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High performance w
ABSTRACT
Impact of HR practices on organizational outcome is undeniable. Search for effective HR
practices has given rise to the concept of High Performance Work Systems (HPWS), which is
based on recognition that certain HR practices, when implemented as a “package
value addition than when they are used separately. The needs of globalization require that HR
systems function smoothly and effectively across cultures. However, since cultural values affect
employee attitudes and behaviors, HR practices ar
successful in one country may not be as effective in another cultural setting. This paper presents
a conceptual framework to describe the interaction of various cultural dimensions with specific
HR practices which comprise the HPWS. It is hoped that this framework will enhance our
understanding of the cultural sensitivity of HPWS, thereby enabling the HR practitioners to fit
the HPWS to the cultural context of the organization.
Keywords: HPWS, HIWP, cultural sensitivity
.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
work systems: a cross-cultural perspective
Rakesh Mittal
New Mexico State University
Impact of HR practices on organizational outcome is undeniable. Search for effective HR
practices has given rise to the concept of High Performance Work Systems (HPWS), which is
that certain HR practices, when implemented as a “package
value addition than when they are used separately. The needs of globalization require that HR
systems function smoothly and effectively across cultures. However, since cultural values affect
employee attitudes and behaviors, HR practices are culturally sensitive. Thus, a HPWS
successful in one country may not be as effective in another cultural setting. This paper presents
a conceptual framework to describe the interaction of various cultural dimensions with specific
ise the HPWS. It is hoped that this framework will enhance our
understanding of the cultural sensitivity of HPWS, thereby enabling the HR practitioners to fit
the HPWS to the cultural context of the organization.
Keywords: HPWS, HIWP, cultural sensitivity, International HRM
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 1
cultural perspective
Impact of HR practices on organizational outcome is undeniable. Search for effective HR
practices has given rise to the concept of High Performance Work Systems (HPWS), which is
that certain HR practices, when implemented as a “package” lead to more
value addition than when they are used separately. The needs of globalization require that HR
systems function smoothly and effectively across cultures. However, since cultural values affect
e culturally sensitive. Thus, a HPWS
successful in one country may not be as effective in another cultural setting. This paper presents
a conceptual framework to describe the interaction of various cultural dimensions with specific
ise the HPWS. It is hoped that this framework will enhance our
understanding of the cultural sensitivity of HPWS, thereby enabling the HR practitioners to fit
INTRODUCTION
A fundamental principle of Human Resource Management (HRM) is that the way people
are managed in an organization contributes to its sustenance and success. HRM research over the
past two decades has indicated that there may be certain HR practices, which i
effectiveness and predict higher levels of organizational performance (Arthur, 1994; Huselid,
1995). Variously referred to as High Performance Work Systems (HPWS), High Involvement
Work Practices (HIWP), or High performance HRM, the central
that organizations can achieve high performance by adopting practices that recognize and
leverage employees’ ability to create value.
If it is possible to identify a bundle of HR practices which promote organizational
performance, a natural question is to ask whether such practices can be replicated in different
nations and societal cultures? Conceivably, such “best HR practices” achieve the desired
organizational outcome by affecting employee attitudes and behavior. Since
background of a person plays an important part in shaping his behavior, it seems reasonable to
infer that High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) successful in one country or cultural
context cannot be easily replicated in other societies. Howeve
the subject does not seem to have paid adequate attention to the cultural aspect of HPWSs. The
purpose of this paper is to examine how individual cultural dimensions might interact with and
influence important HR practices. It is hoped that the conceptual framework presented here
would enhance our understanding of cross
HIGH PERFORMANCE WORK SYSTEMS
HR researchers and practitioners have traditionally been subject to criticism that HR does
not add value to the organization (Drucker, 1954). However, post 1990s research has firmly
attempted to establish that progressive HR practices result in higher org
In a ground-breaking study, Huselid (1995) demonstrated that a set of HR practices he referred to
as high performance work systems (HPWS), were related to turnover, accounting profits, and
firm market value. Since then, a number of
& Lepak, 1996) have shown similar positive relationships between HR practices and various
measures of firm performance. More recent research (Batt, 2002; Way, 2002; Zacharatos,
Barling, & Iverson, 2005), has also confirmed a positive relationship between HPWS and
organizational performance.
Such “best HR practices” have variously been referred to as High Performance Work
Systems (HPWS), High Performance Work Practices (HPWP), High Involvement Work
Practices (HIWP), High Performance HRM etc. Although there are some subtle differences
among these HR systems, this paper uses
basic philosophy and practices of these systems.
but interconnected human resource (HR) practices designed to enhance employees’ skills and
effort (Datta, Guthrie, & Wright, 2005). Although a precise definition of H
formulate, it is generally agreed that these practices i
incentives, and knowledge-sharing mechanisms, and that these practices are most effective when
implemented in bundles due to their cumulative effects (MacDuffie, 1995).
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
A fundamental principle of Human Resource Management (HRM) is that the way people
are managed in an organization contributes to its sustenance and success. HRM research over the
past two decades has indicated that there may be certain HR practices, which improve employee
effectiveness and predict higher levels of organizational performance (Arthur, 1994; Huselid,
1995). Variously referred to as High Performance Work Systems (HPWS), High Involvement
Work Practices (HIWP), or High performance HRM, the central argument behind these labels is
that organizations can achieve high performance by adopting practices that recognize and
leverage employees’ ability to create value.
If it is possible to identify a bundle of HR practices which promote organizational
ormance, a natural question is to ask whether such practices can be replicated in different
nations and societal cultures? Conceivably, such “best HR practices” achieve the desired
organizational outcome by affecting employee attitudes and behavior. Since the cultural
background of a person plays an important part in shaping his behavior, it seems reasonable to
that High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) successful in one country or cultural
context cannot be easily replicated in other societies. However, the growing body of literature on
the subject does not seem to have paid adequate attention to the cultural aspect of HPWSs. The
purpose of this paper is to examine how individual cultural dimensions might interact with and
ces. It is hoped that the conceptual framework presented here
would enhance our understanding of cross-cultural sensitivity of HPWS.
