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CONTENTS-
Indian National Congress----
------------------------------3-7
partition of Bengal----------7
swadeshi movement------7-8
Revolutionary movements in
India----------------------8-12
Revolutionary movements
outside India-----------12-13
notable revolutionaries------
---------------------------13-16
Surat Split 1907--------16-17
Muslim League---------17-18
Indian Councils Act 1909----
------------------------------18
Lucknow Pact 1916---19-20
Indian Home Rule
movement --------------20-21
Return of Gandhiji to India--
---------------------------21-23
Champaran Satyagraha------
---------------------------23-24
Ahmedabad Textile Mill
Issue------------------------24
The Kheda Satyagraha-------
---------------------------24-25
Peasant movements and
Kisan Sabha------------25-26
Bardoli Satyagraha----26-28
Trade Unions---------------28
Communist party of India----
---------------------------28-29
Rowlatt Act 1919------29-30
Jallianwala Bagh massacre--
---------------------------31-32
Khilafat Movement-----32-33
Moplah rebellion------34-36
Non-Cooperation Movement-
--------------------------36-37
Chauri Chaura incident-------
--------------------------37-38
Swaraj Party-----------38-39
Simon Commission----39-41
Nehru Report-----------41-42
Fourteen Points of Jinnah----
---------------------------42-43
Poorna Swaraj – Lahore
Session----------------------43
Civil Disobedience
Movement and Salt
Satyagraha-------------43-45
Gandhi Irwin Pact---------46
Karachi Session -1931-------
---------------------------46-47
Round Table Conferences----
---------------------------47-49
Communal Awards---------49
Poona Pact--------------50-51
Congress Socialist Party--51
Indian provincial elections,
1937---------------------51-54
Butler Committee 1927---54
August Offer 1940----54-55
Individual Satyagraha---55
Cripps Mission,1942----------
-------------------------55-56
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Quit India Movement---------
---------------------------56-58
Rajagopalachari’s formula---
---------------------------58-59
The Indian National Army
(Azad Hind Fauj)-------59-63
Red Fort trials----------63-64
The Royal Indian Navy
revolt--------------------64-65
Wavell Plan-------------65-66
Shimla Conference 1945-----
---------------------------66-67
Cabinet Mission, 1946--------
---------------------------67-68
Constituent Assembly of
India--------------------68-71
Interim Government of
India,1946-------------71-74
Indian Independence Act
1947--------------------74-76
INDIAN POLITY BOOK
click to download Indian
Polity Book by hello scholar
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The Indian National Congress
(INC)
The Indian National Congress
was formed by a retired Civil
service officer Allan Octavian
Hume.
Its aim was to obtain a greater
share in government for
educated Indians, and to create
a platform for civic and political
dialogue between them and the
British Raj.
Hume established Indian
National Union in 1884.
In the 1st session on 28
December 1885, on the advice
of Dadabhai Naoroji, the
organization was renamed as
Indian National Congress.
Hume organised the first
meeting in Bombay from 28–31
December 1885 with the
approval of the Viceroy Lord
Dufferin. A.O.
It was scheduled to take place
in Poona but due to a cholera
outbreak there, it was moved to
Bombay.
Womesh Chandra
Bonnerjee was the first
president of Congress.
A.O.Hume was the General
Secretary.
The first session was attended
by 72 delegates.
Dadabhai Naoroji was elected
the second president of the
party in 1886 Calcutta session
and was the first Indian
Member of Parliament in
the British House of
Commons (1892–1895).
Lord Dufferin ridiculed Congress
as representing only a short
sighted minorities of people.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded
The United India Patriotic
Associaton in 1888. Its motive
was to keep people away from
INC. He said that congress
movement was neither inspired
by the people nor advised or
planned by them.
Mahatma Gandhi suggested the
winding up of the Indian
National Congress after India
attained independence.
Mahatma Gandhi along with
N.C. Kelkar and L.B. Sen
framed the constitution of
INC(though Gandhi wanted to
work with B.G.Tilak and
C.R.Das).
Lord Wellington was the
governor-general who took part
in Bombay session in 1915 (He
was not governor general at
that time. He became governor
general and viceroy from 1931-
36).
C.R.Das was in prison when he
functioned as the president of
the congress in 1921
Ahmedabad session. Hakim
Ajmal Khan was the acting
President.
C.R.Das became president of
INC in 1922 Gaya session.
Abul Kalam Azad was the
president of INC for six
consecutive years from 1940-45
during the Quit India
Movement. He also became the
youngest person to serve as the
president in 1923 at the age of
35 in Delhi special session.
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Important session on INC
Year Place President Important points
1887 Madras Badruddin Tayabji
1st muslim president
1888 Allahabad George Yule 1st session to be presided over by an Englishmen
1907 Surat Ras Behari Ghosh
Split between moderates and extremists
1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dar Jana Gana Mana was sung for the first time
1912 Bankipore Raghunath Narasinha Mudholkar
A.O.Hume called father of INC
1916 Lucknow Ambika Charan Mazumdar
Lucknow Pact between congress and muslim league. Bal Gangadhar Tilak expressed-‘Swaraj is my birth right, I shall have it’
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant 1st woman president 1920 Nagpur C.
Vijayaraghavachariar
Gandhiji’s advocacy of ‘Poorna Swaraj’ through Non-Cooperation was accepted. Congress declared its policy towards Indian states for the first time. They demanded the states to give full responsible government to the citizens.
1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi
Only session where Gandhiji was the president
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu 1st Indian woman president 1929 Lahore Jawahar Lal
Nehru Poorna Swaraj Resolution passed
1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru spoke of socialism as the key to the solution of India’s problems.
1938 Haripura Subhash Chandra Bose
National Planning Committee set up under the chairmanship of Jawahar Lal Nehru. S C Bose advocated the introduction of Roman script for Hindi language
1946 Meerut JB kriplani President when India achieved independence
List of Presidents of Indian
National Congress
N
o.
Name of
President
Year
of
Presi
dency
Place
of
Confer
ence
1
Womesh
Chandra
Banerjee
1885 Bombay
2 Dadabhai
Naoroji 1886 Calcutta
3 Badruddin
Tyabji 1887 Madras
4 George Yule 1888 Allahabad
5 William
Wedderburn 1889 Bombay
6 Pherozeshah
Mehta 1890 Calcutta
7 Anandacharl
u 1891 Nagpur
8
Womesh
Chunder
Bonnerjee
1892 Allahabad
9 Dadabhai
Naoroji 1893 Lahore
10 Alfred Webb 1894 Madras
11 Surendranat
h Banerjee 1895 Poona
12 Rahimtulla
M. Sayani 1896 Calcutta
13 C. Sankaran
Nair 1897 Amravati
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N
o.
Name of
President
Year
of
Presi
dency
Place
of
Confer
ence
14 Anandamoh
an Bose 1898 Madras
15
Romesh
Chunder
Dutt
1899 Lucknow
16
N. G.
Chandavark
ar
1900 Lahore
17
Dinshaw
Edulji
Wacha
1901 Calcutta
18 Surendranat
h Banerjee 1902
Ahmedab
ad
19 Lalmohan
Ghosh 1903 Madras
20 Henry
Cotton 1904 Bombay
21
Gopal
Krishna
Gokhale
1905 Benares
22 Dadabhai
Naoroji 1906 Calcutta
23 Rashbihari
Ghosh 1907 Surat
24 Rashbihari
Ghosh 1908 Madras
25 Madan
Mohan 1909 Lahore
N
o.
Name of
President
Year
of
Presi
dency
Place
of
Confer
ence
Malaviya
26 William
Wedderburn 1910 Allahabad
27 Bishan
Narayan Dar 1911 Calcutta
28
Raghunath
Narasinha
Mudholkar
1912 Bankipor
e
29
Nawab Syed
Muhammad
Bahadur
1913 Karachi
30 Bhupendra
Nath Bose 1914 Madras
31
Lord
Satyendra
Prasanna
Sinha
1915 Bombay
32
Ambica
Charan
Mazumdar
1916 Lucknow
33 Annie
Besant 1917 Calcutta
34
Madan
Mohan
Malaviya
1918 Delhi
35 Syed Hasan
Imam 1918
Bombay(
Special
Session)
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N
o.
Name of
President
Year
of
Presi
dency
Place
of
Confer
ence
36 Motilal
Nehru 1919 Amritsar
37 Lala Lajpat
Rai 1920
Calcutta(
Special
Session)
38
C.
Vijayaragha
vachariar
1920 Nagpur
39
Deshbandhu
Chittaranjan
Das (Preside
nt)
Hakim Ajmal
Khan (Actin
g President)
1921 Ahmedab
ad
40
Deshbandhu
Chittaranjan
Das
1922 Gaya
41 Mohammad
Ali Jouhar 1923 Kakinada
42 Abul Kalam
Azad 1923
Delhi (Sp
ecial
Session)
43 Mohandas
Gandhi 1924 Belgaum
44 Sarojini
Naidu 1925 Kanpur
45 S. Srinivasa
Iyengar 1926 Gauhati
N
o.
