Hispanics' Self-Esteem, Acculturation, and Skepticism of Women's Work

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Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2006, 36, 1, pp. 206–221.r 2006 Copyright the Authors

Journal compilation r 2006 Blackwell Publishing, Inc.

Hispanics’ Self-Esteem, Acculturation, and Skepticism of

Women’s Work1

SEAN VALENTINE2

Department of Management and Marketing

University of Wyoming

This study investigated the relationships among Hispanics’ self-esteem, accultur-

ation, and skepticism of women’s employment. Using a sample of Hispanic stu-

dents, mediated regression analysis was initiated to determine whether

acculturation mediated a proposed negative relationship between self-esteem and

traditional gender attitudes. The results indicated that self-esteem and acculturation

were positively related; self-esteem and employment skepticism were negatively re-

lated; and self-esteem was unrelated to employment skepticism in the presence of

acculturation, which supported full mediation. Organizations should consider using

a combination of diversity training, employee assistance programs, career coun-

seling, and job-enrichment policies to facilitate Hispanics’ self-esteem and accul-

turation, and these efforts might lead ultimately to greater acceptance of women’s

employment.

The number of Hispanic workers and business owners is steadily in-creasing in the United States (Alderete, Vega, Kolody, & Aguilar-Gaxiola,2000; Blea, 1992; Carson, Carson, & Irwin, 1995). More specifically, the‘‘economic and social changes of the past several decades’’ (Herrera & Del-Campo, 1995, p. 50) have also increased the ‘‘number of Hispanic wives inthe labor force’’ (Herrera & DelCampo, 1995, p. 50). Hispanic women areinvolved in public and political activities and launch home businesses (Blea,1992), and their increased representation in different occupations and or-ganizations suggests that new research should explore their unique employ-ment experiences.

Despite such activity, Hispanic men are sometimes better represented inthe workplace than are Hispanic women (Reskin & Padavic, 1994), and such

1A Research Enhancement Grant from Lamar University supported this project. The au-thor thanks Jennie Godkin, Graeme Doughty, and Manjula Krishnamurthy for their assistanceon the grant; Philip Varca for his comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript; and JamesFaircloth for his assistance with data analysis.

2Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sean Valentine, Depart-ment of Management and Marketing, University of Wyoming, P.O. Box 3275, Laramie, WY82071-3275. E-mail: [email protected]

disparity is possibly linked to Hispanics’ traditional outlook with regard togender roles (Blea, 1992; Hofstede, 1991; Reskin & Padavic, 1994; Valentine& Mosley, 1998; Vasquez, 1984). Indeed, Hispanic culture prescribes mar-ianismo (i.e., submission to men) and support roles for women in society(Bean & Tienda, 1987; Herrera & DelCampo, 1995; Levine & Padilla, 1980;Marin & Marin, 1991; Sugihara & Warner, 1999; Valentine & Mosley, 1999;Vasquez, 1984), while men are expected to be more dominant through ma-chismo (Aramoni, 1972; Garza & Lipton, 1984). Based on these values,Hispanic men often assume work, family, and societal leadership roles; andwomen frequently adopt nurturing or household roles (Blea, 1992; DelCastillo, 1980).

Hispanic gender roles seem to be tempered somewhat by the accultur-ation process (Berry, 1980; Blea, 1992; Gordon, 1964; Marin & Marin, 1991;Murguia, 1975; Sam, 2000; Valentine & Mosley, 1999), or ‘‘the extent towhich an individual originating from another culture has integrated in thehost culture’’ (Manrai & Manrai, 1995, p. 120). For example, previous re-search has indicated that various indicators of acculturation are relatednegatively to Hispanics traditional orientation (O’Guinn, Imperia, & Mac-Adams, 1987; Soto, 1983) and familism (see Rodriguez & Kosloski, 1998,for discussion; Sabogal, Marin, Otero-Sabogal, Marin, & Perez-Stable,1987), suggesting that traditional gender attitudes might be affected by fac-tors such as acculturation or generation level.

