Maxham daguerreotype of Henry David Thoreaumade in 1856

Born July 12, 1817Concord, Massachusetts

Died May 6, 1862 (aged 44)Concord, Massachusetts

Era 19th century philosophy

Region Western Philosophy

School Transcendentalism

Main interests Natural history, Unitarianism

Notable ideas Abolitionism, tax resistance,development criticism, civildisobedience, conscientiousobjection, direct action,environmentalism, anarchism,simple living

Signature

Henry David Thoreau

Henry David ThoreauFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817 May 6, 1862) was an Americanauthor, poet, philosopher, freemason, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister,development critic, surveyor, historian, and leading transcendentalist.[1]

He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living innatural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument forindividual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjuststate.

Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his writings on naturalhistory and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings ofecology and environmental history, two sources of modern dayenvironmentalism. His literary style interweaves close naturalobservation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings,and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophicalausterity, and "Yankee" love of practical detail.[2] He was also deeplyinterested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historicalchange, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoningwaste and illusion in order to discover life's true essential needs.[2]

He was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked theFugitive Slave Law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips anddefending abolitionist John Brown. Thoreau's philosophy of civildisobedience later influenced the political thoughts and actions of suchnotable figures as Leo Tolstoy, Mohandas Gandhi, and Martin LutherKing, Jr.

Thoreau is sometimes cited as an anarchist,[3] though Civil Disobedienceseems to call for improving rather than abolishing government"I askfor, not at once no government, but at once a better government"[4]thedirection of this improvement points toward anarchism: "'Thatgovernment is best which governs not at all;' and when men are preparedfor it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."[4]

Richard Drinnon partly blames Thoreau for the ambiguity, noting thatThoreau's "sly satire, his liking for wide margins for his writing, and hisfondness for paradox provided ammunition for widely divergentinterpretations of 'Civil Disobedience.'"[5]

Thoreau is also known for being the inventor of raisin bread.[6]

Early life and education

He was born David Henry Thoreau[7] in Concord, Massachusetts, into the "modest New England family"[8] of JohnThoreau (a pencil maker) and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was of French origin and was born in Jersey.[9] Hismaternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led Harvard's 1766 student "Butter Rebellion",[10] the first recorded student protest inthe Colonies.[11] David Henry was named after a recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He did not become"Henry David" until after college, although he never petitioned to make a legal name change.[12] He had two older siblings,Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.[13] Thoreau's birthplace still exists on Virginia Road in Concord and iscurrently the focus of preservation efforts. The house is original, but it now stands about 100 yards away from its first site.

Thoreau studied at Harvard University between 1833 and 1837. He lived in Hollis Hall and took courses in rhetoric,classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. A legend proposes that Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for aHarvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it tograduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or

Influenced by

Influenced

Portrait of Thoreau from 1854

inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college."[14] Hiscomment was: "Let every sheep keep its own skin",[15] a reference to the traditionof diplomas being written on sheepskin vellum.

Name pronunciation and appearance

Amos Bronson Alcott and Thoreau's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau" is pronouncedlike the word "thorough". Although in current media (standard American English)this word rhymes with "furrow",[16][17] Edward Emerson wrote that the nameshould be pronounced "Th-row, the h sounded, and accent on the first syllable."[18]This would in fact rhyme with "thorough" as pronounced in 19th century NewEngland.

In appearance he was homely, with a nose that he called "my most prominentfeature."[19] Of his face, Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote: "[Thoreau] is as ugly as sin,long-nosed, queer-mouthed, and with uncouth and rustic, though courteous manners,corresponding very well with such an exterior. But his ugliness is of an honest andagreeable fashion, and becomes him much better than beauty."[20] Thoreau alsowore a neck-beard for many years, which he insisted many women found attractive.[21] However, Louisa May Alcottmentioned to Ralph Waldo Emerson that Thoreau's facial hair "will most assuredly deflect amorous advances and preservethe man's virtue in perpetuity."[21]

Return to Concord: 18361842

The traditional professions open to college graduateslaw, the church, business, medicinefailed to interest Thoreau,[22]:25 so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught school in Canton, Massachusetts. Afterhe graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but resigned after a few weeks rather thanadminister corporal punishment.[22]:25 He and his brother John then opened a grammar school in Concord in 1838 calledConcord Academy.[22]:25 They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shopsand businesses. The school ended when John became fatally ill from tetanus in 1842[23] after cutting himself while shaving.He died in his brother Henry's arms.[24]

Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson through a mutual friend.[8]

Emerson took a paternal and at times patronizing interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to acircle of local writers and thinkers, including Ellery Channing, Margaret Fuller, Bronson Alcott, Nathaniel Hawthorne andhis son Julian Hawthorne, who was a boy at the time.

Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, The Dial, and Emerson lobbied editorMargaret Fuller to publish those writings. Thoreau's first essay published there was Aulus Persius Flaccus, an essay on theplaywright of the same name, published in The Dial in July 1840.[25] It consisted of revised passages from his journal,which he had begun keeping at Emerson's suggestion. The first journal entry on October 22, 1837, reads, "'What are youdoing now?' he asked. 'Do you keep a journal?' So I make my first entry to-day."[26]

Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followedTranscendentalism, a loose and eclectic idealist philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that anideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personalintuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radicalcorrespondence of visible things and human thoughts," as Emerson wrote in Nature (1836).

On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the Emerson house.[27] There, from 18411844, he served as the children's tutor,editorial assistant, and repair man/gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on StatenIsland,[28] and tutored the family sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might helppublish his writings, including his future literary representative Horace Greeley.[29]:68

Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's pencil factory, which he continued to do for most of his adult life.He rediscovered the process to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite by using clay as the binder; this inventionimproved upon graphite found in New Hampshire and bought in 1821 by relative Charles Dunbar. (The process of mixing

1967 U.S. postage stamphonoring Thoreau

Original title page of Waldenfeaturing a picture drawn byThoreau's sister Sophia

graphite and clay, known as the Cont process, was patented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont in1795). His other source had been Tantiusques, an Indian operated mine in Sturbridge,Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the factory to produce plumbago (graphite), whichwas used to ink typesetting machines.[30]

Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and hisfriend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed 300 acres (1.2 km2) of WaldenWoods.[31] He spoke often of finding a farm to buy or lease, which he felt would give him ameans to support himself while also providing enough solitude to write his firstbook.[citation needed]

Civil Disobedience and the Walden years: 18451849

I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only theessential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not,when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live whatwas not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless itwas quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life,to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cuta broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to itslowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole andgenuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it weresublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it inmy next excursion.

Henry David Thoreau, Walden, "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For"[32]

Thoreau needed to concentrate and get himself working more on his writing. In March1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there beginthe grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope foryou."[33] Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in simple livingon July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small, self-built house on land owned by Emerson ina second-growth forest around the shores of Walden Pond. The house was in "a prettypasture and woodlot" of 14 acres (57,000 m2) that Emerson had bought,[34] 1.5 miles(2.4 km) from his family home.[35]

On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local tax collector, Sam Staples, whoasked him to pay six years of delinquent poll taxes. Thoreau refused because of hisopposition to the Mexican-American War and slavery, and he spent a night in jail becauseof this refusal. (The next day Thoreau was freed, against his wishes, when his aunt paid histaxes.[36]) The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848,he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation toGovernment"[37] explaining his tax resistance at the Concord Lyceum. Bronson Alcottattended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26:

Heard Thoreau's lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State an admirablestatement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions tothe Mexican War, to Mr. Hoar's expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail forrefusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar's payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were allpertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau's.

Bronson Alcott, Journals (1938)[38]

Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay entitled Resistance to Civil Government (also known as Civil Disobedience). InMay 1849 it was published by Elizabeth Peabody in the Aesthetic Papers. Thoreau had taken up a version of PercyShelley's principle in the political poem The Mask of Anarchy (1819), that Shelley begins with the powerful images of theunjust forms of authority of his timeand then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.[39]

At Walden Pond, he completed a first draft of A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, an elegy to his brother, John,that described their 1839 trip to the White Mountains. Thoreau did not find a publisher for this book and instead printed1,000 copies at his own expense, though fewer than 300 were sold.[27]:234 Thoreau self-published on the advice of

Henry David Thoreau, taken August1861

Emerson, using Emerson's own publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book.