Name of
President
Year
of
Presi
dency
Place
of
Confer
ence
46
Mukhtar
Ahmed
Ansari
1927 Madras
47 Motilal
Nehru 1928 Calcutta
48 Jawaharlal
Nehru
1929 &
30 Lahore
49 Vallabhbhai
Patel 1931 Karachi
50
Madan
Mohan
Malaviya
1932 Delhi
51 Nellie
Sengupta 1933 Calcutta
52 Rajendra
Prasad
1934 &
35 Bombay
53 Jawaharlal
Nehru 1936 Lucknow
54 Jawaharlal
Nehru 1936 Faizpur
55
Subhas
Chandra
Bose
1938 Haripura
56
Subhas
Chandra
Bose(resign
ed)
Rajendra
Prasad repla
ced Bose
1939
Tripuri
near Jaba
lpur
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N
o.
Name of
President
Year
of
Presi
dency
Place
of
Confer
ence
after
the session.
57 Abul Kalam
Azad 1940–46 Ramgarh
58 J. B.
Kripalani 1947 Meerut
Partition of Bengal
The decision to effect
the Partition of Bengal was
announced on 19 July 1905 by
the Viceroy of India, Lord
Curzon.
The partition took place on 16
October 1905.
Cayan Uddin Ahmet was the
Chief Secretary of Bengal at the
time of partition.
Sir Andrew Henderson Leith
Fraser was the lieutenant
governor at the time of partition
of Bengal.
Swadeshi movement started on
7 August 1905 in Calcutta’s
Town Hall against the partition
of Bengal.
King George V and Queen Mary
arrived at the Delhi Durbar in
1911 and abolished the
partition of Bengal.
Swadeshi movement
It started on 7 August 1905.
It started with the partition
of Bengal by the Viceroy of
India, Lord Curzon in 1905 and
continued up to 1911.
It was the most successful of
the pre-Gandhian movement.
Its chief architects
were Aurobindo
Ghosh, Lokmanya Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra
Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, V. O.
Chidambaram Pillai, Babu Genu.
Swadeshi, as a strategy, was a
key focus of Mahatma Gandhi,
who described it as the soul
of Swaraj (self rule).
It was strongest in Bengal and
was also called vandemataram
movement.
Gandhi, at the time of the
actual movement, remained
loyal to the British Crown.
It was led by Syed Haider Raja
in Delhi, Chidambaram Pillai in
Madras, Lala lajpat Rai and Ajit
Singh in Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh, Lokmanya Tilak in
Mumbai and Pune.
Farmers and muslims were not
involved much in the
movement.
M.Abdul Rasool led the muslim
peasants of Barisal in their
agitations in 1908.
In 1889, the scheme of national
education was formulated by
Satish Chandra Mukherjee.
National Council of Education
was set up in 1906.
The Bengal National College
was founded in 1906 with
Aurobindi Ghosh as the
principal.
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Henry Woodd Nevinson was a
British Journalist and was
related to Swadeshi movement.
Nevinson’s brief was to
‘discover the causes of the
present discontent and to
report, without prejudice the
opinion of leading Indians as
well as officials.’ He wrote a
book ‘The new spirit of India’ in
1908.
Abanindranth Tagore founded
the ‘Indian Society of Oriental
Art’.
Revolutionary movements
Abhinav Bharat Society
Abhinav Bharat
Society (Young India Society)
was a secret society founded
by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
and his brother Ganesh
Damodar Savarkar in 1903.
It was initially founded
at Nasik as Mitra Mela.
V.D.Savarkar wrote a book ‘The
Indian war of Independence’ in
1902.
In order to inspire Indian
nationalist, he wrote the
biography of Mazzini.
He was arrested and was
deported to India from England
through the ship.
He made a plan to escape and
jumped into the sea from the
sea but was later re-arrested.
Anushilan Samiti
Anushilan Samiti was
established by Pramathanath
Mitra.
It became one of the most
organised revolutionary
associations, especially in the
Eastern Bengal where
the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti had
several branches and carried
out major activities.
Jugantar was initially formed by
an inner circle of the
Kolkata Anushilan Samiti.
Barin Ghosh was the main
leader.
The headquarters of Jugantar
was located at Kolkata.
Bagha Jatin was one of the top
leaders in Jugantar.
He was arrested, along with
several other leaders, in
connection with the Howrah
conspiracy case.
Hindustan Republican Association
(HRA)
Hindustan Republican
Association (HRA) was
established in October 1924
in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh by
revolutionaries like Ramprasad
Bismil, Jogesh
Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar
Azad, Yogendra
Shuklaand Sachindranath
Sanyal.
The aim of the party was to
organise armed revolution to
end the colonial rule and
establish a Federal Republic of
the United States of India.
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The Kakori train robbery was a
notable act of mutiny by this
group.
The Kakori case led to the
hanging of Ashfaqullah
Khan, Ramprasad
Bismil, Roshan Singh, Rajendra
Lahiri.
The Kakori case was a major
setback for the group.
However, the group was soon
reorganised under the
leadership of Chandrashekhar
Azad and with members
like Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati
Charan Vohra and Sukhdev on
9 and 10 September 1928– and
the group was now christened
Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association (HSRA).
In Lahore on 17 December
1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad
and Rajguru assassinated
Saunders, a police official
involved in deadly lathi-charge
on Lala Lajpat Rai.
Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar
Dutt threw a bomb inside
the Central Legislative
Assembly.
The Assembly Bomb Case trial
followed. Bhagat
Singh, Sukhdev
Thaparand Shivaram
Rajguru were hanged on 23
March 1931.
The Kakori Conspiracy (or Kakori
train robbery or Kakori Case)
It was a train robbery that took
place between Kakori and,
near Lucknow, on 9 August
1925 during the Indian
Independence
Movement against the British
Indian Government.
The robbery was organised by
the Hindustan Republican
Association (HRA).
The robbery was conceived
by Ram Prasad
Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan.
The robbery plan was executed
by Ram Prasad Bismil,
Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra
Lahiri, Chandrashekhar
Azad, Sachindra Bakshi, Keshab
Chakravarty, Manmathnath
Gupta, Murari Lal Gupta (fake
name of Murari Lal
Khanna), Mukundi Lal (Mukundi
Lal Gupta) and Banwari Lal.
Following the incident, the
British administration started an
intense manhunt and arrested
several of the revolutionaries
involved in the HRA.
Their leader, Ram Prasad
Bismil, was arrested at
Saharanpur on 26 September
1925 and was sent to
Gorakhpur jail and was
sentenced to death.
His lieutenant, Ashfaqullah
Khan, was arrested ten months
later at Delhi.
Chandra Sekhar Azad was the
only one who escaped from
arrest by the police.
He shot himself on 27 February
1931 at Chandrasekhar Azad
Park, Allahabad during
encounter with police.
(Chandrasekhar Azad Park was
known as Alfred Park earlier).
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Kotwal Dasta
Veer Bhai Kotwal during Quit
India Movement formed group
of underground mercenaries
called "Kotwal Dasta", a
parallel government in the
Karjat taluka of Thane district.
They were about 50 in numbers
including farmers and voluntary
school teachers.
They decided to cut down the
electric pylons supplying
electricity to Mumbai city.
From September 1942 through
November 1942 they felled 11
pylons, paralyzing the industries
and railways.
Lahore Conspiracy Case
The political parties boycotted
the Simon commission. In
Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was
leading an anti-Simon
Commission demonstration on
30 October 1928.
Due to the brutal Lathicharge,
he lost his life.
To avenge the killing of Lal
Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh, Raj
guru, Jai Gopal and Sukh Dev
conspired to kill the police chief,
Scott.
But they shot on the DSP J. P.
Saunders, who was killed on the
spot.
Bhagat Singh immediately fled
from Lahore and to avoid
recognition, he cut his beard
and hair.
Later he was trialed in
this Lahore Conspiracy
Case when he was captured
after throwing bomb in Delhi
Assembly.
Bhagat Singh’s memorial is situated at
Ferozpur. He said ‘criticism and
independent thought are the two
characteristics of a revolutionary’.
Bhagat Singh gave the slogan
‘Inquilab Zindabad (Long Live
Revolution)’
Ram Prasad Bismil was sentenced to
death for the Kakori Conspiracy. He
refused to take the milk given to him
for drinking and said ‘Now, I shall take
my mothers mik only’.
Ram Prasad Bismil said the following
lines – ‘Sarfaroshi ki tamanna ab
hamare dil me hai Dekhna hai zor
kitna baju-e-qatil me hai’.
'Kanpur Conspiracy Case' (1924)
One of the most prominent
cases in the British period
relating to conspiracy to wage
war was that of Manabendra
Nath Roy Vs. Emperor.