Soto (1983), using a sample of Puerto Rican American women, con-cluded that generation and education levels were associated with decreasedtraditional gender beliefs. Sabogal et al. (1987) concluded that acculturationwas related negatively to beliefs about familism, while O’Guinn et al. (1987)found that Mexican American wives felt more in charge of family purchasesas acculturation increased. Finally, Valentine and Mosley (1999) determinedthat Hispanics’ gender beliefs were less traditional over time and acrossapparent generational level.

Self-esteem, which is commonly defined as the ‘‘favorability of an in-dividual’s characteristic self-evaluation’’ (Pilegge & Holtz, 1997, p. 17), isalso likely associated with Hispanic acculturation (Champion, 1996; Negy &Woods, 1992; Sam, 2000; Valentine, 2001b; Valentine &Mosley, 1999; Yu &Berryman, 1996) and traditional gender attitudes (Valentine, 1999; Valen-tine & Fleischman, 2003). Self-esteem and acculturation both appear to berelated to self-definition (Berry, 1980; Manrai & Manrai, 1995; Rosenberg,1965), and an individual’s self-concept could enhance the willingness toconnect with a culture, set of values, or group of people. A person’s self-esteem is based partly on social achievement (Baumeister, Dori, & Hastings,1998; Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995; Rosenberg, 1965), and anincreased self-image achieved by connecting with immediate others could

HISPANICS’ SELF-ESTEEM, ACCULTURATION, AND SKEPTICISM 207

prompt a more substantial adoption of this cultural group’s values andnorms (Baumeister et al., 1998; Becker, 1977). Acculturation might be con-sidered a more advanced reflection of the social adaptation and affiliationoriginally conveyed in a more positive self-image (Berry, 1980).

According to Rosenberg (1965), a ‘‘positive or negative attitude toward aparticular object, namely, the self’’ (p. 30) also should impact a Hispanic’sbeliefs about gender roles (Champion, 1996; Valentine, 1999; Valentine &Fleischman, 2003). The management literature shows that positive self-esteem can enhance the manner in which people think and behave at work(Rand, 1968; Rosenberg, 1965; Stake, 1979; Tharenou, 1979; Verkuyten,1996). Research also indicates that self-esteem can be related more directlyto beliefs about gender and employment, partly because of the self-servinggender biases insecure individuals might possess (Trentham & Larwood,1998).

For example, Valentine (1999), using a sample of young men from theNational Longitudinal Survey of Youth, concluded that self-esteem wasassociated with reduced stereotypes of employed women. Valentine andFleischman (2003) also found that self-esteem impacted different traditionalwork-based attitudes about gender using a national sample of legal profes-sionals. Based on these findings, Hispanics with low self-esteem might notaccept women’s employment because the situation represents an opportu-nity for women to succeed in organizations and to mitigate the status quo.Additionally, traditional Hispanic culture more directly prescribes thatwomen are better suited for domestic life (e.g., Del Castillo, 1980), andHispanics supporting this outlook might not be comfortable with suchchanging gender roles and expectations (Champion, 1996). This implies thatincreased self-confidence increases Hispanics’ willingness to challenge tra-ditional thinking and to accept women’s employment, but it should affectgender attitudes indirectly through the acculturation process.

Since these issues are not considered comprehensively in the literature(McHugh & Frieze, 1997; Sam, 2000; Vasquez, 1984), the purpose of thisresearch is to explore the manner in which Hispanics’ self-esteem, accultur-ation, and gender attitudes are interrelated (Figure 1). Evidence suggeststhat these factors are associated, and further examination is needed to clarifybetter the nature, direction, and magnitude of these apparent associations(Negy & Woods, 1992; Valentine, 2001b; Valentine & Fleischman, 2003;Valentine & Mosley, 1999). This study is essentially an extension of aninvestigation of Hispanics conducted by Valentine (2001b), which concludedthat Hispanic acculturation was enhanced through positive self-esteem, re-duced cultural identity, and elevated generation status. The same data willbe utilized in this examination to determine whether self-esteem is associatedwith both enhanced acculturation and decreased skepticism of women’s

208 SEAN VALENTINE

employment outside of the home, as well as whether acculturation fullymediates the relationship between self-esteem and employment skepticism.