In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to Mount Katahdin in Maine, a journey later recorded in"Ktaadn," the first part of The Maine Woods.

Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.[27]:244 At Emerson's request, he immediately moved back into theEmerson house to help Lidian manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe.[40] Overseveral years, he worked to pay off his debts and also continuously revised his manuscript for what, in 1854, he wouldpublish as Walden, or Life in the Woods, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond.The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of four seasons to symbolize humandevelopment. Part memoir and part spiritual quest, Walden at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as aclassic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and culturalconditions.

American poet Robert Frost wrote of Thoreau, "In one book ... he surpasses everything we have had in America."[41]

John Updike wrote in 2004,

A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature,preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect acrank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible.[42]

Thoreau moved out of Emerson's house in July 1848 and stayed at a home on Belknap Street nearby. In 1850, he and hisfamily moved into a home at 255 Main Street; he stayed there until his death.[43]

Later years: 18511862

In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with natural history andtravel/expedition narratives. He read avidly on botany and often wrote observationson this topic into his journal. He admired William Bartram, and Charles Darwin'sVoyage of the Beagle. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore,recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depthsof Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to"anticipate" the seasons of nature, in his words.[44][45]

He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed naturalhistory observations about the 26 square miles (67 km2) township in his journal, atwo-million word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks,and these observations became the source for Thoreau's late natural history writings,such as Autumnal Tints, The Succession of Trees, and Wild Apples, an essaylamenting the destruction of indigenous and wild apple species.

Until the 1970s, literary critics dismissed Thoreau's late pursuits as amateur scienceand philosophy. With the rise of environmental history and ecocriticism, several newreadings of this matter began to emerge, showing Thoreau to be both a philosopherand an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots. For instance, his lateessay, "The Succession of Forest Trees," shows that he used experimentation andanalysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, throughdispersal by seed-bearing winds or animals.

He traveled to Quebec once, Cape Cod four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books,A Yankee in Canada, Cape Cod, and The Maine Woods, in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography,history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to Philadelphia and New York City in 1854, and west across theGreat Lakes region in 1861, visiting Niagara Falls, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Mackinac Island.[46]

Although provincial in his physical travels, he was extraordinarily well-read and vicariously a world traveler. He obsessivelydevoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth werebeing explored. He read Magellan and James Cook, the arctic explorers Franklin, Mackenzie and Parry, David Livingstoneand Richard Francis Burton on Africa, Lewis and Clark; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literatetravelers.[47] Astonishing amounts of global reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and

Walden Pond

natural history of the world, and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything heread, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like atraveler."[48]

After John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves fromBrown, or damned him with faint praise. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a speechA Plea for CaptainJohn Brownwhich was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau's speech proved persuasive: firstthe abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the American Civil War entire armies ofthe North were literally singing Brown's praises. As a contemporary biographer of John Brown put it: "If, as Alfred Kazinsuggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the ConcordTranscendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact."[49]

Death

Thoreau contracted tuberculosis in 1835 and suffered from it sporadicallyafterwards. In 1859, following a late night excursion to count the rings of treestumps during a rain storm, he became ill with bronchitis. His health declinedover three years with brief periods of remission, until he eventually becamebedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent hislast years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly The MaineWoods and Excursions, and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of AWeek and Walden. He also wrote letters and journal entries until he became tooweak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance andwere fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisaasked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreauresponded: "I did not know we had ever quarreled."[50]

Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and"Indian".[51] He died on May 6, 1862 at age 44. Bronson Alcott planned the service and read selections from Thoreau'sworks, and Channing presented a hymn.[52] Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at his funeral.[53] Originally buried in theDunbar family plot, he and members of his immediate family were eventually moved to Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (N42 27'53.7" W71 20' 33") in Concord, Massachusetts.

Thoreau's friend Ellery Channing published his first biography, Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist, in 1873, and Channing andanother friend Harrison Blake edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s.Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, werefirst published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation. A new, expanded edition of the journals is underway,published by Princeton University Press. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for themodern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by theinternational Thoreau Society.

Thoreau family gravesat Sleepy HollowCemetery

Replica of Thoreau'scabin

Site of Thoreau's cabin Site of Thoreau's cabin

Personal beliefs

"Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positivehindrances to the elevation of mankind."