HIGH PERFORMANCE WORK SYSTEMS
HR researchers and practitioners have traditionally been subject to criticism that HR does
not add value to the organization (Drucker, 1954). However, post 1990s research has firmly
attempted to establish that progressive HR practices result in higher organizational performance.
breaking study, Huselid (1995) demonstrated that a set of HR practices he referred to
as high performance work systems (HPWS), were related to turnover, accounting profits, and
firm market value. Since then, a number of studies (Delery & Doty, 1996; Youndt, Snell, Dean,
& Lepak, 1996) have shown similar positive relationships between HR practices and various
measures of firm performance. More recent research (Batt, 2002; Way, 2002; Zacharatos,
also confirmed a positive relationship between HPWS and
Such “best HR practices” have variously been referred to as High Performance Work
Systems (HPWS), High Performance Work Practices (HPWP), High Involvement Work
es (HIWP), High Performance HRM etc. Although there are some subtle differences
this paper uses these terms interchangeably as representative of the
and practices of these systems. Specifically, HPWS refer to a grou
but interconnected human resource (HR) practices designed to enhance employees’ skills and
effort (Datta, Guthrie, & Wright, 2005). Although a precise definition of HPWS is difficult to
t is generally agreed that these practices include selection, training, mentoring,
sharing mechanisms, and that these practices are most effective when
implemented in bundles due to their cumulative effects (MacDuffie, 1995).
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 2
A fundamental principle of Human Resource Management (HRM) is that the way people
are managed in an organization contributes to its sustenance and success. HRM research over the
mprove employee
effectiveness and predict higher levels of organizational performance (Arthur, 1994; Huselid,
1995). Variously referred to as High Performance Work Systems (HPWS), High Involvement
argument behind these labels is
that organizations can achieve high performance by adopting practices that recognize and
If it is possible to identify a bundle of HR practices which promote organizational
ormance, a natural question is to ask whether such practices can be replicated in different
nations and societal cultures? Conceivably, such “best HR practices” achieve the desired
the cultural
background of a person plays an important part in shaping his behavior, it seems reasonable to
that High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) successful in one country or cultural
r, the growing body of literature on
the subject does not seem to have paid adequate attention to the cultural aspect of HPWSs. The
purpose of this paper is to examine how individual cultural dimensions might interact with and
ces. It is hoped that the conceptual framework presented here
HR researchers and practitioners have traditionally been subject to criticism that HR does
not add value to the organization (Drucker, 1954). However, post 1990s research has firmly
anizational performance.
breaking study, Huselid (1995) demonstrated that a set of HR practices he referred to
as high performance work systems (HPWS), were related to turnover, accounting profits, and
studies (Delery & Doty, 1996; Youndt, Snell, Dean,
& Lepak, 1996) have shown similar positive relationships between HR practices and various
measures of firm performance. More recent research (Batt, 2002; Way, 2002; Zacharatos,
also confirmed a positive relationship between HPWS and
Such “best HR practices” have variously been referred to as High Performance Work
Systems (HPWS), High Performance Work Practices (HPWP), High Involvement Work
es (HIWP), High Performance HRM etc. Although there are some subtle differences
terms interchangeably as representative of the
Specifically, HPWS refer to a group of separate
but interconnected human resource (HR) practices designed to enhance employees’ skills and
PWS is difficult to
nclude selection, training, mentoring,
sharing mechanisms, and that these practices are most effective when
INTERNATIONAL HRM AND CULTURE
Considering the desirability of adopting HPWS for improved organizational performance,
the next question is whether the HR practices identified in a successful HPWS can be universally
applicable? A prudent answer must be in the negative. Internationalization of any HR
fraught with risks, given the cultural differentiation amongst nations and societies. Fuelled by the
imperatives of globalization, a separate and rich stream of research on International Management
has devoted considerable attention to cross
impact on business practices and decision. This body of literature incorporates several
comparative HRM studies, which concluded that national culture is a decisive factor in shaping
HRM (Heijltjes, Van Witteloostuijn, & Sorge, 1996; Sparrow, Schuler, & Jackson, 1994).
In view of the now accepted HPWS
becomes apparent. And culture being a multi
which would be salient in defining the attitudes, beliefs and practices of the employees, but
the organizational culture. It has been argued that where the corporate culture is not fully
embedded in the home country culture, such as for a Multi National corporation (MNC), the
organizational culture could be more proximal
2010).
The transportability of HR practices across cultures is particularly salient for Multi
National Corporations (MNCs), which operate in different country cultures but need to maintain
congruence in their HR systems. In a study of subsidiaries of US MNCs in
countries, Gooderham, Nordhaug & Ringdal (2006)
cultural distance between the MNC country
harder it is to transfer HR practices. Although it is
the home country, it is the national culture, among others, that defines the accepted behaviors
and the practices that can be implemented in each context, such as rewards, overtime, work
during religious holidays, and others (Schuler, Dowling, & De Cieri, 1993).
If HPWS is seen as a source of potential competitive advantage for firms, the cross
cultural dimensions of the “best HR practices” need to be explored for replicating successful
HPWS in different contexts and cultures. Surprisingly however, researchers on HPWS do not
seem to have devoted adequate attention these issues. Although considerable progress has been
made in past years towards globalization of psychological measures used in HR systems
(Aguinis, Henley, & Ostroff, 2001; Cascio & Aguinis, 2008), the focus has mainly been on
developing culture-specific measures, and not on the cross cultural dimensions of HPWS.
DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE
One of the earliest significant attempts to study national
made by Geert Hofstede (1980, 1991), whose model has been the base of numerous studies in the
area of management research, due to its simplicity (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006).
Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions (Hofstede,
below:
POWER DISTANCE: Power Distance is the extent to which the members of society accept
unequal distribution of power. People in high Power Distance societies accept a hierarchical
order which needs no further justification for power inequalities. This affects the behavior of
both less powerful and more powerful members.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
INTERNATIONAL HRM AND CULTURE
he desirability of adopting HPWS for improved organizational performance,
the next question is whether the HR practices identified in a successful HPWS can be universally
applicable? A prudent answer must be in the negative. Internationalization of any HR
fraught with risks, given the cultural differentiation amongst nations and societies. Fuelled by the
imperatives of globalization, a separate and rich stream of research on International Management
has devoted considerable attention to cross-cultural differences amongst countries and their
impact on business practices and decision. This body of literature incorporates several
comparative HRM studies, which concluded that national culture is a decisive factor in shaping
oostuijn, & Sorge, 1996; Sparrow, Schuler, & Jackson, 1994).
In view of the now accepted HPWS – performance linkage, the crucial role of culture
becomes apparent. And culture being a multi-layered concept, it is not only the national culture
e salient in defining the attitudes, beliefs and practices of the employees, but
. It has been argued that where the corporate culture is not fully
embedded in the home country culture, such as for a Multi National corporation (MNC), the
more proximal to determining employees’ attitudes (Mittal,
The transportability of HR practices across cultures is particularly salient for Multi
National Corporations (MNCs), which operate in different country cultures but need to maintain
congruence in their HR systems. In a study of subsidiaries of US MNCs in some European
Gooderham, Nordhaug & Ringdal (2006) found that the greater the institutional and
cultural distance between the MNC country-of-origin and the host country of the subsidiary, the
harder it is to transfer HR practices. Although it is usual for HRM strategy to be formulated in
the home country, it is the national culture, among others, that defines the accepted behaviors
and the practices that can be implemented in each context, such as rewards, overtime, work
, and others (Schuler, Dowling, & De Cieri, 1993).
If HPWS is seen as a source of potential competitive advantage for firms, the cross
cultural dimensions of the “best HR practices” need to be explored for replicating successful
and cultures. Surprisingly however, researchers on HPWS do not
seem to have devoted adequate attention these issues. Although considerable progress has been
made in past years towards globalization of psychological measures used in HR systems
ley, & Ostroff, 2001; Cascio & Aguinis, 2008), the focus has mainly been on
specific measures, and not on the cross cultural dimensions of HPWS.
DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE
One of the earliest significant attempts to study national and organizational culture was
made by Geert Hofstede (1980, 1991), whose model has been the base of numerous studies in the
area of management research, due to its simplicity (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006).
Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede & Bond, 1988) are described
: Power Distance is the extent to which the members of society accept
unequal distribution of power. People in high Power Distance societies accept a hierarchical
justification for power inequalities. This affects the behavior of
both less powerful and more powerful members.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 3
he desirability of adopting HPWS for improved organizational performance,
the next question is whether the HR practices identified in a successful HPWS can be universally
applicable? A prudent answer must be in the negative. Internationalization of any HR practice is
fraught with risks, given the cultural differentiation amongst nations and societies. Fuelled by the
imperatives of globalization, a separate and rich stream of research on International Management
ltural differences amongst countries and their
impact on business practices and decision. This body of literature incorporates several
comparative HRM studies, which concluded that national culture is a decisive factor in shaping
oostuijn, & Sorge, 1996; Sparrow, Schuler, & Jackson, 1994).
performance linkage, the crucial role of culture
layered concept, it is not only the national culture
e salient in defining the attitudes, beliefs and practices of the employees, but also
. It has been argued that where the corporate culture is not fully
embedded in the home country culture, such as for a Multi National corporation (MNC), the
to determining employees’ attitudes (Mittal,
The transportability of HR practices across cultures is particularly salient for Multi
National Corporations (MNCs), which operate in different country cultures but need to maintain
some European
found that the greater the institutional and
origin and the host country of the subsidiary, the
usual for HRM strategy to be formulated in
the home country, it is the national culture, among others, that defines the accepted behaviors
and the practices that can be implemented in each context, such as rewards, overtime, work
If HPWS is seen as a source of potential competitive advantage for firms, the cross-
cultural dimensions of the “best HR practices” need to be explored for replicating successful
and cultures. Surprisingly however, researchers on HPWS do not
seem to have devoted adequate attention these issues. Although considerable progress has been
made in past years towards globalization of psychological measures used in HR systems
ley, & Ostroff, 2001; Cascio & Aguinis, 2008), the focus has mainly been on
specific measures, and not on the cross cultural dimensions of HPWS.
and organizational culture was
made by Geert Hofstede (1980, 1991), whose model has been the base of numerous studies in the
area of management research, due to its simplicity (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006).
1980; Hofstede & Bond, 1988) are described
: Power Distance is the extent to which the members of society accept
unequal distribution of power. People in high Power Distance societies accept a hierarchical
justification for power inequalities. This affects the behavior of
INDIVIDUALISM - COLLECTIVISM
social frame work in society, whereas Collectivism stan
social framework. The key issue is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among
individuals.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
society feel comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance societies
maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior. They protect conformity but are intolerant of
deviance. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain a more relaxed atmosphere and
deviance is more easily tolerated.
MASCULINITY - FEMININITY
achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material success. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a
preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak,
fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the way in which a society allocates social (as
opposed to biological) roles to the sexes.
LONG VERSUS SHORT TERM ORIENTATION
mode of the society. It focuses on the degree to which the society embraces long
to traditional, forward thinking values.
GLOBE CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) project, in a
multi-nation study of relationships between organizational leadership, societal and organizational
culture identified nine cultural dimensions (House, 2004)
(societal) and Collectivism-II (in
Future Orientation, Humane Orientation, Assertiveness, and Gender Egalitarianism. The first
three dimensions are similar to, and based on dimensions identified by Hofstede.
felt that Power Distance, Collectivism and Uncertainty
cultural dimensions. Propelled by this reasoning,
between culture and HPWS around these three major
HPWS PRACTICES
Although it is difficult to
should be part of an HPWS, a study of literature on the subject is suggestive of following
important HR practices which are involved in an HPWS:
Recruitment and selection: This would include metho
various categories of employees. These might be differentiated as internal and external methods
of recruitment, use of consultants and assessment centers etc. Recruitment practices are an
important component of HPWS (Gut
could influence the purpose, criteria and other aspects of recruitment and selection process
(Aycan, 2003).