The other accused were Nalini
Bhushan Das Gupta, Mohd.
Shaukat Usmani, Muzaffar
Ahmad and Sripat Amrit Dange.
All were charged under Section
121-A i.e. conspiracy to wage
war, and were sentenced to
four years of rigorous
imprisonment on 20th May
1924.
The Charge on them was-
“to deprive the King Emperor of his
sovereignty of British India, by
complete separation of India from
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imperialistic Britain by a violent
revolution.”
Roy was the principal accused but
could not be arrested as he was away
in Europe being one of the important
members of Presidium of the
Communist International.
Chittagong armoury raid
The Chittagong armoury
raid, also known as
the Chittagong uprising, was
an attempt on 18 April 1930 to
raid the armoury of police and
auxiliary forces from
the Chittagong armoury in
the Bengal Presidency of British
India (now in Bangladesh)
by armed Indian independence
fighters led by Surya Sen.
They were inspired by the
1916 Easter Rising in Ireland.
However, they were
ideologically influenced more by
the Communists in Soviet
Russia.
Many of these raiders later
became Communists.
The group included Ganesh
Ghosh, Lokenath Bal, Ambika
Chakrobarty, Harigopal
Bal(Tegra), Ananta
Singh, Anand Prasad
Gupta, Tripura
Sen, Bidhubhusan
Bhattacharya, Pritilata
Waddedar, Kalpana
Dutta, Himangshu Sen, Binod
Bihari Chowdhury, Subodh
Roy, Monoranjan Bhattacharya.
Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki
went to Muzaffarpur, Bihar to
assassinate Kingsford, Calcutta
Presidency Magistrate.
On the evening of 30 April,
1908, they waited in front of
the gate of European club for
the carriage of Kingsford to
come.
When a vehicle came out of the
gate, they threw bombs and
blew up the carriage.
Unfortunately the carriage was
not carrying Kingsford and
instead two British ladies – Mrs.
and miss Kennedy ( the wife
and daughter of barrister Prince
Kennedy ) were killed.
Prafulla Chaki committed
suicide after cornered by the
Police and Khudi Ram Bose was
arrested.
The Indian policeman Nandalal
Bannerjee, who had arrested
Khudi Ram Bose was later shot
dead by Narendranath
Bhattacharya.
In Alipore Conspiracy case in 1908, 34
persons including Aurobindo Ghosh
and his brother Barindra Ghosh were
arrested in charge of possessing illegal
arms and bombs, etc. 15 persons
were sentenced but Aurobindo Ghosh
was defended and released by
Chittaranjan Das successfully.
Yugantar party was led by
Jatindranath Mukherjee.
Pulin Behari Das established
National School in Dhaka with the
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objective to develop a revolutionary
army. He also planned and conducted
Barrah Dacoity at the Barrah
Zamindar’s residence in the district of
Dhaka in East Bengal in 1908.
Two Bengali school girls Shanti
Ghosh and Suniti Chaudhary
murdered a district magistrate by
firing in December 1931. Bina Das
fired at the English governor while
receiving her degree at the
convocation in January 1932.
Revolutionary movements outside
India
India House (Indian Home Rule
Society)
The India House was an informal Indian nationalist organization that existed in London between 1905 and 1910.
It was started by Shyamji Krishna Varma .
India house ceased to be potent organisation after its liquidation in the wake of the assassination of William Hutt Curzon Wyllie by a member of the India House by the name of Madan Lal Dhingra.
This event marked the beginnings of London Police's crackdown on the activities of the house and a number of its activists and patrons, including Shyamji Krishna Varma and Bhikaji Cama moved to Europe from where they carried on works in support of Indian nationalism.
Some Indian students, including Har Dayal, moved to the United States.
The network that the House founded was key in the nationalist revolutionary conspiracy in India during World War I.
Gadar party
Gadar party was a predominantly Sikh organization formed by Lala Hardayal in 1913 in San Fransisco.
The party collaborated with revolutionaries inside India and helped them get arms and ammunition.
Sohan Singh Bhakna was the first chairman of Ghadar Party. The party published ‘Hindustani gadar’ newspaper in urdu and Punjabi language.
The Komagata Maru incident in 1914 inspired several thousand Indians residing in the USA to sell their businesses and rush home to participate in the anti-British activities in India.
The party had active members in India, Mexico, Japan, China, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Malaya, Indo-China and Easternand Southern Africa.
Berlin Committee
The "Berlin committee for
Indian independence" was
established in 1915 by Virendra
Nath Chattopadhya, including
Bhupendra Nath Dutt & Lala
Hardayal under "Zimmerman
plan" with the full backing of
German foreign office.
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Their goal was mainly to achieve the
following four objectives:
1. Mobilize Indian revolutionaries
abroad.
2. Incite rebellion among Indian
troops stationed. abroad.
3. Send volunteers and arms to
India.
4. Even to Organized an armed
invasion of British India to gain
India's independence. and sent
British back to home
Komagata Maru incident
The Komagata
Maru incident involved the
Japanese steamship Komagata
Maru on which a group of
citizens of the British
Raj attempted to emigrate to
Canada in 1914 but were
denied entry and on forced
return to Calcutta (Present day
Kolkata), India, they were fired
upon by British police resulting
in killing of 20 Sikhs.
The ship was chartered by
Gurdit Singh, an affluent
Punjabi businessman (he was a
0Singaporean fisherman).
Komagata Maru sailed
from British Hong Kong, via
Shanghai, China,
and Yokohama, Japan,
to Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada, in 1914, carrying 376
passengers from Punjab, British
India.
Of them, 24 were admitted to
Canada, but the other 352
passengers were not allowed to
disembark in Canada, and the
ship was forced to return to
India.
The passengers comprised
340 Sikhs, 24 Muslims, and 12
Hindus, all British subjects.
This was one of several
incidents in the early 20th
century in which exclusion laws
in Canada and the United States
were used to exclude
immigrants of Asian origin.
During the world war I, Raja
Mahendra pratap established the
first provisional government of
India at Kabul in Afghanistan in
1915. He was the president of
government and Maulavi
Barkatullah was the Prime
Minister. Germany and Russia
gave recognition to this
government.
Bhikaji Cama was an Indian Freedom
Fighter and political activist. She was
born to an extremely wealthy Parsi
business family. She led the
revolutionary movement from America
and Europe for India’s freedom. At the
International Socialist Congress held
at Stuttgart (Germany) in 1907, she
unfurled the first version of the Indian
National Flag.She was known ‘Mother
of Indian Revolution’. She served as
private secretary to Dadabhai Naoroji.
Notable revolutionaries
©helloscholar.in
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Name Activity
Khudiram Bose The Muzaffarpur killing
Chandra Shekhar Azad
Kakori Conspiracy
Ram Prasad Bismil
Kakori Conspiracy
Bhagat Singh Central Assembly Bomb Case 1929
Udham Singh Shooting in Caxton Hall
Vanchinathan Shot dead Ashe, the Tax Collector of Thirunelveli
Hemu Kalani Sabotage of Railway Track
Ashfaqulla Khan Kakori Conspiracy
Sachindra Bakshi Kakori Conspiracy
Manmath Nath Gupta
Kakori Conspiracy
Vasudev Balwant Deccan Rebellion
Name Activity
Phadke
Anant Laxman Kanhere
Shooting of British Officer Jackson
Krishnaji Gopal Karve
Shooting of British Officer Jackson
Ganesh Damodar Savarkar
Armed movement against the British
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Father of Hindu Nationalism
Bagha Jatin
The Howrah-Sibpur conspiracy case, Hindu–German Conspiracy
Batukeshwar Dutt
Central Assembly Bomb Case 1929
Sukhdev Thapar Central Assembly Bomb Case 1929
Shivaram Hari Rajguru
Murder of a British police officer, J. P. Saunders
Roshan Singh Kakori Conspiracy,
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Name Activity
Bamrauli Action
Pritilata Waddedar
Pahartali European Club attack
Jatindra Nath Das
Hunger strike and Lahore conspiracy case
Durgawati Devi (Durga Bhabi)
Running the bomb factory 'Himalayan Toilets'
Bhagwati Charan Vohra
Philosophy of Bomb
Madan Lal Dhingra
Curzon Wyllie's assassination
Alluri Sitarama Raju
Rampa Rebellion of 1922
Kushal Konwar Train sabotage Sarupathar
Surya Sen (Masterda)
Chittagong Armoury Raid
Ananta Singh Chittagong armoury raid
Name Activity
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
Alipore Bomb Case
Rash Behari Bose
Indian National Army
Ubaidullah Sindhi
Silk Letter Conspiracy
Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee
Kakori Conspiracy
Baikuntha Shukla
Assassination of Phanindra Nath Ghosh, a government Approver
Ambika Chakrabarty
Chittagong armoury raid
Badal Gupta Attack at Writers Building
Dinesh Gupta Attack at Writers Building
Benoy Basu Attack at Writers Building
Rajendra Lahiri Kakori Conspiracy
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Name Activity
Barindra Kumar Ghosh
Alipore Bomb Case
Prafulla Chaki The Muzaffarpur killing
Ullaskar Dutta Alipore Bomb Case
Hemchandra Kanungo
Alipore Bomb Case
Basawon Singh (Sinha)
Lahore conspiracy case
Bhavabhushan Mitra
Ghadar Mutiny
Bina Das
Attempted to Assassinate the Bengal Governor Stanley Jackson
Veer Bhai Kotwal Kotwal Dasta, Quit India Movement
Rani Lakshmi Bai
For her Kingdom Jhansi Killing and insulting British official]]
Om Prakash Vij President India Freedom Fighter
Name Activity
Association
Surat Split 1907
The Indian National Congress(INC) which was established in 1885 was divided into two groups in the year 1907) mainly by extremists and moderates at the Surat Session of the Congress.