Method

Sample

Data were collected as part of a larger examination of Hispanic Amer-ican cultural attitudes and individual wellness. Information for this inves-tigation was gathered at three universities and a junior college located in thesouthern or southwestern United States. Students were recruited from busi-ness, English language, and cultural studies classes to finish voluntarily asurvey measuring their wellness and work perspectives, and Hispanic par-ticipants completed an additional section that ascertained their cultural af-filiation. A few Hispanics not enrolled in one of the focal classes were askedto provide information to increase the sample size for this study. Languageassistance was given to Hispanics when necessary. Hispanic participantscompleted 110 of the 418 surveys that were submitted.

A summary of the sample characteristics is presented in Table 1. Par-ticipants were young, single, and most were female. A majority had eithersome college or a college degree; and first-, second-, and third- or latergeneration Hispanic Americans were all well represented in the sample. Withregard to workplace experiences, participants averaged over 2 years of jobtenure and organizational tenure in their current or most recent jobs, andnearly half worked part time, while a small percentage of individuals wereemployed in management positions. A majority of the individuals workedfor organizations that had fewer than 100 employees.

Measures

Self-esteem. Self-esteem was measured with 10 items modified slightlyfrom their original format (Rosenberg, 1965; Rosenberg, Schooler, &Schoenbach, 1989) using the language found in the variable titles of theNational Longitudinal Survey of Youth codebook (e.g., Valentine, 2001b;Valentine & Fleischman, 2003). Statements were rated on a 4-point scaleranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), and after five itemswere reverse coded, higher scores indicated greater confidence.

Figure 1. Study frame work.


Table 1

Sample Characteristics

Variable M SD FrequencyValid

percentagea

Age 23.34 5.71

Job tenure (years) 2.41 2.47

Organizationaltenure (years)

2.63 2.68

Gender

Male 47 42.7

Female 63 57.3

Educational level

High school 7 6.6

Some college 65 61.3

College degree 24 22.6

Some graduate work 5 4.7

Graduate degree 5 4.7

Marital status

Single 85 77.3

Married 18 16.4

Widowed 1 0.9

Separated, divorced 6 5.5

Generation status

First-generation HispanicAmerican

34 31.5

Second-generation HispanicAmerican

32 29.6

Third- or later generationHispanic American

42 38.9

Employment status

Temporary 15 16.9

Part time 42 47.2

Full time 32 36.0

210 SEAN VALENTINE

An initial principal components exploratory factor analysis with obliquerotation was utilized to determine the factor structure of the scale, and theitems loaded on three factors and explained 58.4% of the variance. While alleigenvalues were above 1 and each factor explained greater than 10% of thevariance, the first factor was comprised of two items that had factor load-ings in the pattern matrix above .80 and had an overall eigenvalue of 3.21and explained 32.1% of the variance. Consequently, these two items wereused to measure generalized self-esteem in this study. These statements were‘‘I feel useless at times’’ and ‘‘I sometimes think I am ‘no good’ at all.’’ Afinal factor analysis of these two items indicated that one factor emergedwith factor loadings above .88 and an eigenvalue of 1.57 with 78.3% of thevariance explained. The measure had a coefficient alpha of .72. The scoresfor the two items were averaged so that increased composite values repre-sented greater self-esteem.

Hispanic acculturation. Acculturation was measured with a brief four-item scale (Marin & Marin, 1991; Marin, Sabogal, Marin, Otero-Sabogal, &Perez-Stable, 1987). According to Marin and Marin (1991), the scale hasexhibited acceptable validity, and the measure’s ‘‘psychometric characteristics,its short length, and the fact that it works equally well with all Hispanicsubgroups’’ (p. 37) demonstrates its efficacy. The scale is comprised of fouritems measuring language preference that were rated on a 5-point scale rang-ing from 1 (only Spanish) to 5 (only English), with higher scores showing

Currently employedas manager or supervisor

Yes 22 21.4

No 81 78.6

Company size

Fewer than 100 employees 35 38.9

100-999 employees 20 22.2

1,000-9,999 employees 17 18.9

10,000 employees or more 18 20.0

aExcludes missing data.