Training and development: Extensive training & development has been identified as a
core component of high commitment work practices (Pfeffer, 1998). However, this HR practice
encompasses a wide array of activities such as training needs assessment, purpose and
importance of training, training methods etc. This would also include career managemen
practices such as use of formal career plans and succession plans.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
COLLECTIVISM: Individualism stands for a preference for a loosely knit
frame work in society, whereas Collectivism stands for a preference for a tightly knit
social framework. The key issue is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE: Uncertainty Avoidance is the degree to which members of a
ncertainty and ambiguity. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance societies
maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior. They protect conformity but are intolerant of
deviance. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain a more relaxed atmosphere and
re easily tolerated.
FEMININITY: Masculinity stands for a preference in society for
heroism, assertiveness, and material success. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a
relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, and the quality of life. The
fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the way in which a society allocates social (as
opposed to biological) roles to the sexes.
LONG VERSUS SHORT TERM ORIENTATION: This dimension deals with the temporal
society. It focuses on the degree to which the society embraces long
to traditional, forward thinking values.
GLOBE CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) project, in a
y of relationships between organizational leadership, societal and organizational
culture identified nine cultural dimensions (House, 2004); Power Distance, Collectivism
II (in-group), Uncertainty Avoidance, Performance Orientation,
Future Orientation, Humane Orientation, Assertiveness, and Gender Egalitarianism. The first
three dimensions are similar to, and based on dimensions identified by Hofstede.
Power Distance, Collectivism and Uncertainty Avoidance are the most universal of all
cultural dimensions. Propelled by this reasoning, this paper situates the framework of interaction
between culture and HPWS around these three major cultural dimensions.
Although it is difficult to exactly pinpoint and define the specific HR practices which
should be part of an HPWS, a study of literature on the subject is suggestive of following
important HR practices which are involved in an HPWS:
Recruitment and selection: This would include methods of recruitment and selection for
various categories of employees. These might be differentiated as internal and external methods
of recruitment, use of consultants and assessment centers etc. Recruitment practices are an
important component of HPWS (Guthrie, 2001). The HRM literature recognizes that culture
could influence the purpose, criteria and other aspects of recruitment and selection process
Training and development: Extensive training & development has been identified as a
ponent of high commitment work practices (Pfeffer, 1998). However, this HR practice
encompasses a wide array of activities such as training needs assessment, purpose and
importance of training, training methods etc. This would also include career managemen
practices such as use of formal career plans and succession plans.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 4
: Individualism stands for a preference for a loosely knit
ds for a preference for a tightly knit
social framework. The key issue is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among
: Uncertainty Avoidance is the degree to which members of a
ncertainty and ambiguity. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance societies
maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior. They protect conformity but are intolerant of
deviance. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain a more relaxed atmosphere and
: Masculinity stands for a preference in society for
heroism, assertiveness, and material success. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a
and the quality of life. The
fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the way in which a society allocates social (as
: This dimension deals with the temporal
society. It focuses on the degree to which the society embraces long-term devotion
The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) project, in a
y of relationships between organizational leadership, societal and organizational
Power Distance, Collectivism-I
Orientation,
Future Orientation, Humane Orientation, Assertiveness, and Gender Egalitarianism. The first
three dimensions are similar to, and based on dimensions identified by Hofstede. It is therefore
Avoidance are the most universal of all
framework of interaction
exactly pinpoint and define the specific HR practices which
should be part of an HPWS, a study of literature on the subject is suggestive of following
ds of recruitment and selection for
various categories of employees. These might be differentiated as internal and external methods
of recruitment, use of consultants and assessment centers etc. Recruitment practices are an
hrie, 2001). The HRM literature recognizes that culture
could influence the purpose, criteria and other aspects of recruitment and selection process
Training and development: Extensive training & development has been identified as a
ponent of high commitment work practices (Pfeffer, 1998). However, this HR practice
encompasses a wide array of activities such as training needs assessment, purpose and
importance of training, training methods etc. This would also include career management
Performance and reward management: The HRM literature supports a strong linkage
between performance management practices, as part of HPWS, and organizational performance
(den Hartog, Boselie, & Paauwe, 2004; Fletcher, 2001). These practices would include
performance appraisal mechanisms, compensation issues and reward systems.
Knowledge-sharing mechanisms and communication: HR practices dealing with the way
information is handled in an organization are one of the most important constituents of HPWS
(Messersmith & Guthrie, 2010; Preuss, 2003). These would include downward and upward
communication in an organization, joint consultative mechanisms etc.
DISCUSSION
A discussion of each cultura
practices follows. It may be mentioned that only those interactions are discussed, which were
considered salient enough to merit attention. The framework described here is far from
exhaustive, but only demonstrative of the approach
cultural differentiation of HPWS mechanisms.
POWER DISTANCE AND HPWS
Power distance is an important cultural dimension which directly affects people’s
attitudes and behaviors. Since it deals with the way a culture treats differential distribution of
power, power distance is expected to be significantly related to communication practices,
recruitment methods, PA and compensation systems, and importance assigned to training and
development activities. Some of these interactions are described below.
In high power distance societies
disdain – as individuals who need not have any meaningful voice in decisions and planning
functions which are supposed to be carried out by senior mangers high up in the power and
hierarchy chain. It directly follows that high power distance cultures would tend to prefer
impersonal and non-direct means of downward communication. Similarly, direct upward
communication practices would be discouraged. The same logic would dictate that unions, joint
consultative mechanisms and participatory management practices would not be preferred. This
line of reasoning can be expressed in the form of following proposition:
P1a: Direct downward or upward communication practices, as also employee
consultative mechanisms will not be the preferred communication practices in high
power distance societies
Choice of recruitment method is another area to be impacted by power distan
pointed out by Budhwar & Khatri (2001), high power distance cultures tend to place greater
importance on ascribed status and socio
Therefore, external sources of recruitment which focus on later are
societies.
P1b: High power distance societies would prefer to recruit managers internally, rather
than using external methods for recruitment.
