HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR

«Her tercih bir vazgeçiştir»

Abdullah DEMİR, Yrd. Doç. Dr.

VERİMLİLİK VE KIYASLAMALAR

What is an EPA rating?

Conditions

Drive cycle: e.g. city or highway cycle, real-world, or constant speed

Test temperature

Start: (warm or cold) Fuel: convert to gasoline-equivalent

Test mass: (accounts for passengers and cargo)

MPGe rating

PHEV’s

Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The fuel economy of conventional vehicles is evaluated by fuel consumption (liters) per 100 km, or miles per gallon. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency sets the methods for fuel economy certification. There are usually two numbers, one for city driving and one for highway driving. There is an additional fuel economy number that evaluates the combined fuel economy by combining the 55% city and 45% highway MPG numbers [6–8]:

For pure EVs, the fuel economy is best described by electricity consumption for a certain range, for example, watt hour/mile or kWh/100 km. For example, a typical passenger car consumes 120–250 Wh/mile. In order to compare the fuel efficiency of EVs with conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles, the energy content of gasoline is used to convert the numbers. Since 1 gallon of gasoline contains 33.7 kWh energy (http://www.eere.doe.gov), the equivalent fuel economy of an EV can be expressed as

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Therefore, a passenger car that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have an equivalent gasoline mileage of 140 MPG from the energy point of view.

Notlar: MPG = mil/gal 1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK) 1 gal = 3,78 litre (US) 1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal = 158,99 litre (ham petrol) [US] 1 mil= 1609 m

Avrupa: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Yeni Avrupa Sürüş Çevrimi) 40 saniye rölanti periyotsuzdur. Ölçüm motor çalıştırıldıktan hemen sonra başlar.

Özellikler: Çevrim uzunluğu : 11,007 km Ortalama hız : 33.6 km/h Maks. hız : 120 km/h

Çevrim: Bir taşıtın belli bir mesafeyi belli hız ve viteslerde katetmesidir.

EK NOTLAR: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Yeni Avrupa Sürüş Çevrimi)

EK NOTLAR: YAKIT TÜKETİMİ ÖLÇME Yakıt tüketim testleri/değerleri, genellikle 2004/3/EC ile düzeltilmiş AB Direktifi 80/1268/EEC'ye göre yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca AB’nin RL 1999/100/CE normuna göre de değerler verilmektedir. Araçların teknik özelliklerinin belirtildiği broşür ya da kullanıcı el kitaplarındaki şehir içi, şehir dışı ve ortalama yakıt tüketim değerlerinin hangi direktiflere göre tespit edildiği genellikle ilgili bölümde dipnot olarak belirtilmektedir.

80/1268/EEC direktifi yakıt tüketimi değerleri: Laboratuar ortamında ve belirli koşullarda yapılan testlerde elde edilen, l/100 km mertebesinde sonuçları göstermektedir. Bu direktife göre: Şehir içi yakıt tüketimi, laboratuar ortamında soğuktan çalıştırılmış motor ile 4 km'lik teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 50 km/h ve ortalama 19 km/h hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerlerdir. Şehir dışı yakıt tüketimi ise şehir içi ölçümünden hemen sonra gerçekleştirilen, 7 km'lik teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 120 km/h hıza ulaşacak şekilde, yarı zamanlı sabit hız ve yarı zamanlı değişken hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerleridir. Birleşik/Karma tüketim değeri ise şehir içi ve şehir dışı testlerinin kat edilen mesafe ölçüsüyle ağırlıklı ortalaması alınarak hesaplanmaktadır. Karma yakıt tüketimi; otomobil yaklaşık %37 normal şehir içi trafikte ve yaklaşık %63 şehir dışı trafikte kullanılarak elde edilir.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Well-to-Wheel Efficiency

The above fuel efficiencies are also called tank-to-wheel efficiencies. This does not reflect the losses during the refining and distribution. It is sometimes easier to compare the overall fuel efficiencies of conventional vehicles and EVs. For gasoline, this efficiency is 83%, which reflects a lumped efficiency from the refining and distribution of gasoline. For electricity generation, this efficiency is 30.3%, which reflects a lumped efficiency that includes electricity generation of 32.8% (assume electricity is generated from gasoline) and distribution of electricity at 92.4%. Charge efficiency of the battery also needs to be reflected [9]. Thus,

where ηelectricity =30.3 and ηgasoline =83%, and subscript ICEV stands for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle.

