic images will be produced to address a series of questions with shifting scales and topics. These images will be examined critically for their ability to foster an understanding of the meaning of the building.

Pattern Books and Builder’s BooksThe transmission of architectural ideas through publica-

tions has a long and important tradition in American building practice, and pattern books are at the center of much of this country’s vernacular built environment. The course will use the unparalleled resources of Avery Library to help students learn about the major American pattern books, catalogs and periodi-cals of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Books and other print-ed sources will be considered both for design ideas and for the attitudes toward community that they conveyed. Upon comple-tion of the course, the student should be able to recognize the features associated with particular pattern books, and thus be able to roughly date and categorize a broad array of American vernacular buildings.

Archaeological Sites Conservation and MaintenanceOver the past two decades, there has been a greater

demand for architectural conservators at archaeological sites. However, other professions, such as archaeologists, architects and planners, are often found intervening in the preservation of sites, and therefore, could use some fundamental knowledge of their conservation needs. Most programs in historic preserva-tion deal with the conservation of historic buildings (structures which can be re-inhabited) as opposed to the stabilization of antiquities (roofless structures). This course will look at the philosophical and ethical differences between the two, while reviewing the international organizations and charters, which have been set up for this purpose. Evaluation of site significance will be discussed, as well as methods of site interpretation. This course will also deal with some of the basic techniques of conservation, including site improvements, recording methods, stabilization, protection, sheltering, applicable to archaeologi-cal sites.

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Tile column restoration project for the Ladies Mile Historic District

Documentation in Myanmar for an internship with the Yangon Heritage Trust

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National Register of Historic PlacesThe National Register of Historic Places is the federal

listing of buildings, districts, sites, etc. of historic significance. Professionals in the field of Historic Preservation are frequently called upon to complete National Register nominations as part of advocacy for the preservation of a building, in order for an owner to take advantage of historic preservation tax credits, or for other reasons. This mini-course will examine the criteria for National Register listing and each student will complete a mini-mum of one National Register nomination for a building the New York State Office of Historic Preservation is interested in seeing listed on the register.

Conditions SurveyThis class presents approaches to Building Diagnostics

while working in the field. The tools used in building diagnostics are explored from basic to sophisticated plus methodologies to set up an understandable framework for data collection. Methods of diagnosing building problems and discussion of appropriate treatments is also be presented. By gaining an understanding of the various systems which comprise buildings including historical evolution and interactions students gain a better understanding of the mechanisms of deterioration. Through lectures and field studies, students study the symp-toms, diagnose the problems, determine what tests are needed, and how to mitigate problems. Approximately half of the class takes place on site of a nearby building or sculptural element where we put diagnostic approaches and tools into use.

Making Preservation Happen: a Practical Guide to the Non-Profit WorldThe nonprofit sector is the cornerstone of the historic

preservation world. Public programs, policy, advocacy, techni-cal services and financial incentives have all sprung out of the many nonprofit organizations that push the preservation move-ment forward in this country. Who are these groups? What do they do? And, importantly, how do they operate? This course will offer a nuts and bolts, practical introduction to the me-chanics of the nonprofit sector: programming, finance, budget-ing, fundraising, strategic planning and governance. Leaders in the preservation world in New York will also speak, sharing best practices and thoughts on how they, specifically, achieve their goals.


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Formal education is supplemented with varied extracurricular activities, which students are encouraged to attend. Evening guest lectures, the Inquiry:HP lecture series, academic journal Future Anterior, and student government (Program Council) meetings are some of the activities that enrich the graduate school experience and create a dynamic educational setting.

Program CouncilProgram Council coordinates events for new and

prospective students, acts as a liaison between HP students and the department, as well as GSAPP administration.

Inquiry: HPInquiry: HP is a student run lecture series that explores

topics of interest in historic preservation each semester.

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Inquiry: HP Lecture by Phyllis Lambert in Wood Auditorium, April 2014

Future Anterior Vol. 11, Summer 2014 Future Anterior Vol. 10, Summer 2013

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Annual Studio I walking tour of study area; Yorkville Fall 2013

Students utilize the Conservation Lab resources for thesis hypothesis testing

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Soviet Avant Garde workshop participants touring the Melnikov House

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Student BodyCountries of Origin, 2012-2014

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