The type of Performance appraisal (PA) system and its use is also expected to be d
related to power distance. There is some evidence that upward evaluations are likely to be
distorted in high power distance
Since HPD cultures foster low communication and disregard for sub
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
Performance and reward management: The HRM literature supports a strong linkage
between performance management practices, as part of HPWS, and organizational performance
lie, & Paauwe, 2004; Fletcher, 2001). These practices would include
performance appraisal mechanisms, compensation issues and reward systems.
sharing mechanisms and communication: HR practices dealing with the way
anization are one of the most important constituents of HPWS
(Messersmith & Guthrie, 2010; Preuss, 2003). These would include downward and upward
communication in an organization, joint consultative mechanisms etc.
each cultural dimension and how it might interact with different HPWS
It may be mentioned that only those interactions are discussed, which were
salient enough to merit attention. The framework described here is far from
nly demonstrative of the approach that could be adopted to understand the
cultural differentiation of HPWS mechanisms.
POWER DISTANCE AND HPWS
Power distance is an important cultural dimension which directly affects people’s
e it deals with the way a culture treats differential distribution of
power, power distance is expected to be significantly related to communication practices,
recruitment methods, PA and compensation systems, and importance assigned to training and
pment activities. Some of these interactions are described below.
In high power distance societies (HPD), managers tend to treat their subordinate with
as individuals who need not have any meaningful voice in decisions and planning
ich are supposed to be carried out by senior mangers high up in the power and
hierarchy chain. It directly follows that high power distance cultures would tend to prefer
direct means of downward communication. Similarly, direct upward
mmunication practices would be discouraged. The same logic would dictate that unions, joint
consultative mechanisms and participatory management practices would not be preferred. This
line of reasoning can be expressed in the form of following proposition:
P1a: Direct downward or upward communication practices, as also employee
consultative mechanisms will not be the preferred communication practices in high
Choice of recruitment method is another area to be impacted by power distan
pointed out by Budhwar & Khatri (2001), high power distance cultures tend to place greater
importance on ascribed status and socio-economic connections, rather than on merit alone.
Therefore, external sources of recruitment which focus on later are less likely to be used in HPD
P1b: High power distance societies would prefer to recruit managers internally, rather
than using external methods for recruitment.
The type of Performance appraisal (PA) system and its use is also expected to be d
related to power distance. There is some evidence that upward evaluations are likely to be
ed in high power distance societies (Mittal & Saran, 2010; Varela & Premeaux, 2008).
Since HPD cultures foster low communication and disregard for subordinates, performance
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 5
Performance and reward management: The HRM literature supports a strong linkage
between performance management practices, as part of HPWS, and organizational performance
lie, & Paauwe, 2004; Fletcher, 2001). These practices would include
sharing mechanisms and communication: HR practices dealing with the way
anization are one of the most important constituents of HPWS
(Messersmith & Guthrie, 2010; Preuss, 2003). These would include downward and upward
l dimension and how it might interact with different HPWS
It may be mentioned that only those interactions are discussed, which were
salient enough to merit attention. The framework described here is far from
to understand the
Power distance is an important cultural dimension which directly affects people’s
e it deals with the way a culture treats differential distribution of
power, power distance is expected to be significantly related to communication practices,
recruitment methods, PA and compensation systems, and importance assigned to training and
, managers tend to treat their subordinate with
as individuals who need not have any meaningful voice in decisions and planning –
ich are supposed to be carried out by senior mangers high up in the power and
hierarchy chain. It directly follows that high power distance cultures would tend to prefer
direct means of downward communication. Similarly, direct upward
mmunication practices would be discouraged. The same logic would dictate that unions, joint
consultative mechanisms and participatory management practices would not be preferred. This
P1a: Direct downward or upward communication practices, as also employee
consultative mechanisms will not be the preferred communication practices in high
Choice of recruitment method is another area to be impacted by power distance. As
pointed out by Budhwar & Khatri (2001), high power distance cultures tend to place greater
economic connections, rather than on merit alone.
less likely to be used in HPD
P1b: High power distance societies would prefer to recruit managers internally, rather
The type of Performance appraisal (PA) system and its use is also expected to be directly
related to power distance. There is some evidence that upward evaluations are likely to be
societies (Mittal & Saran, 2010; Varela & Premeaux, 2008).
ordinates, performance
appraisal practices incorporating evaluations by subordinates would not be encouraged.
Similarly, because the attitude of subordinates towards their bosses is of submissiveness and
servitude, self-appraisal practices would not be giv
practices in low power distance cultures. Multi
increasingly used in the context of HPWS (Church, 1997). But these may not be suitable in HPD
societies. The following proposition is offered
P1c: High power distance societies would not prefer multi
performance appraisal, in contrast to low power distance cultures.
Training and development is yet another important component of HPWS (Pfeffer, 199
Although, this HR practice encompa
management training, because of its importance in HPWS.
quality management training is bound to be perceived different
because the key characteristics of total quality management (TQM), such as emphasis on group
facilitation, employee empowerment and customer feedback (Reger, Gustafson, Demarie, &
Mullane, 1994) etc. are clearly incongruen
societies. It is therefore reasonable to expect
training in high power distance societies would be comparatively less.
following proposition is proposed
P1d: High Power distance societies would ascribe relatively less importance to quality
management training in an organization.
INDIVIDUALISM – COLLECTIVISM AND HPWS
Individualism characterizes a society where ties between individuals are loose; individual
responsibility is paramount. The individual expects to garner rewards based on achievement or
merit. People from individualistic societies prefer clarity in their co
more effectively. Employees are expected to defend their interests and to promote themselves
whenever possible. For this reason they would expect to maintain effective and clear
communication with their bosses, receive feedback a
favor direct communication practices, both downward and upward, to facilitate each individual
to achieve his goal. On the other hand, in collectivistic societies people are integrated into strong
cohesive in-group. Accolades, achievements, and rewards are due to the group, not to the
individual (Jung & Avolio, 1999). Members of collectivistic societies believe in the desirability
of rules, do not question leaders' decisions, and prefer to abide by convention unles
instructed (Gallois & Callan, 1997; Trompenaars, 1993).
between people in collectivistic societies could obviate the need to have formal communication
practices, whereas such practices are likely to be accorded
individualistic cultures. This would be in congruence with the HPWS arrangements.