Example 4: A car of 30 MPG will have a well-to-wheel fuel efficiency of 24 MPG, and an EV that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have a well-to-wheel efficiency of 42.5 MPG.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

PHEV Fuel Economy

For PHEVs, it is usually confusing as to which number should be used. Here, we discuss two different scenarios: all-electric capable PHEVs and blended PHEVs. For all-electric capable PHEVs, it is useful to indicate the electric range, in miles or kilometers, and associated energy consumption during that range, in kilowatt hours/mile, and potentially gas equivalent MPG. Another set of numbers is needed to show the MPG during CS mode driving. A suggested label is shown in Figure 4. For blended PHEVs, since there is no pure electric driving range, it is useful to label the fuel economy in CD and CS mode separately as shown in Figure 5. It may be preferred to include the electric energy consumption during CD mode as well.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

PHEV Fuel Economy

Figure 4: Fuel economy labeling for all-electric-capable PHEV

Figure 5: Fuel economy labeling for blended PHEV

Energy Loss : City Driving

Engine Loss 76%

Engine

Standby 8%

Driveline Losses

3%

Driveline

Aero 3%

Rolling 4%

Braking 6%

Fuel Tank 100%

16% 13%

POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related

Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance / 2005 3 L Toyota Camry

Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009

Energy Loss : Highway Driving

Engine Loss 77%

Engine

Standby 0%

Driveline Losses

4%

Driveline

Aero 10%

Rolling 7%

Braking 2%

Fuel Tank: 100%

23% 19%

POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related

Highway Drive Cycle Energy Balance / 2005 3 L Toyota Camry

Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009

•Can eliminate engine entirely

•Engine downsizing •Decoupling of engine and wheel

Energy Saving : Hybrid Systems

Engine Loss 76%

Engine

Standby 8%

Driveline Losses

3%

Driveline

Aero 3%

Rolling 4%

Braking 6%

Fuel Tank: 100%

16% 13%

Micro Hybrid Eliminates

Mild Hybrid Reduces Plug-in

Full Hybrid Reduces

Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009

Energy Loss : City Driving – Electric Vehicle

Motor Loss 10%

Motor

Driveline Losses

14%

Driveline

Aero 29%

Rolling 35%

Braking 11%

Batteries 100%

90% 76%

POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related

Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance

Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009

Well-to-Wheels Efficiency

Generation 33%

Transmission 94%

Plug-to-Wheels 76%

Refining 82%

Transmission 98%

Pump-to-Wheels 16%

23%

13%

31%

80%

Well-to-Tank Tank-to-Wheels

31% 76% = 23%

80% 16% = 13%

[http://www.nesea.org/]]

Source: http://www.nesea.org

Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009

Prof . Dr . Ali Sürmen, "Ulaşımda Unutulmaması Gereken Bir Boyut: Taşıt Teknolojileri", Mimar ve Mühendis - Gelişmenin Lokomotifi Ulaşım Sistemleri, Sayı: 82 Mart - Nisan 2015

Verimlilik

EV vs. ICEV Well-to-Wheel

Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

Well-to-Wheel

http://no-petroleum-vehicles.blogspot.com.tr/2010/10/10-electric-car-for-2010-and-2011-1.html

EVs are the most efficient propulsion technology and can reduce CO2-emissions in transport

Note: BEV: Battery Electric Vehicle; RME: Raps-Methyl-Ester / Source: Own calculations and LBST

Efficiency and Emissions of Different Propulsion Technologies

Em

issio

ns i

n G

HG

-Eq

uiv

ale

nts

(in

g/

km

)

Efficiency (Well-to-Wheel Analysis)

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

0

50

100

250

300

350

150

200

Coal-to-

Liquid

ICE

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Bio-diesel (RME)

Biofuels

Less e

mis

sio

ns

More efficient

Battery Electric Vehicle (Wind)

Plug-In Hybrid

(EU mix)

BEV (EU mix) Plug-In Hybrid

(Wind)

Electric Cars – Vehicles of the Future? Patrick Plötz, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, SÜD Heidelberg, November 2011

The future of alternative fuels – various technologies for different applications

high

distance

Vehicle weight

low

Short trips (city) Long trips (highway)

City LDVs

Electro cycle

2nd car

Long range public transport Public

transport

transportation

Everyday use

acceptance

Battery vehicle

Plug-in hybrids

Fuel cell vehicles

2nd generation biofuels

safety

Energy density

Economy of fuel

challenges

Economy of propulsion system

Electric Cars – Vehicles of the Future? Patrick Plötz, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, SÜD Heidelberg, November 2011

Challenges Why don’t they catch on? A conspiracy?