Thoreau memorial at Library Way,New York City

Thoreau's famous quote, near his cabin siteat Walden Pond

A bust of Thoreau from the Hall ofFame for Great Americans at theBronx Community College

Thoreau[54]

Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and canoeing, of conservingnatural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land.Thoreau was also one of the first American supporters of Darwin's theory ofevolution. He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet[55]

and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in Walden: "Thepractical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, whenI had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to havefed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it cameto. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble andfilth."[56]

Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead hesought a middle ground, the pastoral realm that integrates both nature andculture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitration between thewilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of North Americanhumanity. He decried the latter endlessly but felt the teachers need to be closeto those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. He was in many waysa 'visible saint', a point of contact with the wilds, even if the land he lived onhad been given to him by Emerson and was far from cut-off. The wildness heenjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred "partially cultivatedcountry." His idea of being "far in the recesses of the wilderness" of Maine wasto "travel the logger's path and the Indian trail," but he also hiked on pristineuntouched land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" RoderickNash writes: "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips tonorthern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with realwilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of thewoods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity ofbalance."[57] On alcohol, Thoreau wrote: "I would fain keep sober always... I believe that water is the only drink for a wiseman; wine is not so noble a liquor... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"[56]

Social and political influence

"Thoreau's careful observations and devastating conclusions have rippled intotime, becoming stronger as the weaknesses Thoreau noted have become morepronounced ... Events that seem to be completely unrelated to his stay atWalden Pond have been influenced by it, including the national park system,the British labor movement, the creation of India, the civil rights movement,the hippie revolution, the environmental movement, and the wildernessmovement. Today, Thoreau's words are quoted with feeling by liberals,socialists, anarchists, libertarians, and conservatives alike."

Ken Kifer[58]

Thoreau's political writings had little impact during his lifetime, as "hiscontemporaries did not see him as a theorist or as a radical, viewing him instead as anaturalist. They either dismissed or ignored his political essays, including CivilDisobedience. The only two complete books (as opposed to essays) published in hislifetime, Walden and A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849), bothdealt with nature, in which he loved to wander."[8] Nevertheless, Thoreau's writingswent on to influence many public figures. Political leaders and reformers likeMahatma Gandhi, President John F. Kennedy, civil rights activist Martin LutherKing, Jr., Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, and Russian author LeoTolstoy all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau's work, particularly CivilDisobedience, as did "right-wing theorist Frank Chodorov [who] devoted an entire issue of his monthly, Analysis, to anappreciation of Thoreau."[59] Thoreau also influenced many artists and authors including Edward Abbey, Willa Cather,Marcel Proust, William Butler Yeats, Sinclair Lewis, Ernest Hemingway, Upton Sinclair,[60] E. B. White, Lewis Mumford,[61] Frank Lloyd Wright, Alexander Posey[62] and Gustav Stickley.[63] Thoreau also influenced naturalists like JohnBurroughs, John Muir, E. O. Wilson, Edwin Way Teale, Joseph Wood Krutch, B. F. Skinner, David Brower and Loren

Eiseley, whom Publishers Weekly called "the modern Thoreau."[64] English writer Henry Stephens Salt wrote a biographyof Thoreau in 1890, which popularized Thoreau's ideas in Britain: George Bernard Shaw, Edward Carpenter and RobertBlatchford were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt's advocacy.[65]

Mahatma Gandhi first read Walden in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in Johannesburg, South Africa. He firstread Civil Disobedience "while he sat in a South African prison for the crime of nonviolently protesting discriminationagainst the Indian population in the Transvaal. The essay galvanized Gandhi, who wrote and published a synopsis ofThoreau's argument, calling its 'incisive logic . . . unanswerable' and referring to Thoreau as 'one of the greatest and mostmoral men America has produced.'"[66] He told American reporter Webb Miller, "[Thoreau's] ideas influenced me greatly. Iadopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause ofIndian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of CivilDisobedience,' written about 80 years ago."[67]

Martin Luther King, Jr. noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of non-violent resistance wasreading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending Morehouse College. He wrote in his autobiography that it was

Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support awar that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolentresistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that Ireread the work several times.