P2a: Individualistic societies would favor well defined and effective channels of
multidirectional communication in organizations, in congr
arrangements.
Cultural attitudes towards recruitment and selection also differ. If
Vs external sources of recruitment for middle and senior
individualistic and collectivistic societies would have differing preferences for methods of
recruitment. The primary aim of recruiters in an individualistic society would be to get the “best”
person for the job, in terms of Knowledge, skills and ability.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
appraisal practices incorporating evaluations by subordinates would not be encouraged.
Similarly, because the attitude of subordinates towards their bosses is of submissiveness and
appraisal practices would not be given as much importance, as is given to such
practices in low power distance cultures. Multi-source feedback PA systems are being
increasingly used in the context of HPWS (Church, 1997). But these may not be suitable in HPD
proposition is offered:
P1c: High power distance societies would not prefer multi-source feedback system of
performance appraisal, in contrast to low power distance cultures.
Training and development is yet another important component of HPWS (Pfeffer, 199
, this HR practice encompasses a wide array of activities, this paper focuses on
management training, because of its importance in HPWS. It is argued that the importance of
quality management training is bound to be perceived differently in different cultures. This is
because the key characteristics of total quality management (TQM), such as emphasis on group
facilitation, employee empowerment and customer feedback (Reger, Gustafson, Demarie, &
Mullane, 1994) etc. are clearly incongruent with the practices prevalent in high power distance
It is therefore reasonable to expect that the importance given to quality management
training in high power distance societies would be comparatively less. Accordingly, the
ion is proposed:
P1d: High Power distance societies would ascribe relatively less importance to quality
management training in an organization.
COLLECTIVISM AND HPWS
Individualism characterizes a society where ties between individuals are loose; individual
responsibility is paramount. The individual expects to garner rewards based on achievement or
merit. People from individualistic societies prefer clarity in their conversations to communicate
more effectively. Employees are expected to defend their interests and to promote themselves
whenever possible. For this reason they would expect to maintain effective and clear
communication with their bosses, receive feedback and merit awards. These traits would seem to
favor direct communication practices, both downward and upward, to facilitate each individual
to achieve his goal. On the other hand, in collectivistic societies people are integrated into strong
p. Accolades, achievements, and rewards are due to the group, not to the
individual (Jung & Avolio, 1999). Members of collectivistic societies believe in the desirability
of rules, do not question leaders' decisions, and prefer to abide by convention unles
instructed (Gallois & Callan, 1997; Trompenaars, 1993). It is submitted that strong bonds
between people in collectivistic societies could obviate the need to have formal communication
practices, whereas such practices are likely to be accorded more prominence and importance in
individualistic cultures. This would be in congruence with the HPWS arrangements.
P2a: Individualistic societies would favor well defined and effective channels of
multidirectional communication in organizations, in congruence with HPWS
Cultural attitudes towards recruitment and selection also differ. If one consider
Vs external sources of recruitment for middle and senior-level managers, one would expect that
individualistic and collectivistic societies would have differing preferences for methods of
recruitment. The primary aim of recruiters in an individualistic society would be to get the “best”
person for the job, in terms of Knowledge, skills and ability. In order to have a wider choice, and
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 6
appraisal practices incorporating evaluations by subordinates would not be encouraged.
Similarly, because the attitude of subordinates towards their bosses is of submissiveness and
en as much importance, as is given to such
source feedback PA systems are being
increasingly used in the context of HPWS (Church, 1997). But these may not be suitable in HPD
source feedback system of
Training and development is yet another important component of HPWS (Pfeffer, 1998).
sses a wide array of activities, this paper focuses on quality
that the importance of
ly in different cultures. This is
because the key characteristics of total quality management (TQM), such as emphasis on group
facilitation, employee empowerment and customer feedback (Reger, Gustafson, Demarie, &
t with the practices prevalent in high power distance
that the importance given to quality management
Accordingly, the
P1d: High Power distance societies would ascribe relatively less importance to quality
Individualism characterizes a society where ties between individuals are loose; individual
responsibility is paramount. The individual expects to garner rewards based on achievement or
nversations to communicate
more effectively. Employees are expected to defend their interests and to promote themselves
whenever possible. For this reason they would expect to maintain effective and clear
nd merit awards. These traits would seem to
favor direct communication practices, both downward and upward, to facilitate each individual
to achieve his goal. On the other hand, in collectivistic societies people are integrated into strong
p. Accolades, achievements, and rewards are due to the group, not to the
individual (Jung & Avolio, 1999). Members of collectivistic societies believe in the desirability
of rules, do not question leaders' decisions, and prefer to abide by convention unless otherwise
that strong bonds
between people in collectivistic societies could obviate the need to have formal communication
more prominence and importance in
individualistic cultures. This would be in congruence with the HPWS arrangements.
P2a: Individualistic societies would favor well defined and effective channels of
uence with HPWS
considers internal
would expect that
individualistic and collectivistic societies would have differing preferences for methods of
recruitment. The primary aim of recruiters in an individualistic society would be to get the “best”
In order to have a wider choice, and
hence more chances of getting the right person, external methods of recruitment may be
preferred in an individualistic society. On the other hand, in collectivistic cultures organizations
are generally treated as a family and it is important for new appointees to easily integrate in the
existing networks. It is frequently difficult for externally recruited candidates to get into strong
social networks and overcome the resistance following their appointment (Björkman & L
1999). For this reason therefore, other things being equal, collectivistic cultures would tend to
prefer internal recruitment over external processes.
P2b: Collectivistic societies would prefer to recruit managers internally,
external methods for recruitment.
Individualism-collectivism also interacts with performance management practices. Given
the emphasis on group loyalty and subordination of individual goals to group, it is conceivable
that collectivistic societies may not prefer individual merit
of pay at individual level based on performance
western cultures. It can be argued
collectivistic societies needs to focus on teams rather than individuals, for a successful HPWS.