Table 1

Continued

Variable M SD FrequencyValid

percentagea


greater adoption of the English language. Sample items are ‘‘What language(s)do you speak at home?’’ and ‘‘In which language(s) do you usually think?’’

An initial principal components exploratory factor analysis indicatedthat the items loaded on one factor with loadings greater than .85, and theassociated eigenvalue was 3.23 with 80.7% of the variance explained. Thecoefficient alpha for the scale was .91. The item values were combined anddivided by the total number of items.

Skepticism of women’s employment. Skepticism of working women wasmeasured with a three-item scale (Valentine, 2001a, 2003). The items were‘‘Women lack the skills and abilities needed at work,’’ ‘‘Women are notsuited for work outside of the home,’’ and ‘‘I am skeptical about women’seffectiveness in the workplace.’’ The items were rated on a 4-point scaleranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), with higher valuesindicating a more traditional orientation.

A principal components exploratory factor analysis was utilized to de-termine the factor structure of the scale, and the items loaded on one factorwith an eigenvalue of 1.95 and 65.1% of the variance being explained. Thethird item had a factor loading just below a .60 benchmark, so it was deletedfrom the measure and another factor analysis was initiated. The final ex-ploratory factor analysis of the remaining two items indicated that onefactor emerged with factor loadings above .92 and an eigenvalue of 1.74 with87.0% of the variance explained. The measure had a coefficient alpha of .82.The item scores were averaged to reflect an overall aversion to women inorganizations.

Social desirability. A 10-item social desirability measure was included inthe study (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960; Fischer & Fick, 1993; Strahan &Gerbasi, 1972) because Hispanic research is sometimes threatened by suchbias (Marin &Marin, 1991). The measure includes statements such as ‘‘I liketo gossip at times’’ and ‘‘I always try to practice what I preach’’ that wererated either 1 (No) or 2 (Yes). After several items were reverse coded, valueswere combined so that higher scores represented greater social desirability,with a range of 10 to 20.

Additional Preliminary Analysis

The items used to measure the constructs were subjected to an additionalprincipal components factor analysis using varimax rotation to determinewhether the measures were assessing unique constructs. Results indicatedthat a three-factor solution emerged from the analysis with 81.4% of thevariance explained. The eigenvalue for the first factor (Hispanic accultur-ation) was 3.97 and explained 39.8% of the variance; the eigenvalue for the

212 SEAN VALENTINE

second factor (skepticism of women’s employment) was 1.46 and explained18.2% of the variance; and the eigenvalue for the remaining factor was 1.09and explained 19.5% of the variance.

The rotated component matrix indicated that all factor loadings wereabove .83 and that no cross-loadings were present. The items, therefore,appeared to be suitable for further analysis of the study’s framework. Fi-nally, several one-way ANOVA models were initiated to determine whetherparticipant sex was related to the study’s three focal constructs. The threeseparate models indicated that sex was unrelated to self-esteem, Hispanicacculturation, and skepticism of women’s employment (po.25), suggestingthat an additional control for participant sex was not needed in the testing ofthe study’s framework.

Analysis of Framework

Variable descriptive statistics and correlations were evaluated initially todetermine the magnitude of the study’s focal variables, as well as the ap-parent bivariate relationships among these factors. The social desirabilitymeasure also was included in the correlation analysis to determine whetherthe study variables were associated with the tendency to provide sociallycorrect responses. Mediated regression analysis was used to test the frame-work presented in the study (Baron & Kenny, 1986).

Results

The variable descriptive statistics and correlations are presented in Table2. The mean scores associated with self-esteem and acculturation show thatparticipants were relatively self-assured and comfortable with the Englishlanguage. The mean score for employment skepticism implies that the re-spondents embraced relatively nontraditional gender beliefs.