Rash Behari Ghosh was the president of surat session.
The period 1885-1905 was known as the period of the moderates as moderates dominated the INC.
These Moderates used petition, prayers, meetings, leaflets and pamphlets memorandum and delegations to present their demands.
Moderates were not able to achieve notable goals other than the expansion of the legislative council by the Indian Council Act of 1892.
This created dis-satisfaction among the people.
In 1907 the INC meeting was to be held in Pune and the extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai or Bal Gangadhar Tilak as president.
But moderates wanted Rash Behari Ghosh to be president.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale changed the meeting place from Pune to
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Surat fearing that if Pune was to be held as meeting place then Bal Gangadhar Tilak would become President.
The partition of Bengal became the rise of extremism in INC.
As Surat was not hometown of Bal Gangadhar Tilak he could not preside over the meeting.
Hence it was decided that Ghosh would be president.
Extremists protested in the INC meeting as Bal Gangadhar Tilak was not given permission even to speak by pandit Madanmohan Malviya extremists then reacted by throwing eggs, footwear etc and wanted the meeting to be cancelled.
Moderates then held a secret meeting and decided to abdicate extremists.
Lokmanya Tilak and his followers held a separate conference and declared the formation of the Extremist Party.
However they decided to work as a part of the Indian National Congress.
Difference between moderates and extremists further widened in Calcutta Session of congress (1906) and there were attempts between them to elect one of them as the president of congress.
The moderates opposed the resolutions on Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott of foreign goods and National Education and requested to
withdraw from the policy laid down in the Calcutta session.
But the extremists were not ready to do so.
In Surat Session (1907), extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai or Bal Gangadhar Tilak as a President candidate of congress and Moderates supported Dr. Rashbihari Ghosh to be the President.
But Lala Lajpat Rai stepped down and Dr. Rashbihari Ghosh became the President.
The British Government immediately launched a massive attack on the extremists and Extremist newspaper were suppressed.
Lokmanya Tilak, their main leader, was sent to Mandalay jail for six years.
Muslim league
Muslim league was founded by
Salimullah khan, Agha Khan,
Muhsin-ul-mulk on
30 December 1906 at
Dhaka.(Salimullah khan was the
main founder).
The headquarters were
established at Lucknow.
Sir Agha Khan III was the first
president of muslim league.
The name "All-India Muslim
League" was proposed by Sir
Mian Muhammad Shafi.
The first session of muslim
league was held at Karachi in
1907 and was presided by
Adamji Peer Bhai.
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A London branch of muslim
league was established in 1908
under the presidency of Ameer
Ali.
The League's constitution was
framed in 1907 in Karachi.
Muslim League refused to
accept Muslims related to
congress because they
pretended to be the only
institution representing Muslims
in India.
Indian Councils Act 1909
The Indian Councils Act
1909 commonly known as
the Morley-Minto Reforms (or as
the Minto-Morley Reforms), was
an Act of the Parliament of the United
Kingdom that brought about a limited
increase in the involvement of Indians
in the governance of British India. It
received royal assent on 12 march
1909.
Provisions-
1. The members of the Legislative
Councils, both in the centre and in the
provinces, were to be of four
categories: ex officio members
(Governor General and the members
of their Executive Councils),
nominated official members (those
nominated by the Governor General
and were government officials),
nominated non-official members
(nominated by the Governor General
but were not government officials)
and elected members (elected by
different categories of Indian people).
2. The maximum number of
nominated and elected members of
the Legislative Council at the Center
was increased from 16 to 60,
excluding ex officio members.
3. The maximum number of
nominated and elected members of
the provincial legislative councils,
under a governor or lieutenant
governor, was also increased. It was
fixed as 50
in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, United
Provinces, and Eastern Bengal and
Assam, and 30 in Punjab, Burma, and
any lieutenant-governor province
created thereafter. Legislative councils
were not created for provinces under a
chief commissioner.
4. The right of separate electorate was
given to the Muslims.
5. Official members were to form the
majority but in provinces, nonofficial
members would be in majority.
6. The members of the Legislative
Councils were permitted to discuss
budgets, suggest amendments and
even vote on them except items that
were included as non-vote items. They
were also entitled to ask
supplementary questions during the
legislative proceedings.
7. The Secretary of State for
India was empowered to increase the
number of the Executive Councils of
Madras and Bombay from two to four.
8. Two Indians were nominated to the
Council of the Secretary of State for
Indian Affairs.
9. The Governor-General was
empowered to nominate one Indian
member to his Executive Council.
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Lucknow Pact 1916
The Lucknow Pact was an
agreement reached between
the Indian National
Congress led by Maratha
leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak and
the Muslim League led
by Muhammad Ali Jinnah at the
joint session of both the parties
held in Lucknow in December
1916.
The session was presided by
Ambika Charan Majumdar. In
lucknow session, Mahatma
Gandhi was apprised of the
problems of peasants of
champaran.
Through the pact, the two
parties agreed to allow
overrepresentation to religious
minorities in the provincial
legislatures.
The Muslim League leaders
agreed to join the Congress
movement demanding Indian
autonomy.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, then a
member of the Congress as well
as the League, made both the
parties reach an agreement to
pressure the British government
to adopt a more liberal
approach to India and give
Indians more authority to run
their country, besides
safeguarding basic Muslim
demands.
Jinnah is seen as the
mastermind and architect of
this pact.
The Congress agreed to
separate electorates for Muslims
in electing representatives to
the Imperial and Provincial
Legislative Councils.
Although the Muslims were
given this right in the Indian
Councils Act of 1909, the Indian
National Congress opposed it.
The Congress also agreed to the
idea of one-third seats for the
Muslims in the Councils despite
the fact that the Muslim
population represented less
than a third.
Apart from that, the Congress
agreed that no act affecting a
community should be passed
unless three-quarters of that
community's members on the
council supported it.
After the signing of this pact the
rivalry between moderates and
extremist reduced to some
extent.
There was a significant change
in their relation.
Annie Besant and Bal
Gangadhar Tilak were the chief
architects of reconciliation
between the Extremists and the
Moderators.
Clauses
Self-government in India.
Abolition of the Indian Council.
Separation of the executive
from the judiciary.
Salaries of the Secretary of
State for Indian Affairs to be
paid from British coffers and not
the Indian funds.
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1/3rd representation to be given
to Muslims in the Central
Government.
The number of Muslims in the
provincial legislatures to be laid
down for each province.
Separate electorates for all
communities until a joint
electorate is demanded by all.
Introduction of a system of
weightage for minority
representation (it implied giving
minorities more representation
than their share in the
population).
Increasing the term of the
Legislative Council to 5 years.
Half the members of the
Imperial Legislative Council to
be Indians.
All elected members to be
elected directly on the basis of
adult franchise. 4/5th of the
members of the provincial
legislatures to be elected and
1/5th to be nominated.
Members of the Legislative
Council to elect their President
themselves.
Indian Home Rule movement
The Indian Home Rule
movement was a movement
in British India on the lines
of Irish Home Rule
movement and other home
rule movements.
The movement lasted around
two years between 1916–1918
and is believed to have set the
stage for the independence
movement.
It worked under the leadership
of Annie Besant all over India
whereas B. G.
Tilak participation was limited to
western India only.
In 1920 All India Home Rule
League changed its name to
Swarajya Sabha.
In 1920, the All India Home
Rule League elected Mahatma
Gandhi as its president.
The first important work was
written by Gandhi entitle Hind
Swaraj or Indian home rule,
composed in 1909.
Between 1916 and 1918, when
the war was beginning,
prominent Indians like Joseph
Baptista, Muhammad Ali
Jinnah, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, G.
S. Khaparde, Sir S. Subramania
Iyer and the leader of
the Theosophical Society, Annie
Besant, decided to organise a
national alliance of leagues
across India, specifically to
demand Home Rule, or self-
government within the British
Empire for all of India.