I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good.No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau.As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachingsof Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whetherexpressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, abus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resistedand that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.[68]

American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's Walden with him in his youth.[69] and, in1945, wrote Walden Two, a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life ofThoreau.[70] Thoreau and his fellow Transcendentalists from Concord were a major inspiration of the composer CharlesIves. The 4th movement of the Concord Sonata for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character pictureand he also set Thoreau's words.[71]

In the early 1960s Allen Sherman referred to Thoreau in his song parody "Here's To Crabgrass" about the suburban housingboom of that era with the line "Come let us go there and live like Thoreau there."

Anarchism

Thoreau's ideas have impacted and resonated with various strains in the anarchist movement, with Emma Goldmanreferring to him as "the greatest American anarchist."[72] Green anarchism and Anarcho-primitivism in particular have bothderived inspiration and ecological points-of-view from the writings of Thoreau. John Zerzan included Thoreau's text"Excursions" (1863) in his edited compilation of works in the anarcho-primitivist tradition titled Against civilization:Readings and reflections.[73] Additionally, Murray Rothbard, the founder of anarcho-capitalism, has opined that Thoreauwas one of the "great intellectual heroes" of his movement.[59] Thoreau was also an important influence on late 19thcentury anarchist naturism.[74][75] While globally, Thoreau's concepts also held importance within individualist anarchistcircles[76][77] in Spain,[74][75][76] France,[76][78] and Portugal.[79]

Contemporary critics

Although his writings would later receive widespread acclaim, Thoreau's ideas were not universally applauded by some ofhis contemporaries in literary circles. Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson judged Thoreau's endorsement of living aloneand apart from modern society in natural simplicity to be a mark of "unmanly" effeminacy and "womanish solitude", whiledeeming him a self-indulgent "skulker."[80] Nathaniel Hawthorne was also critical of Thoreau, writing that he "repudiatedall regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men."[81][82] In a similarvein, poet John Greenleaf Whittier detested what he deemed to be the "wicked" and "heathenish" message of Walden,decreeing that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a woodchuck and walk on four legs."[83]

Bird eggs found by Thoreau and givento the Boston Society of NaturalHistory. Those in the nest are of yellowwarbler, the other two of red-tailedhawk

In response to such criticisms, English novelist George Eliot, writing for the Westminster Review, characterized such criticsas uninspired and narrow-minded:

Peoplevery wise in their own eyeswho would have every man's life ordered according to a particularpattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-poohMr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.[84]

Works

Aulus Persius Flaccus (1840)[85]

The Service (1840)[86]

A Walk to Wachusett (1842)[87]

Paradise (to be) Regained (1843)[88]

The Landlord (1843)[89]Sir Walter Raleigh (1844)Herald of Freedom (1844)[90]

Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum (1845)[91]Reform and the Reformers (184648)Thomas Carlyle and His Works (1847)[92]

A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849)[93]

Resistance to Civil Government, or Civil Disobedience (1849)[94]

An Excursion to Canada (1853)[95]

Slavery in Massachusetts (1854)[96]

Walden (1854)[97]

A Plea for Captain John Brown (1859)[98]

Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown (1859)[99]

The Last Days of John Brown (1860)[100]

Walking (1861)[101]

Autumnal Tints (1862)[102]

Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree (1862)[103]

Excursions (1863)[104]

Life Without Principle (1863)[105]

Night and Moonlight (1863)[106]The Highland Light (1864)The Maine Woods (1864)[107][108]

Cape Cod (1865)[109]

Letters to Various Persons (1865)[110]

A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers (1866)[111]Early Spring in Massachusetts (1881)Summer (1884)[112]

Winter (1888)[113]

Autumn (1892)[114]

Miscellanies (1894)[115]

Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau (1894)[116]Poems of Nature (1895)Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau (1898)The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau (1905)[117][118]

Journal of Henry David Thoreau (1906)[119]The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau edited by Walter Harding and Carl Bode (Washington Square: NewYork University Press, 1958)[120]

See also

American philosophy

List of American philosophers

References^ Howe, Daniel Walker, What Hath God Wrought: TheTransformation of America, 18151848. ISBN978-0-19-507894-7, p. 623.

1.