Gasoline: The (almost) perfect fuel

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density

Energy Equivalency

135 MJ of energy

21 Li-ion batteries (Car battery size)

2.7 kg

340 kg

Gas 1 Gallon

Batteries

54 gal

Challenges

Limited Range

Large battery weight/size

Long charge times

High initial cost

Battery life

Consumer acceptance

Grid Integration

Operating Costs

In Europe, $60/barrel oil is enough,

In the US, $4/gal gas is needed to be price competitive

Addressing customer perception

Accepting limited range

Most people drive less than 40 mi/day

Most cars are parked 23 hours of the day anyway

Smaller vehicles & reduced performance

In the last 30 years, nearly 100% of efficiency improvements have gone to increasing vehicle size and performance, not reducing consumption

How do you get people to charge at the right time?

Source: On the Road in 2035, Heywood, et.al.

Konvansiyonel Yakıtlar ile

Kıyaslama ve Hesaplaman

Operating Costs

On-board energy consumption 300 Wh/mile

Charging Efficiency 90%

Electricity consumption 333 Wh/mile

Electricity Cost 10 cents/mile

Driving Cost (electricity only) 3.3 cents/mile

Fuel economy 25 MPG

Fuel Cost $2.00/gallon

Driving Cost (fuel only) 8.0 cents/mile

Conventional Gasoline Vehicle

Battery Electric Vehicle

At 15,000 miles/year, you

would save $700/year on

fuel

The estimated price range

for advanced batteries is

$500 - $1,000 per kWh

~ buying 1 kWh of battery

energy (~3 miles of electric

range) each year

CO2 Emissions

Elektrikli Araç Akü kapasitesi 24 kWh (İyi durumda batarya) (0.25kWh/kg) Elektrik Motor verimi (ortalama): %85 Tekerleğe aktarılan enerji: 20.4 kWh Düz yolda ortalama güç: 20.4 kW Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 130 km

Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

Benzinli Araç Depo hacmi: 45 l Özgül Ağırlık: 0.75 kg/l Benzin ağırlığı: 33.75 kg Benzin enerji yoğunluğu: 45MJ/kg Toplam enerji yaklaşık: 1520MJ= 422kWh Tekerleğe aktarılan (verim %20 kabul edilerek): 84.4 kWh Düz yolda ortalama güç : 20.4 kW Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 537 km (EV den yaklaşık 4 kat fazla)

Benzinli Araç Enerji Tüketimi = Ortalama Tüketim x Enerji Yoğunluğu Enerji Tüketimi = 0.076 l/km x 32 MJ/l = 2.4 MJ/km = 0.667 kWh/km Mekanik Verim %20 alınırsa: 2.4 MJ/km x 0.2 = 0.48 MJ/km

Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

Elektrikli Araç Doldurma/boşaltma verimi: %86 Elektrik motoru verimi (ortalama): %85 Enerji tüketimi: 0.48 MJ/km/ (0.85 x 0.86) = 0.65 MJ/km Geri kazanımlı frenleme ile enerji tüketimi bir miktar azalacaktır.

ELEKTRİKLİ ARACIN EKONOMİKLİĞİ

Fatura Bilgisi: 139 kWh =37,8 TL (1 kWh = 0,27 TL); Tarih: 20/11/2010

OTOPARKTA ŞARJ Evimizde 6.04 kWh/gün = 6.04 kWh/gün x 365=2204 kWh/yıl Elektrikli araç: 2204 kWh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için 11.000 km = 600 TL Otopark ücreti: 100 şarj/yıl x 5 TL/gün = 500 TL Hizmet Bedeli: 100 şarj/yıl x 2,5 TL/gün = 250 TL Toplam: 1350 TL Benzinli araç: Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL

Yaklaşık %100 tasarruf

EVDE ŞARJ Elektrikli araç: 2204 kWh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için 11.000 km = 600 TL + 200 TL sanayi farkı Toplam: 800 TL Benzinli araç: Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL

Yaklaşık %280 tasarruf

Looking Forward

Tipping point will be ~2020 when 10% of vehicles sold will be BEV’s

Battery cost: ~$700-$1,500 / kWh, down to $420 by 2015, but still too high.

Price Premium PHEV40 $11,800 > ICE

EV100 $24,100 > ICE

Long-term PHEV’s will beat out HEV’s

PHEV’s likely to dominate BEVs

A 30-50% reduction in fuel consumption by 2035 *Heywood

47% reduction by 2030 *McKinsey Source: McKinsey Quarterly: Electrifying Cars: How three industries will evolve ; http://newenergynews.blogspot.com/2009/08/mckinsey-looks-at-coming-ev-phenomenon.html