The Theosophical Society was
officially formed in New York
City, United States, on 17
November 1875 by Helena
Petrovna Blavatsky, Colonel
Henry Steel Olcott, William
Quan Judge, and others.
Tilak founded the first home
rule league at the Bombay
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provincial congress at Belgaum
in April,1916.
Annie Besant founded second
league at Adyar Madras in
September 1916.
While Tilak's league worked in
areas
like Maharashtra(excluding
Bombay
city), Karnataka, Central
provinces and Berar, Annie
Besant's league worked in the
rest of India.
The Home Rule Leagues of Tilak
and Annie Besant were merged
into one in 1918.
Return of Gandhiji to India
Mohandas Karamchand
Gandhi was born on 2 October
1869 at Porbandar, Gujarat.
He died on 30 January 1948 in
New Delhi. He was killed by
Nathuram Godse.
Gandhi first employed
nonviolent civil disobedience as
an expatriate lawyer in South
Africa, in the resident Indian
community's struggle for civil
rights.
He studied at University College
London and Inner Temple,
London.
He returned to India in 1915.
Assuming leadership of
the Indian National Congress in
1921, Gandhi led nationwide
campaigns for various social
causes and for
achieving Swaraj or self-rule.
In April 1893, Gandhi aged 23,
set sail for South Africa to be
the lawyer for Abdullah's
cousin. He spent 21 years in
South Africa, where he
developed his political views,
ethics and politics.
He helped found the Natal
Indian Congress in 1894, and
through this organisation, he
moulded the Indian community
of South Africa into a unified
political force.
He founded Tolstoy farm with
his associates and started living
there.
He also founded Phoenix farm
in 1904.
He published a magazine
‘Indian Opinion’ in South Africa.
At the request of Gopal Krishna
Gokhale, conveyed to him by C.
F. Andrews, Gandhi returned to
India in 1915. Gandhi
considered Gopal Krishna
Gokhale as his mentor.
Gandhi took leadership of the
Congress in 1920 and began
escalating demands until on 26
January 1930 the Indian
National Congress declared the
independence of India.
In Ganghiji’s thought the emphasis is
not idealism, but on practical idealism.
Gandhi’s thought has also been linked
to Utopian socialism and philosophical
anarchism and can be compared with
strands of Marxist (though not a
western phiolosophy) and even
western liberal thought. He believed
that in the concept of ideal non-violent
state, every citizen would have the
feeling of self- government and in this
stage there would be no need for the
state to comply with the law of the
land. Gandhiji’s thought has been
linked to philosophical anarchism and
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can be compared with strands of
Marxist thought. He told Leouis
Fischer ‘I am a true socialist’. The
meaning of my socialism is
‘Sarvodaya’.There is a great similarity
between Gandhi and Marx, the final
aim of both of them was to establish a
stateless and classless society. But
their means of achieving it was
different. Gandhi used non-violence
whereas Marx used violence for
achieving it.
Truth and non-violence were
the twin principles of Mahatma
Gandhi’s Ram Rajya.
He used truth and non-violence
to develop a new society of his
dream.
The first step in Gandhian
strategy of satyagraha was
fasting and the last step was
strike.
According to Gandhiji, the
cruelest form of violence is the
persistence of poverty.
Gandhiji told ‘self-control’ as
the best way for family
planning.
Gandhiji was thrown out of train
in Pietermaritzburg.
Gandhiji attended the Calcutta session
of Indian National Congress in 1901
for the first time. During this session,
his resolution about South Africa was
passed. This session was presided by
Sir Dinshaw Edulji Wacha. He
established his law office in Bombay.
Sabarmati Ashram was
established by Gandhiji in
Ahmedabad.
Gandhiji adopted Seva Dharma
in South Africa.
He rendered his services as an
attendant to the helpless poor
patients in the charity hospitals
of Rustamji.
He gave his voluntary services
as a compounder.
He also served the wounded
soldiers of Boar War.
For Gandhiji, politics meant
social and public welfare. He
believed in decentralization of
power.
He meant to encourage village
panchayats to control their
administration.
The Gandhian model of politics
included morality, religion and
humanity.
It did not include authority. He
wanted a stateless society.
During his stay at South Africa,
Gandhi read the book of John
Ruskin ‘Unto the Last’. This book transformed his life.
The message of the book was-
‘The good of the individual is
contained in the good of all’. He was also influenced by
Henry David Thoreau and
Tolstoy.
Subhash Chandra Bose was the
first person to call Mahatma
Gandhi ‘The Father of Nation’ in
1944.
Rabindranath Tagore called
Gandhiji ‘Mahatma’ during
Champaran Satyagraha.
Yerwada Jail in Maharashtra
was termed by Gandhiji as
‘Mandir’. He wrote ‘Yerwada
Mandir’ in 1932.
At the time of India’s
Independence, Mahatma Gandhi
was not the member of
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Congress. In 1934, he resigned
from congress.
On the death of Gandhiji,
Jawahrlal Nehru said ‘The light
has gone out of our lives and
there is darkness everywhere’. Lord Mountbatten termed
Gandhiji as ‘one man boundary
force’ because due to him there
were no riots in Bengal.
Gandhiji delivered his first
major public speech in Varanasi
in 1916 at the opening of
Banaras Hindu University.
Gandhiji strongly advised the
development of cottage industries in
villages, which will reduce the burden
on agriculture. Villagers can also get
employment. Socio-economic
development of untouchables can be
brought by establishing cottage
industries for them.
Champaran Satyagraha – 1917
It was the first civil
disobedience movement by
Gandhiji. Champaran is a
district which comes under the
state Bihar.
Raj Kumar Shukla, and Sant
raut a money lender who also
owned some land,
persuaded Gandhi to go
to Champaran.
N.G.Ranga opposed the
movement.
Rabindra Nath Tagore gave him
the title of ‘Mahatma’ during
this movement.
The problem was that the indigo
planters were forced to grow
indigo on 3/20th of the total
land area (tin-kathia system).
Under Colonial era laws, many
tenant farmers were forced to
grow some indigo on a portion
of their land as a condition of
their tenancy.
This indigo was used to make
dye.
The Germans had invented a
cheaper artificial dye so the
demand for indigo fell.
Some tenants paid more rent in
return for being let off having to
grow indigo.
However, during the First World
War the German dye ceased to
be available and so indigo
became profitable again.
Thus many tenants were once
again forced to grow it on a
portion of their land- as was
required by their lease.
Naturally, this created much
anger and resentment.
Gandhi arrived in Champaran
10 April 1917 and stay on the
house of Sant raut in Amolwa
village with a team of eminent
lawyers: Brajkishore
Prasad, Rajendra
Prasad, Anugrah Narayan
Sinha Ramnavmi Prasad, and
others including J. B.
Kripalani.
Gandhi led organised protests
and strike against the landlords,
who with the guidance of the
British government, signed an
agreement granting more
compensation and control over
farming for the poor farmers of
the region, and cancellation of
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revenue hikes and collection
until the famine ended.
It was during this agitation, that
first time Gandhi called Bapu
(Father) by Sant raut
and Mahatma (Great Soul).
Ahmedabad Textile Mill Issue –
1918
Gandhiji received a letter from
Shrimati Anasuyabai.
She informed him about the
condition of workers in
Ahmedabad mills and requested
him to solve the issue with the
mill owners.
The Bubonic Plague of 1917-18
led to a heavy decline in the
number of workers in the major
industrial city of Ahmedabad.
In order to attract the workers,
the mill owners started paying
them 75% of their wages as
plague bonus.
When the situation became
normal, the mill owners decided
to withdraw the plague bonus,
but the workers opposed their
decision.
The mill owners were ready to
give 20% increase, but the
workers were demanding a 50%
raise in wages.
Consequently, the relations
between the mill owners and
the workers became hostile.
At last the issue was resolved
with the intervention of
Mahatma Gandhi.
The mill owners agreed to give
35% of wages as bonus and
this was accepted by the
workers.
The Kheda Satyagraha of 1918
It was the first non-cooperation
movement of Gandhiji.
It was the third Satyagraha
movement after Champaran
Satyagraha and the Ahmedabad
mill strike.
Gandhi organised this
movement to support peasants
of the Kheda district.
People of Kheda were unable to
pay the high taxes levied by the
British due to crop failure and a
plague epidemic.
In Gujarat, Gandhi was chiefly
the spiritual head of the
struggle.
His chief lieutenant, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel and a close
coterie of devoted Gandhians,
namely Indulal
Yagnik, Shankarlal
Banker, Mahadev Desai, Narhari
Parikh, Mohanlal
Pandya and Ravi Shankar
Vyas toured the countryside,
organised the villagers and
gave them political leadership
and direction.
Patel and his colleagues
organised a major tax revolt,
and all the different ethnic and
caste communities
of Kheda rallied around it.
The peasants of Kheda signed a
petition calling for the tax for
this year to be scrapped in
wake of the famine.