^ a b Henry David Thoreau : A Week on the Concord andMerrimack Rivers / Walden / The Maine Woods / CapeCod, by Henry David Thoreau, Library of America, ISBN0-940450-27-5

2.

^ Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, edited by EdwinRobert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937,p. 12.Gross, David (ed.) The Price of Freedom: PoliticalPhilosophy from Thoreau's Journals p. 8, ISBN978-1-4348-0552-2 ("The Thoreau of these journalsdistrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to callhim an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in thiseither.")

3.

^ a b Thoreau, H. D. Resistance to Civil Government(http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=rtcg#p03)

4.

^ Drinnon, Richard (Autumn 1962). Thoreau's Politics ofthe Upright Man. 4. The Massachusetts Review.pp. 126138. ISBN ?.

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^ Dolis, J (2005). Tracking Thoreau: double-crossingnature and technology. Fairleigh Dickinson UniversityPress. pp. 32. ISBN 0-8386-4045-1.

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^ Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters. LosAltos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 51. ISBN0-86576-008-X

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^ a b c McElroy, Wendy (2005-07-30) Henry DavidThoreau and 'Civil Disobedience'(http://www.lewrockwell.com/mcelroy/mcelroy86.html) ,LewRockwell.com

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^ Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). "The Machine in theWetland: Re-imagining Thoreau's Plumbago-Grinder"(http://thoreau.eserver.org/pencils.html) . Thoreau SocietyBulletin (http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm) (253).

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^ Rosenwald, Lawrence. "The Theory, Practice & Influenceof Thoreau's Civil Disobedience (http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html) ". William Cain, ed. A Historical Guide toHenry David Thoreau. Cambridge: Oxford UniversityPress, 2006.

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^ Henry David Thoreau, The Annotated Walden (1970),Philip Van Doren Stern, ed., pp. 96, 132

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^ The Writer's Almanac(http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/)

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^ Walden, or Life in the Woods (Chapter 1: "Economy")54.^ Brooks, Van Wyck. The Flowering of New England.New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1952. p. 310

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^ Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind:Henry David Thoreau: Philosopher.

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^ Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Textwith Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary(http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/) by Ken Kifer, 2002

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^ Kifer, Ken Analysis and Notes on Walden: HenryThoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary(http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/)

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^ McElroy, Wendy (2011-05-04) Here, the State IsNowhere to Be Seen (http://mises.org/daily/5250/Here-the-State-Is-Nowhere-to-Be-Seen) , Mises Institute

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^ Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938.238239

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^ Goldman, Emma. Anarchism and Other Essays(http://books.google.com/books?id=U5ZYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22emma+goldman%22+thoreau+%22greatest+american+anarchist%22&source=bl&ots=t3qGtqtWfK&sig=SmhYf0cWgIPMC1U_Kh5UrXh0Jw8&hl=en&ei=QyaiTd-WG4nLgQfpl9XlBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false) , pg. 62

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^ Against civilization: Readings and reflections by JohnZerzan (editor) (http://www.amazon.fr/dp/toc/0922915989)

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^ a b El naturismo libertario en la Pennsula Ibrica(18901939) by Jose Maria Rosello(http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22)

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^ a b "Anarchism, Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega(http://info.autonomedia.org/node/4694)

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^ a b c "La insumisin voluntaria. El anarquismoindividualista Espaol durante la dictadura y la segundaRepblica (19231938)" by Xavier Diez(http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html)

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^ "Les anarchistes individualistes du dbut du siclel'avaient bien compris, et intgraient le naturisme dans leursproccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discoursse soit peu peu effac, d'antan plus que nous assistons,en ce moment, un retour en force du puritanisme(conservateur par essence).""Anarchisme et naturisme,aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak (http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html)

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^ Recension des articles de l'En-Dehors consacrs aunaturisme et au nudisme (http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html)

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^ Freire, Joo. "Anarchisme et naturisme au Portugal, dansles annes 1920" in Les anarchistes du Portugal.[Bibliographic data necessary for this ref.]

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^ Stevenson, Robert Louis. "Henry David Thoreau: HisCharacter and Opinions" (http://thoreau.eserver.org

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/stevens1.html) . Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.^ Hawthorne, The Heart of Hawthorne's Journals, pg.106.

81.