The following proposition is offered:
P2c: Collectivistic societies would prefer performance and reward management systems
which focus on group tasks and need
rewards
As regards training and development activities,
more closely associated with the type of culture embodied by TQM practices. TQM implies
teamwork, cross-functional cooperation, and employee cooperation and involvement at every
level of the organizations (Evans & Lindsay, 1999; Lau & Anderson, 1998). Given such a strong
link between ingredients of collectivistic culture and TQM,
collectivistic societies, with their high emphasis on group
consider the training on these issues more important than individualistic societies.
propostion is offered:
P2d: As compared to Individual
emphasis on quality management training.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE AND HPWS
The tolerance of societies for uncertainty has an impact on the way they deal with
communication practices in an organizational context. Societies, which are high in uncertainty
avoidance, are not comfortable with uncertain situations. Therefore, the communication practices
in such societies would seek to minimize uncertainty at every level in the organizations. This
means that direct communications, both downward and upward, would be favored, preferably
through a formalized interaction structure. They would also make use of multiple channels of
communication, such as email, management briefings etc. Similarly, commun
unions, could be formalized and the joint consultative mechanism more effective. Societies,
which are low in uncertainty avoidance, may not give much importance to formal methods of
communication. Being more open to unstructured ideas and inte
formalized structures for dialogue with employees.
P3a: Societies high in uncertain avoidance would place greater importance on formal
organizational communications, both downwards and upwards.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
hence more chances of getting the right person, external methods of recruitment may be
preferred in an individualistic society. On the other hand, in collectivistic cultures organizations
ily and it is important for new appointees to easily integrate in the
existing networks. It is frequently difficult for externally recruited candidates to get into strong
social networks and overcome the resistance following their appointment (Björkman & L
1999). For this reason therefore, other things being equal, collectivistic cultures would tend to
prefer internal recruitment over external processes. The following is proposed:
P2b: Collectivistic societies would prefer to recruit managers internally, rather than using
external methods for recruitment.
collectivism also interacts with performance management practices. Given
the emphasis on group loyalty and subordination of individual goals to group, it is conceivable
ocieties may not prefer individual merit-based reward system or determination
of pay at individual level based on performance – practices which are prevalent in HPWS in
It can be argued that the performance and reward management system in
collectivistic societies needs to focus on teams rather than individuals, for a successful HPWS.
The following proposition is offered:
P2c: Collectivistic societies would prefer performance and reward management systems
which focus on group tasks and needs, rather than on individuals for determining pay and
As regards training and development activities, it is suggested that collectivist culture is
more closely associated with the type of culture embodied by TQM practices. TQM implies
functional cooperation, and employee cooperation and involvement at every
level of the organizations (Evans & Lindsay, 1999; Lau & Anderson, 1998). Given such a strong
link between ingredients of collectivistic culture and TQM, it is reasonable to belie
collectivistic societies, with their high emphasis on group-centered activities and goals would
consider the training on these issues more important than individualistic societies.
P2d: As compared to Individualistic societies, Collectivistic societies would place greater
emphasis on quality management training.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE AND HPWS
The tolerance of societies for uncertainty has an impact on the way they deal with
organizational context. Societies, which are high in uncertainty
avoidance, are not comfortable with uncertain situations. Therefore, the communication practices
in such societies would seek to minimize uncertainty at every level in the organizations. This
means that direct communications, both downward and upward, would be favored, preferably
through a formalized interaction structure. They would also make use of multiple channels of
communication, such as email, management briefings etc. Similarly, communication with
unions, could be formalized and the joint consultative mechanism more effective. Societies,
which are low in uncertainty avoidance, may not give much importance to formal methods of
communication. Being more open to unstructured ideas and interactions, they may not need
formalized structures for dialogue with employees. The following is proposed:
P3a: Societies high in uncertain avoidance would place greater importance on formal
organizational communications, both downwards and upwards.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 7
hence more chances of getting the right person, external methods of recruitment may be
preferred in an individualistic society. On the other hand, in collectivistic cultures organizations
ily and it is important for new appointees to easily integrate in the
existing networks. It is frequently difficult for externally recruited candidates to get into strong
social networks and overcome the resistance following their appointment (Björkman & Lu,
1999). For this reason therefore, other things being equal, collectivistic cultures would tend to
rather than using
collectivism also interacts with performance management practices. Given
the emphasis on group loyalty and subordination of individual goals to group, it is conceivable
based reward system or determination
practices which are prevalent in HPWS in
that the performance and reward management system in
collectivistic societies needs to focus on teams rather than individuals, for a successful HPWS.
P2c: Collectivistic societies would prefer performance and reward management systems
s, rather than on individuals for determining pay and
that collectivist culture is
more closely associated with the type of culture embodied by TQM practices. TQM implies
functional cooperation, and employee cooperation and involvement at every
level of the organizations (Evans & Lindsay, 1999; Lau & Anderson, 1998). Given such a strong
it is reasonable to believe that
centered activities and goals would
consider the training on these issues more important than individualistic societies. The following
istic societies, Collectivistic societies would place greater
The tolerance of societies for uncertainty has an impact on the way they deal with
organizational context. Societies, which are high in uncertainty
avoidance, are not comfortable with uncertain situations. Therefore, the communication practices
in such societies would seek to minimize uncertainty at every level in the organizations. This
means that direct communications, both downward and upward, would be favored, preferably
through a formalized interaction structure. They would also make use of multiple channels of
ication with
unions, could be formalized and the joint consultative mechanism more effective. Societies,
which are low in uncertainty avoidance, may not give much importance to formal methods of
ractions, they may not need
P3a: Societies high in uncertain avoidance would place greater importance on formal
Let us now examine the likely impact of the cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance
on recruitment practices. Societies high in uncertainty avoidance (low tolerance for uncertainty)
would like to recruit people with a focus on abilities and potential, in orde
safeguard for future performance. They would prefer a recruitment process with high predictive
validity - which can reassure them that the new appointee was the best available performer, thus
reducing the uncertainty about the future outcome
societies with low tolerance for uncertainty could prefer external recruitment methods, such as
assessment centers for example, over internal recruitment practices. Accordingly,
is submitted:
P3b: Societies high in uncertainty avoidance would prefer to use external recruitment
practices with high predictive validity.