The government in Bombay
rejected the charter.
They warned that if the
peasants did not pay, the lands
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and property would be
confiscated and many arrested.
And once confiscated, they
would not be returned even if
most complied. None of the
villages flinched.
The tax withheld, the
government's collectors and
inspectors sent in thugs to seize
property and cattle, while the
police forfeited the lands and all
agrarian property.
The farmers did not resist
arrest, nor retaliate to the force
employed with violence.
Instead, they used their cash
and valuables to donate to
the Gujarat Sabhawhich was
officially organising the protest.
The Government finally sought
to foster an honourable
agreement for both parties.
The tax for the year in question,
and the next would be
suspended, and the increase in
rate reduced, while all
confiscated property would be
returned.
Peasant movements and Kisan
Sabha
The first peasant movement
was Bijolia. The leaders were
Sitaram Das in 1913 and Vijay
Pathak Singh in 1915.
UP Kisan Sabha was organized
in February 1918 by Gauri
Shankar Mishra and Indra
Narayan Dwivedi. Madan Mohan
Malviya was also a supporter.
Nai-Dhobi band (a form of
social boycott) was started in
Pratapgarh district in 1919.
Baba Ramchandra formed
‘Awadh Kisan Sabha’ in 1920.
The Bihar Kisan Sabha was
formed by Swami Sahajanand
Saraswarti.
All India Kisan Congress was
founded at Lucknow in April
1936 with Swami Sahajanand
Saraswati as the president and
N.G.Ranga as the general
secretary.
Later it was renamed All India
Kisan Sabha.
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati
was addressed as ‘Kisan
Pran’(Life of Kisan) by his
followers.
Sahajanand just before his
death focused on the future
peasant movement by forming
an All India United Kisan Sabha
whose basic demand was the
nationalization of land and
waterways and all sources of
energy and wealth.
The Bhartiya vidyalaya was
founded by N.G.Ranga.
In 1937, Fazlul Haq founded the
Bengal Praja Party (Krishak
Praja Party).
After the 1937 elections, he
formed a government with
Muslim League in Bengal.
The Bakashat Agitation was
started by Swami
Sharaddhanand Saraswati.
The Tebhaga peasant movement
was initiated in Bengal in 1946 by
the Bengal provincial kisan sabha
to implement the recommendations of
Flood Commission, which asked
sharecroppers to give one-third of
their harvest to the land-owners
instead of one-half. In its response,
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the Bargadari Act was passed which
provided that sharecroppers pay only
one-third of their harvest to the
landlords.
Vinoba bhave started bhoodan
movement after independence to
distribute lands to landless farmers.
He organized Sarvodaya Samaj to
bring about non-violent social
transformation through land reforms
with the willing cooperation of
landlords. Large landlords were
persuaded to gift atleast one-sixth of
their land. On 18th April, 1951, the
first donation of land took place in a
village called Pochampalli in Telangana
by a Zamindar Ramachandra Reddy
who agreed to donate his 100 acres
land. It was most successful in Orissa.
Bardoli Satyagraha
The Bardoli Satyagraha of
1928, in the state
of Gujarat, India during the
period of the British Raj, was a
major episode of civil
disobedience and revolt in
the Indian Independence
Movement.
The movement was eventually
led by Vallabhbhai Patel, and its
success gave rise to Patel
becoming one of the main
leaders of the independence
movement.
In 1925,
the taluka of Bardoli in Gujarat
suffered from floods and
famine, causing crop production
to suffer and leaving farmers
facing great financial troubles.
However, the government of
the Bombay Presidency had
raised the tax rate by 30% that
year, and despite petitions from
civic groups, refused to cancel
the rise in the face of the
calamities.
The situation for the farmers
was grave enough that they
barely had enough property and
crops to pay off the tax, let
alone for feeding themselves
afterwards.
The Gujarati activists Narhari
Parikh, Ravi Shankar Vyas,
and Mohanlal Pandya talked to
village chieftains and farmers,
and solicited the help of
Gujarat's most prominent
freedom fighter, Vallabhbhai
Patel.
Patel had previously guided
Gujarat's farmers during the
Kheda struggle, and had served
recently as Ahmedabad's
municipal president.
He was widely respected by
common Gujaratis across the
state.
Patel first wrote to the Governor
of Bombay, asking him to
reduce the taxes for the year in
face of the calamities.
But the Governor ignored the
letter, and reciprocated by
announcing the date of
collection.
Patel then instructed all the
farmers of Bardoli taluka
to refuse payment of their
taxes.
Aided by Parikh, Vyas and
Pandya, he divided Bardoli into
several zones – each with a
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leader and volunteers
specifically assigned.
Patel also placed some activists
close to the government, to act
as informers on the movements
of government officials.
Above all, Patel instructed the
farmers to remain completely
non-violent, and not respond
physically to any incitements or
aggressive actions from
officials.
He reassured them that the
struggle would not end until not
only the cancellation of all taxes
for the year, but also when all
the seized property and lands
were returned to their rightful
owners.
The farmers received complete
support from their compatriots
in Gujarat.
Many hid their most precious
belongings with relatives in
other parts, and the protestors
received financial support and
essential supplies from
supporters in other parts.
But Patel refused permission to
enthusiastic supporters in
Gujarat and other parts of India
from going on sympathetic
protest.
The Government declared that
it would crush the revolt.
Along with tax inspectors,
bands of Pathans were gathered
from northwest India to forcibly
seize the property of the
villagers and terrorize them.
The Pathans and the men of the
collectors forced themselves
into the houses and took all
property, including cattle
(resisters had begun keeping
their cattle inside their locked
homes when the collectors were
about, in order to prevent them
from seizing the animals from
the fields).
The government began to
auction the houses and the
lands.
But not a single man from
Gujarat or anywhere else in
India came forward to buy
them.
Patel had appointed volunteers
in every village to keep watch.
As soon as he sighted the
officials who were coming to
auction the property, the
volunteer would sound his
bugle.
The farmers would leave the
village and hide in the jungles.
The officials would find the
entire village empty.
They could never find out who
owned a particular house.
However, some rich people
from Bombay came to buy
some lands.
There was also one village
recorded that paid the tax.
A complete social boycott was
organized against them,
wherein relatives broke their
ties to families in the village.
Other ways social boycott was
enforced against landowners
who broke with the tax strike or
purchased seized land were to
refuse to rent their fields or to
work as laborers for them.
Members of the legislative
councils of Bombay and across
India were angered by the
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terrible treatment of the
protesting farmers. Indian
members resigned their offices,
and expressed open support of
the farmers.
The Government was heavily
criticized, even by many in the
Raj's offices.
In 1928, an agreement was
finally brokered by
a Parsi member of the Bombay
government.
The Government agreed to
restore the confiscated lands
and properties, as well as
cancel revenue payment not
only for the year, but cancel the
30% raise until after the
succeeding year.
The farmers celebrated their
victory, but Patel continued to
work to ensure that all lands
and properties were returned to
every farmer, and that no one
was left out.
When the Government refused
to ask the people who had
bought some of the lands to
return them, wealthy
sympathizers from Bombay
bought them out, and returned
the lands to the rightful owners.
Mahatma Gandhi on behalf of
women of bardoli bestowed the
title Sardar upon Vallabhbhai
Patel for the first time, which
in Gujarati and most Indian
languages
means Chief or Leader.
It was after Bardoli that Sardar
Patel became one of India's
most important leaders.
Trade Unions
The Labour union formed in
1918 by B.P.Wadia was the first
modern trade union
organization of India.
It comprised textile workers of
Buckingham and Carnatic Mills.
The All India Trade Union
Congress was founded at
Bombay on October 31, 1920
by N.M. Joshi with Lala Lajpat
Rai as its first President.
Joseph Baptista was the Vice-
President.
Diwan Chaman Lal Bajaj was
the General Secretary.
The first partition of this
organization took place in 1929
Nagpur session.
Jawahar Lal Nehru was the
President of this session.
The mililtant phase of the Trade
Union movement in India is
considered from 1926-1939.
M.N.Roy, Muzaffar Ahmed,
Shripad Amrit Dange, Shaukat
Usmani were the main leaders
during this phase.
Communist party of India
The Communist International
was founded in 1919 by
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and
Russian Party (Bolshevik).
M.N.Roy visited Moscow on the
invitation of Vladimir Lenin and
became the first Indian member
of communist international.
On October 17, 1920 M.N.Roy
along with Avani Mukherjee,
Moh.Ali and Mohd. Shafique
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founded Indian Communist
Party at Tashkent.
M.N.Roy formed Radical
Democratic Party in 1940.
Ajit Roy and Indrasen founded
Indian Bolshevik Leninist party
in 1941.
Saumyendranath Tagore
formed Revolutionary
Communist Party in 1934.
Kanpur conspiracy case was
against the communists who were
hated by the British Government.