^ Borst, Raymond R. The Thoreau Log: A DocumentaryLife of Henry David Thoreau, 18171862. New York:G.K. Hall, 1992.

82.

^ Wagenknecht, Edward. John Greenleaf Whittier: APortrait in Paradox. New York: Oxford University Press,1967: 112.

83.

^ The New England Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Dec., 1933),pp. 733746

84.

^ Aulus Persius Flaccus (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

85.

^ The Service (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

86.

^ A Walk to Wachusett (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

87.

^ Paradise (to be) Regained (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

88.

^ The Landlord (http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DAGD1642-0013-6&coll=moa&root=%2Fmoa%2Fusde%2Fusde0013%2F&tif=00445.TIF&view=100) from Cornell University Library

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^ Herald of Freedom (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

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^ Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum(http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

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^ Thomas Carlyle and His Works (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

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^ A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers(http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4232) from Project Gutenberg

93.

^ Aesthetic papers (http://www.archive.org/details/aestheticpapers00peabrich) from the Internet Archive

94.

^ A Yankee in Canada (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/A_Yankee_in_Canada) from the Writings of Henry DavidThoreau: The Digital Collection

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^ Slavery in Massachuetts (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

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^ Walden (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Walden) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

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^ A Plea for Captain John Brown (http://www.walden.org/Library

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/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection^ After the Death of John Brown (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

99.

^ The Last Days of John Brown (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

100.

^ Walking (http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1022) from Project Gutenberg

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^ Autumnal Tints (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection

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^ Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree(http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4066) from Project Gutenberg

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^ Excursions (http://www.archive.org/details/excursionhenry00thorrich) from the Internet Archive

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^ Life without Principle (http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-65) fromCornell University Library

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^ Night and Moonlight (http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-77) from CornellUniversity Library

106.

^ The Maine Woods (http://thoreau.eserver.org/mewoods.html) from The Thoreau Reader

107.

^ The Maine woods (http://www.archive.org/details/mainewoods00thorrich) from The Internet Archive

108.

^ Cape Cod (http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd00.html)from The Thoreau Reader

109.

^ Letters to various persons (http://www.archive.org/details/lettersvarpersons00thorrich) from the Internet Archive

110.

^ A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-slavery and reformpapers (http://www.archive.org/details/yankeeincanada00thorrich) from the Internet Archive

111.

^ Summer: from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau(http://www.archive.org/details/summerjournal00thorrich)from the Internet Archive

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^ Winter : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau(http://www.archive.org/details/winterjournal00thorrich)from the Internet Archive

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^ Autumn. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau(http://www.archive.org/details/autumnjournal00thorrich)from the Internet Archive

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^ Miscellanies (http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Cape_Cod_and_Miscellanies) from the Writings of HenryDavid Thoreau: The Digital Collection

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^ Familiar letters of Henry David Thoreau(http://www.archive.org/details/familiarletters00thorrich)the Internet Archive

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^ The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discoveredamong his unpublished journals and manuscripts Vol. 1(http://www.archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys01thorrich)from the Internet Archive

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^ The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discoveredamong his unpublished journals and manuscripts Vol. 2(http://www.archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys02thorrich)from the Internet Archive

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^ The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau (http://www.walden.org/Library

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/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Journal) from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: TheDigital Collection^ The Correspondence of Thoreau (http://www.walden.org120.

/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence) from the Writings of Henry DavidThoreau: The Digital Collection