The correlation analysis reveals that self-esteem was associated with in-creased acculturation and decreased skepticism of women’s employment,suggesting that Hispanics’ self-concept might enhance social-connectednessacceptance to some degree. Hispanic acculturation also was related nega-tively to skepticism of women’s employment, implying that such genderbeliefs decrease as Hispanics identify more readily with American culture.Hispanic acculturation was the only variable related to the social desirabilitymeasure, which suggests that social desirability bias was not a seriousdrawback.

The regression models used to test the proposed mediation in the studyare presented in Table 3. The first regression equation shows that self-esteem


was related significantly to Hispanic acculturation, which satisfies the firstcondition of mediation, according to Baron and Kenny (1986). The secondequation indicates that self-esteem also was related to skepticism of women’semployment, and this satisfies the second condition of mediation. Finally,the last regression model indicates that self-esteem was unrelated to gender-based skepticism in the presence of Hispanic acculturation (p5 .058), ver-ifying that Hispanic acculturation fully mediated the negative relationshipbetween self-esteem and skepticism of women’s employment. The resultssupport the study’s framework and advance several noteworthy researchand managerial implications.

Table 2

Variable Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

Variable M SD N 1 2 3

1. Self-esteem 3.22 0.73 110 F

2. Hispanic acculturation 3.48 1.02 105 .21� F

3. Skepticism of women’s employment 1.33 0.57 110 �.23� �.47�� F

4. Social desirability 15.26 2.16 99 .05 �.38�� .14

�po.05.��po.001.

Table 3

Results of Mediated Regression Analysis

Equation Dependent variableIndependentvariable b

Adj.R2 F

1 Hispanic acculturation Self-esteem .21� .03 4.63�

2 Skepticism of women’semployment

Self-esteem �.23� .04 5.85�

3 Skepticism of women’semployment

Self-esteem �.17 .23 16.54��

Hispanicacculturation

�.43��

Note. Sample sizes (N) for regression equations ranged from 105 to 110 because ofmissing data.�po.05.��po.001.

214 SEAN VALENTINE

Discussion

The primary goal of this study was to provide further insight into themanner in which Hispanics might better connect to Americanized values andnontraditional gender roles. The results indicate that both self-esteem andacculturation need to be considered when evaluating Hispanics’ genderattitudes, but that acculturation has a more direct affect on such beliefs.Self-esteem appears to influence gender attitudes indirectly through theacculturation process and Hispanics’ willingness to adopt American culturaltendencies and language customs.

Companies need to recognize that Hispanics face many challenges asthey accept mainstream American cultural norms and gender attitudes. Inparticular, Hispanics’ apparent recognition of two diverse value systems thatmust be blended might create a social duality that complicates the devel-opment of an overall self-identity (Bell, 1990). These difficulties seem to beparticularly perplexing for Hispanic women.

According to Vasquez (1984), ‘‘it would appear that Mexican-Americanwomen face and will continue to face rapid changes in expectations and,while many are able to do so, a consequence may be at least temporaryanxiety and conflict’’ (p. 273). At the same time, ‘‘traditional sex-role ex-pectations in the Mexican-American culture may lead to depression, anxiety,and psychophysiological symptoms’’ (p. 280) including psychological dis-tress, frustration, and disappointment. This could further perpetuateHispanics’ traditional preferences.

Organizations should develop programs that help Hispanic women over-come these cultural dilemmas, build greater acceptance of Hispanic women’sroles in the workforce, and enhance appreciation and tolerance for the His-panic community’s cultural transformations. According to Gilbert andIvancevich (2000), ‘‘The rationale for managing demographic diversity in-cludes moral, ethical, and results-based reasons, such as fairness, upholdingthe dignity of every person, and optimizing the full range of skills andabilities of the workforce’’ (p. 93). As Mirvis (1997) indicated, companiesinterested in diversity management ‘‘are more likely to have issued a state-ment from senior management that values diversity, to offer diversity train-ing for managers and employees, and to operate mentoring programs forwomen and minorities’’ (p. 51). Management should first implement diver-sity training that increases employees’ understanding of Hispanic culturalcharacteristics (Cox, 1991; Gilbert & Ivancevich, 2000; Mirvis, 1997).According to Cox and Blake (1991, p. 53):