Some newly turned communists
named M.N.Roy, Muzaffar
Ahmed,Shripad Amrit
Dange,Shaukat Usmani,
Ramchandra Lal
Sharma,Singaravelu Chettiar,
Ghulam Shaukat Hussain were
caught by the Government and
were trialed for conspiring against
the government in 1924. The
charge on them was ‘to deprive the
Emperor of his sovereignty of
British India, by complete
separation of India from
imperialistic Britain by a violent
revolution’.
Rowlatt Act -1919
The Anarchical and
Revolutionary Crimes Act of
1919, popularly known as
the Rowlatt Act and also
known as the Black Act, was a
legislative act passed by
the Imperial Legislative
Council in Delhi on March 18,
1919.
Lord Chelmsford was the
Viceroy of India when the
Rowlatt Act was passed.
It indefinitely extended the
emergency measures of
preventive indefinite detention,
incarceration without trial and
judicial review enacted in
the Defence of India Act
1915 during the First World
War.
It was passed on the
recommendations of
the Rowlatt Committee .
It was named after its
president, British judge
Sir Sidney Rowlatt.
This act effectively authorized
the government to imprison any
person suspected of terrorism
living in the Raj, for up to two
years without a trial, and gave
the imperial authorities power
to deal with all revolutionary
activities.
It provided for stricter control of
the press, arrests without
warrant, indefinite detention
without trial, and juryless in
camera trials for proscribed
political acts.
The accused were denied the
right to know the accusers and
the evidence used in the trial.
Those convicted were required
to deposit securities upon
release, and were prohibited
from taking part in any political,
educational, or religious
activities.
On the report of the committee,
headed by Justice Rowlatt, two
bills were introduced in the
central legislature in February
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1919. These bills came to be
known as "black bills".
They gave enormous powers to
the police to search a place and
arrest any person they
disapproved of without warrant.
A well known description of the
bills at that time was: No Dalil,
No Vakil, No Appeal i.e., no
pleas, no lawyer, no Appeal.
Despite much opposition, the
Rowlatt Act was passed in
March 1919.
The purpose of the act was to
curb the growing nationalist
upsurge in the country.
Rowlatt Satyagraha
Mahatma Gandhi, among other
Indian leaders, was extremely
critical of the Act and argued
that not everyone should be
punished in response to isolated
political crimes.
The Act angered many Indian
leaders and the public, which
caused the government to
implement repressive
measures.
Gandhi and others thought that
constitutional opposition to the
measure was fruitless, so on
April 6, a "hartal" was organised
where Indians would suspend
all business and would fast,
pray and hold public meetings
against the 'Black Act' as a sign
of their opposition and civil
disobedience would be offered
against the law.
This event was known as
the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
However, the success of the
hartal in Delhi, on March 30,
was overshadowed by tensions
running high, which resulted in
rioting in the Punjab and other
provinces.
Deciding that Indians were not
ready to make a stand
consistent with the principle
of nonviolence, Gandhi
suspended the resistance.
Rowlatt Satyagraha was the first
all India level movement by
Mahatma Gandhi.
Swami Sharaddhanand suggested
no tax campaign (non-payment of
Lagaan/Rent) in protest against
Rowlatt Act.
In the Punjab the protest movement
was very strong, and on April 10 two
leaders of the congress, Dr. Satya Pal
and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were
arrested and taken secretly
to Dharamsala.
The army was called into Punjab, and
on April 13 people from neighbouring
villages gathered for Baisakhi Day
celebrations and to protest against
deportion of two important Indian
leaders in Amritsar, which led to the
infamous Jallianwala Bagh
massacre of 1919.
Accepting the report of the Repressive
Laws Committee, the Government of
India repealed the Rowlatt Act,
the Press Act, and twenty-two other
laws in March 1922. The government
passed the rotary of the accordance
with the recommendation of this
committee.
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Jallianwala Bagh massacre
The Jallianwala Bagh
massacre, also known as
the Amritsar massacre, took
place on 13 April 1919 when
troops of the British Indian
Army under the command of
Colonel Reginald Dyer fired
rifles into a crowd of Indians,
who had gathered in Jallianwala
Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab.
Lord Chemlsford was the
viceroy of India at the time of
Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Michael O'Dwyer was the British
Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab
at the time of Jallianwala Bagh
massacre.
Secretary of State for India was
Edwin Montagu at the time of
Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Montagu cahracterised
Jallianwala Bagh massacre as
Preventive Murder.
The civilians had assembled to
condemn the arrest and
deportation of two national
leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin
Kitchlew.
The Jallianwalla Bagh is a public
garden of 6 to 7 acres
(28,000 m2), walled on all
sides, with five entrances.
To enter, troops first blocked
the entry by a tank and locked
the exit.
On Dyer's orders, his troops
fired on the crowd for ten
minutes, directing their bullets
largely towards the few open
gates through which people
were trying to flee.
Official British Indian sources
gave a figure of 379 identified
dead,with approximately 1,100
wounded.
The casualty number estimated
by the Indian National
Congress was more than 1,500
injured, with approximately
1,000 dead.
This "brutality stunned the
entire nation", resulting in a
"wrenching loss of faith" of the
general public in the intentions
of the UK.
The ineffective inquiry and the
initial accolades for Dyer by the
House of Lords fuelled
widespread anger, leading to
the Non-cooperation
Movement of 1920–22.
Rabindranath Tagore received the
news of the massacre by 22 May
1919. He tried to arrange a protest
meeting in Calcutta and finally decided
to renounce his British knighthood as
"a symbolic act of protest" on May 3,
1919.
Sir Sankaran Nair resigned his
membership from the Viceroy’s Executive Council in protest against
Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy.
Hunter Commission
On 14 October 1919, after
orders issued by the Secretary
of State for India, Edwin
Montagu, the Government of
India announced the formation
of a committee of inquiry into
the events in Punjab.
Referred to as the Disorders
Inquiry Committee, it was later
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more widely known as the
Hunter Commission.
It was named after the
chairman, William, Lord Hunter,
former Solicitor-General for
Scotland and Senator of the
College of Justice in Scotland.
The stated purpose of the
commission was to "investigate
the recent disturbances
in Bombay, Delhi and Punjab,
about their causes, and the
measures taken to cope with
them".
On 13 March 1940, at Caxton Hall in
London, Udham Singh, an Indian
independence activist from Sunam
who had witnessed the events in
Amritsar and had himself been
wounded, shot and killed Michael
O'Dwyer, the British Lieutenant-
Governor of Punjab at the time of the
massacre, who had approved Dyer's
action and was believed to have been
the main planner.
Khilafat movement
The Khilafat
movement (1919–22) was
a pan-Islamist, political protest
campaign launched by Muslims
of India to influence the British
government not to abolish
the Ottoman Caliphate.
It was a protest against the
humiliating sanctions placed on
the Caliph and Ottoman Empire
after the First World War by
the Treaty of Sevres.
Khilafat movement took
place as a result of Muslim fears
for the integrity of Islam.
These fears were a result of
Italian (1911) and Balkan
(1912–13) attacks on Turkey
and of Turkish defeats in World
War I.
The sultan of Turkey, as caliph,
was the religious head of the
worldwide Muslim community.
It was intensified by the Treaty
of Sèvres (August 1920), which
not only detached all non-
Turkish regions from the empire
but also gave parts of the
Turkish homeland to Greece
and other non-Muslim powers.
The movement collapsed by late
1922 when Turkey gained a
more favourable diplomatic
position and moved towards
secularism.
By 1924 Turkey simply
abolished the roles of the Sultan
and Caliph. Mustafa Kemal's
forces, overthrew the Ottoman
rule to establish a pro-Western,
secular republic in independent
Turkey. He abolished the role of
Caliph and sought no help from
Indians.
Mohammad Ali and his
brother Maulana Shaukat Ali joined
with other Muslim leaders such as Pir
Ghulam Mujaddid Sarhandi Sheikh
Shaukat Ali Siddiqui, Dr. Mukhtar
Ahmed Ansari, Raees-Ul-Muhajireen
Barrister Jan Muhammad
Junejo, Hasrat Mohani, Syed Ata Ullah
Shah Bukhari, Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad and Dr. Hakim Ajmal Khan to
form the All India Khilafat Committee.
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The organisation was based in
Lucknow, India at Hathe
Shaukat Ali, the compound of
Landlord Shaukat Ali Siddiqui.
They aimed to build political
unity amongst Muslims and use
their influence to protect the
caliphate. In 1920, they
published the Khilafat
Manifesto, which called upon
the British to protect the
caliphate and for Indian
Muslims to unite and hold the
British accountable for this
purpose.
The Khilafat Committee in
Bengal included Mohmmad
Akram Khan, Manruzzaman
Islamabadi, Mujibur Rahman
Khan and Chittaranjan Das.