Further readingBode, Carl. Best of Thoreau's Journals. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967Botkin, Daniel. No Man's GardenDean, Bradley P. ed., Letters to a Spiritual Seeker. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004.Harding, Walter. The Days of Henry Thoreau. Princeton University Press, 1982Hendrix, George. "The Influence of Thoreau's 'Civil Disobedience' on Gandhi's Satyagraha." The New England Quarterly. 1956Howarth, William. The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer. Viking Press, 1982Myerson, Joel et al. The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau. Cambridge University Press. 1995Nash, Roderick. Henry David Thoreau, PhilosopherParrington, Vernon. Main Current in American Thought (http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/vol2/bk03_03_ch03.html) . V 2 online. 1927Petroski, Henry. "H. D. Thoreau, Engineer." American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 816Petrulionis, Sandra Harbert, ed., Thoreau in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn From Recollections,Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2012. ISBN 1-60938-087-8Richardson, Robert D. Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1986.ISBN 0-520-06346-5Tauber, Alfred I. Henry David Thoreau and the Moral Agency of Knowing. University of California, Berkeley. 2001. ISBN0-520-23915-6Thoreau, Henry David. Collected Essays and Poems. Elizabeth Hall Witherell, editor, Library of America, 2001) ISBN978-1-883011-95-6_____. I to Myself: An Annotated Selection from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau. Jeffrey S. Cramer, editor, Yale UniversityPress, 2007_____. The Maine Woods: A Fully Annotated Edition. Jeffrey S. Cramer, editor, Yale University Press, 2009_____. Walden: A Fully Annotated Edition. Jeffrey S. Cramer, editor, Yale University Press, 2004_____. A Week, Walden, The Maine Woods, Cape Cod. Robert F. Sayre, editor, Library of America, 1985 ISBN 0-940450-27-5_____. The Price of Freedom: Excerpts from Thoreau's Journals ISBN 978-1-4348-0552-2Walls, Laura Dassow. Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science. University of Wisconsin. 1995.ISBN 0-299-14744-4Ridl, Jack. "Moose. Indian. (http://magazine.scintillapress.com/moose-indian.html) " Scintilla (poem on Thoreau's last words)

Historical fiction

Brooks, Geraldine. March: A Love Story in a Time of War (2006)

External links

The Thoreau Society (http://www.thoreausociety.org/)The Thoreau Edition (http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/)The Thoreau Project (http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thoreau.html)The Walden Woods Project (http://www.walden.org/) by The Thoreau InstituteThe Thoreau Farm Trust (http://www.thoreaufarm.org/) His BirthplaceThe Disarming Honesty of Henry David Thoreau (http://mises.org/daily/5033/The-Disarming-Honesty-of-Henry-David-Thoreau) , by Frank ChodorovThis Date From Henry David Thoreau's Journal (http://hdt.typepad.com/henrys_blog/)Who He Was & Why He Matters (http://thoreau.eserver.org/whowhy.html) by Randall ConradH D Thoreau (http://hdthoreau.com/) "a site for everything Thoreau"Henry David Thoreau (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/) by the Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHenry Thoreau: Transcendental Economist (http://thoreau.eserver.org/currents.html) by Vernon L. ParringtonHenry David Thoreau (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1030) at Find a GraveFAQ with Answers about Thoreau (http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/thoreau_faq.html)Emerson & Thoreau (http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/emerson.asp) at C-SPAN's American Writers: AJourney Through History

Texts

The Thoreau Reader (http://thoreau.eserver.org/) by The Thoreau SocietyThe Writings of Henry David Thoreau (http://www.walden.org/Library

/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection) at The Walden Woods ProjectThe Writings of Henry David Thoreau (http://press.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/hdt.html) at Princeton UniversityPressPolitical & Philosophical Excerpts from Thoreau's Journals (http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=excerpts)Reflections on a Child's Water Wheel (http://www.missourireview.com/content/dynamic/text_detail.php?text_id=434) an Excerpt from Thoreau's 1848 JournalScans of Thoreau's Land Surveys (http://www.concordlibrary.org/scollect/Thoreau_Surveys/Thoreau_Surveys.htm) atthe Concord Free Public LibraryHenry David Thoreau Online (http://www.thoreau-online.org/) The Works and Life of Henry D. ThoreauWorks by Thoreau (http://openlibrary.org/search?q=henry+david+thoreau&author_key=OL19690A) at Open Library

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&oldid=507327263"Categories: Henry David Thoreau 1817 births 1862 deaths 19th-century philosophers American abolitionistsAmerican anarchists American diarists American environmentalists American essayists American naturalistsAmerican nature writers American nomads American non-fiction environmental writersAmerican people of French descent American poets American political philosophers American spiritual writersAmerican tax resisters American travel writers American Unitarians American vegetarians Civil disobedienceDeaths from tuberculosis Ecological succession Green anarchists Harvard University alumni LecturersNature writers People associated with Transcendentalism Anarchist writers People from Concord, MassachusettsWriters from Massachusetts

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