Managing and valuing diversity (MVD) training is the mostprevalent starting point for managing diversity. Two types of


training are popular: awareness training and skill-buildingtraining. Awareness training focuses on creating an under-standing of the need for and meaning of MVD. It is also meantto increase participants’ self-awareness on diversity-relatedissues, such as stereotyping and cross-cultural insensitivity.Skill-building training educates employees on specific culturaldifferences and how to respond to differences in the workplace.

Awareness training ideally would build greater understanding of theHispanic culture, as well as convey the challenges that Hispanic women faceas they separate from the gender roles specified in this culture (Cox & Blake,1991). Sessions should enable Hispanics to communicate their cultural viewsand develop a more positive outlook about women’s employment. Skill-building training would further identify employees’ different cultural andgender attitudes and could teach people to reconcile these differences atwork (Cox & Blake, 1991). According to Gilbert, Stead, and Ivancevich(1999, pp. 68–69), there is reason to believe ‘‘that simply a one- or two-daydiversity training program is insufficient to create the cultural change nec-essary for minority individuals to feel fully integrated in the workplace.Under the rubric of diversity management, entire personnel systems (e.g.,compensation, performance appraisal, mentoring, career pathing) are mod-ified (Morrison, 1992; Cox, 1991).’’

Dass and Parker (1999) indicated that ‘‘Organizations may assimilatemembers of diverse groups via socialization’’ (p. 75). Socialization effortssuch as orientation should introduce Hispanics to Americanized corporatevalues that support women’s employment, which could facilitate their ac-culturation. Employee assistance programs and counseling sessions thatconcentrate on women’s changing organizational roles and Hispanics’ ad-justment to these cultural reformulations might enhance socialization (Holm& Hovland, 1999; Joo & Grable, 2000). Mentoring programs that provideHispanics with individualized guidance might be used to improve Hispanics’employment experiences (Carson, Carson, Griffeth, & Steel, 1993; Naff,1995). Dass and Parker also indicated that ‘‘Organizations may institution-alize like-to-like mentoring relationships; for instance, Hispanic mentors forHispanic mentees’’ (p. 75).

Company jobs should be redesigned in a manner to build teamworkamong men and women. Previous research has shown that enriched jobs areassociated with enhanced individual satisfaction and reduced turnover (e.g.,Glisson & Durrick, 1988; Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Parker & Wall, 1998;Spector & Jex, 1991). It also seems likely that such enriched and team-oriented work would increase Hispanics’ acceptance of women’s work bydeveloping greater company loyalty and superior individual confidence.

216 SEAN VALENTINE

Hispanics with high corporate commitment and self-esteem would appear tobe more open to new experiences outside of their traditional culture, as wellas more likely to accept nontraditional gender roles.

The present study has several limitations. A relatively small sample ofyoung adults was used to test the proposed relationships, and this likelylimits external validity. The study did not identify different Hispanic sub-groups, and different findings might be obtained if more homogeneousHispanic samples are utilized. Hispanics’ responses could have been affectedby lack of understanding of the English language, which increases concernsover measurement equivalence. Individuals’ simultaneous adoption of His-panic and Anglo cultural values or biculturalism was also not ascertained inthis study (Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1980).

Future research should address these limitations by utilizing larger het-erogeneous samples of Hispanic subgroups, and bicultural acculturationmeasures should be utilized in new assessments of the study’s framework.Future research also should identify other dispositional characteristics, suchas locus of control and self-efficacy that potentially affect Hispanics’ accul-turation and gender attitudes. Further examination of Hispanics’ employ-ment experiences ideally should enhance the management of a diverseworkforce.

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Hispanics' Self-Esteem, Acculturation, and Skepticism of Women's Work