The impact of the cultural dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance on performance
management practices is expected to be minimal because su
increase or decrease in uncertainty. At a marginal level, however,
societies high in uncertainty avoidance would tend to use the PA system for a variety of
purposes, such as promotion, pay dete
because in an attempt to reduce uncertainty, decisions would seek to be taken with maximum
inputs in such cultures; the inputs provided by the PA system would be useful. Accordingly
following is proposed:
P3c: Societies high in uncertainty avoidance would place greater emphasis on the
importance given to various uses of a performance management system.
Extensive training & development has been identified as a core component of high
commitment work practices (Pfeffer, 1998). Though this field encompasses a wide array of
activities such as training needs assessment, purpose and importance of training, training
methods etc., this paper focuses on quality management training, because of its importa
HPWS. Examining this issue in the context of the culture dimension of uncertainty avoidance,
is argued that societies high in uncertainty avoidance would be more receptive to TQM since
they generally have a system of rules and procedures
societies would tend to assign greater importance to TQM training, than societies low in
uncertainty avoidance which have a more flexible and tolerant outlook.
proposition is offered:
P3d: Quality management trainin
avoidance societies than in low uncertainty avoidance cultures.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
In the preceding paragraphs
dimensions to some specific HR practices
HPWS seems to be negatively indicated in societies which are high in Power Distance and
Collectivism but low in Uncertainty Avoida
societies low in Power distance and Collectivism but high in Uncertainty avoidance
Scandinavian countries, could be good candidates for HPWS. However, the framework
suggested in this paper can be use
and design culture-specific HPWS packages for greater acceptance and efficacy
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
High Performance Work Systems, Page
now examine the likely impact of the cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance
on recruitment practices. Societies high in uncertainty avoidance (low tolerance for uncertainty)
would like to recruit people with a focus on abilities and potential, in order to provide a
safeguard for future performance. They would prefer a recruitment process with high predictive
which can reassure them that the new appointee was the best available performer, thus
reducing the uncertainty about the future outcome. This line of reasoning would indicate that
societies with low tolerance for uncertainty could prefer external recruitment methods, such as
assessment centers for example, over internal recruitment practices. Accordingly,
Societies high in uncertainty avoidance would prefer to use external recruitment
practices with high predictive validity.
The impact of the cultural dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance on performance
management practices is expected to be minimal because such practices do not directly relate to
increase or decrease in uncertainty. At a marginal level, however, it could be argued that
societies high in uncertainty avoidance would tend to use the PA system for a variety of
purposes, such as promotion, pay determination and assessment of training needs. This is
because in an attempt to reduce uncertainty, decisions would seek to be taken with maximum
inputs in such cultures; the inputs provided by the PA system would be useful. Accordingly
P3c: Societies high in uncertainty avoidance would place greater emphasis on the
importance given to various uses of a performance management system.
Extensive training & development has been identified as a core component of high
work practices (Pfeffer, 1998). Though this field encompasses a wide array of
activities such as training needs assessment, purpose and importance of training, training
on quality management training, because of its importa
HPWS. Examining this issue in the context of the culture dimension of uncertainty avoidance,
that societies high in uncertainty avoidance would be more receptive to TQM since
they generally have a system of rules and procedures – a prerequisite of TQM. Thus such
societies would tend to assign greater importance to TQM training, than societies low in
uncertainty avoidance which have a more flexible and tolerant outlook. The following
P3d: Quality management training would be given more importance in high uncertainty
avoidance societies than in low uncertainty avoidance cultures.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
In the preceding paragraphs an effort has been made to relate the major cultural
HR practices that are considered to be a part of HPWS.
negatively indicated in societies which are high in Power Distance and
Collectivism but low in Uncertainty Avoidance, such as India or China. On the other hand,
societies low in Power distance and Collectivism but high in Uncertainty avoidance
uld be good candidates for HPWS. However, the framework
suggested in this paper can be used by HR practitioners to evaluate the culture-HR interaction
specific HPWS packages for greater acceptance and efficacy.
Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies
rmance Work Systems, Page 8
now examine the likely impact of the cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance
on recruitment practices. Societies high in uncertainty avoidance (low tolerance for uncertainty)
r to provide a
safeguard for future performance. They would prefer a recruitment process with high predictive
which can reassure them that the new appointee was the best available performer, thus
. This line of reasoning would indicate that
societies with low tolerance for uncertainty could prefer external recruitment methods, such as
assessment centers for example, over internal recruitment practices. Accordingly, the following
Societies high in uncertainty avoidance would prefer to use external recruitment
The impact of the cultural dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance on performance
ch practices do not directly relate to
it could be argued that
societies high in uncertainty avoidance would tend to use the PA system for a variety of
rmination and assessment of training needs. This is
because in an attempt to reduce uncertainty, decisions would seek to be taken with maximum
inputs in such cultures; the inputs provided by the PA system would be useful. Accordingly the
P3c: Societies high in uncertainty avoidance would place greater emphasis on the
Extensive training & development has been identified as a core component of high
work practices (Pfeffer, 1998). Though this field encompasses a wide array of
activities such as training needs assessment, purpose and importance of training, training
on quality management training, because of its importance in
HPWS. Examining this issue in the context of the culture dimension of uncertainty avoidance, it
that societies high in uncertainty avoidance would be more receptive to TQM since
equisite of TQM. Thus such
societies would tend to assign greater importance to TQM training, than societies low in
The following
g would be given more importance in high uncertainty
to relate the major cultural
considered to be a part of HPWS. Prima facie,
negatively indicated in societies which are high in Power Distance and
nce, such as India or China. On the other hand,
societies low in Power distance and Collectivism but high in Uncertainty avoidance, such as
uld be good candidates for HPWS. However, the framework
HR interaction
.
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