In 1920 an alliance was made
between Khilafat leaders and
the Indian National Congress, the
largest political party in India and of
the nationalist movement. Congress
leader Mohandas Gandhi and the
Khilafat leaders promised to work and
fight together for the causes of
Khilafat and Swaraj. Seeking to
increase pressure on the British, the
Khilafatists became a major part of
the Non-cooperation movement. The
support of the Khilafatists helped
Gandhi and the Congress
ensure Hindu-Muslim unity during
the struggle. Khilafat leaders such as
Dr. Ansari, Maulana Azad and Hakim
Ajmal Khan also grew personally close
to Gandhi. These leaders founded
the Jamia Millia Islamia in 1920 to
promote independent education and
social rejuvenation for Muslims.
October 17, 1919 was observed as
Khilafat Day when the Hindus united
with Muslims in fasting and observed a
strike on that day. Gandhiji was
elected President of the All India
Khilafat Conference held at Delhi on
November 23,1919.
Hakim Ajmal Khan had renounced the
title of Haziq-ul-Mulk during the
Khilafat Agitation. He was honored
with this title in 1908 by the British
Government.
On 4 April , 1919 Swami
Shraddhanand delivered a speech in
front of 30,000 muslims on Hindu
Muslim unity from the pulpit of Jama
Masjid in Delhi.
Mohammad Ali Jannah opposed the
linking of Swaraj and Khilafat issue by
Gandhiji and he warned Gandhiji not
to encourage fanaticism of Musilm
religious leaders.
In February 1920, Gandhiji suggested
Khilafat Committee to adopt a
programme of non-violent, non-
cooperation to protest against the
government. On 9 June, 1920 the
Khilafat committee at Allahabad
unanimously accepted his suggestion
and asked him to lead the movement.
In September 1920, during the
Calcutta Session under the
presidentship of Lala Lajpat Rai,
resolution of Non-Cooperation
Movement was adopted.
Aitchison remarked- ‘In this instance,
we could not play off the
Mohammedans against the Hindus’.
Moplah Rebellion is considered an
offshoot (extended version) of Khilafat
Movement.
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Moplah rebellion
The Malabar rebellion (also known as the Moplah rebellion ) was a mass uprising to form an independent state of decolonised India.
It was a lahala against British authority in the Malabar region of Southern India by Mappilas and the culmination of a series of Mappila revolts that recurred throughout the 19th century and early 20th century.
The 1921 rebellion began as a reaction against a heavy-handed crackdown on the Khilafat Movement, a campaign in defense of the Ottoman Caliphate, by the British authorities in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar.
In the initial stages, a number of minor clashes took place between Khilafat volunteers and the police, but the violence soon spread across the region.
The Mappilas attacked and took control of police stations, British government offices, courts and government treasuries.
The British Government put down the rebellion with an iron fist, British and Gurkha regiments were sent to the area and Martial Law imposed
Jenmi
The Jenmi, consisting mainly of the
Nairs and Nambudiri Brahmins, were
the highest level of the hierarchy, and
a class of people given hereditary land
grants by the Naduvazhis or
rulers'. The jenmis could neither
cultivate nor supervise the land but
would instead provide a grant
of kanam to an individual from
the Kanikkaran ethnic group in return
for a fixed share of the crops
produced. Typically, a jenmi would
have a large number of kanikkaran
under him.
Kanikkaran (Nairs)
The Kanikkaran, mostly members of
the Nair community, were responsible
for the security and supervision of the
land and distribution of respective
shares of produce. Like the jenmi, the
kanikkaran was also a part-proprietor
of the soil to the extent that one-third
of the net produce was his. Each
kanikkaran typically had a number
of verumpattakkaran under him.
Verum pattakkaran (Mappilas)
The Verumpattakkaran,
generally Thiyya and Mappila classes,
cultivated the land but were also its
part-proprietors. These classes were
given a Verum Pattam (Simple Lease)
of the land that was typically valid for
one year. According to custom, they
were also entitled to one-third or an
equal share of the net produce.
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Outbreak-
During the Mysorean interlude
(1788–1792), when the Muslim
invasion of Malabar led to
widespread atrocities on the
Hindu population, the
landowners took refuge in
neighbouring states.
The tenants and the Nair army
men who could not escape were
forcibly converted into Islam as
described in William
Logan's Malabar Manual.
Thus, the Malabar government
under suzerainty of Tipu's
Islamic sultanate, having driven
out the Hindu Landlords,
reached accord with the Muslim
Kanakkars.
A new system of land revenue
was introduced for the first time
in the region's history with the
government share fixed on the
basis of actual produce from the
land.
However, within five years, the
British took over Malabar
defeating and ending Tipu's
reign over the region.
This allowed the Hindu
landlords to return to their
homes and regain the lands lost
during the Islamic aggression,
with the help of the British
government and its duly
constituted law courts.
The British superimposed
several Anglo-Roman juridical
concepts, such as that of
absolute property rights, upon
the existing legal system of
Malabar.
Up until then, such rights had
been unknown in the region and
as a result all land became the
private property of the jenmis.
As conditions worsened, rents
rose to as high as 75–80% of
net produce, leaving the
verumpattakkar cultivators
largely "only straw".
This caused great resentment
among the Mappilas, who, in
the words of Logan, were
"labouring late and early to
provide a sufficiency of food for
their wives and children".
General resentment amongst
the Muslim population led to a
long series of violent outbreaks
beginning in 1836.
These always involved the
murder of Hindus, an act which
the disgruntled Mappilas
regarded as religiously
meritorious and as part of their
larger obligation to establish an
Islamic state.
In 1921, for instance, the
stated aim was not to oust the
Janmi system, but to establish
an Islamic nation in Malabar.
The British administration
referred to the outbreaks as
"Moplah outrages", but modern
historians tend to treat them as
religious outbreaks or
expressions of agrarian
discontent.
The massacre of Hindus and
widespread sexual violence in
1921–22 sustained this tradition
of violence in Malabar but with
one crucial difference: this time
it had also a political ideology
and a formal organisation.
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The following were the various leaders
of the movement who were sentenced
to death following the Moplah riots
Ali Musaliar (leader of the
movement)
Kunhi Kadir, Khilafat Secretary,
Tanur
Variankunnath Kunhammad
Haji
Kunhj Koya, Thangal, president
of the Khilafat Committee,
Malappuram
Koya Tangal of
Kumaramputhur, Governor of a
Khilafat Principality
Chembrasseri Imbichi Koya
Thangal (notorious for his killing
of 38 men by slashing the necks
and throwing them into a well)
Palakamthodi Avvocker Musaliar
Konnara Mohammed Koya
Thangal
Non-Cooperation Movement
It was led by Mohandas
Karamchand Gandhi and was a
reaction to the oppressive
policies of the British Indian
government such as the Rowlatt
Act and the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre.
It was launched on 1 August
1920.
Its aim was to attain Swaraj in
a year. Gandhiji said that if the
movement was implemented
successfully then swaraj would
be attained in a year.
It aimed to resist British rule in
India through nonviolence
means, or "Ahimsa". Protesters
would refuse to buy British
goods, adopt the use of local
handicrafts and picket liquor
shops.
The ideas of Ahimsa and
nonviolence, and Gandhi's
ability to rally hundreds of
thousands of common citizens
towards the cause of Indian
independence, were first seen
on a large scale in this
movement through the summer
of 1920.
All offices and factories would
be closed. Indians would be
encouraged to withdraw from
Raj-sponsored schools, police
services, the military, and the
civil service, and lawyers were
asked to leave the Raj's courts.
Public transportation and
English-manufactured goods,
especially clothing, was
boycotted.
Indians returned honours and
titles given by the government
and resigned from various posts
like teachers , lawyers , civil
and military services.
Mahatma Gandhi returned the
title of Kaisar-i-Hind. This title
was given to him by Lord
Hardinge in 1915 for his
contribution to Indian
Ambulance Corp formed in 1899
in South Africa.
Jamnalal returned the title of
Rai Bahadur during the
movement in 1921.
Veterans like Bal Gangadhar
Tilak, Bipin Chandra
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Pal, Mohammad Ali
Jinnah, Annie Besant,
and Sammed Akiwate opposed
the idea outright.
Rabindranath Tagore was
against the movement and
opposed the burning of foreign
clothes and called it an
insensate waste.
The All India Muslim
League also criticized the idea.
But the younger generation of
Indian nationalists were thrilled,
and backed Gandhi.
The Congress Party adopted his
plans, and he received
extensive support from Muslim
leaders like Maulana
Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed
Ansari, Hakim Ajmal
Khan, Abbas Tyabji, Maulana
Muhammad Ali and Maulana
Shaukat Ali.
The success of the revolt was a
total shock to British authorities
and a massive encouragement
to millions of Indian
nationalists.
Unity in the country was
strengthened and many indian
schools and colleges were
made. Indian goods were
encouraged.
The Non-cooperation movement was
withdrawn on 12 February 1922
because of the Chauri Chaura incident.
Although he had stopped the national
revolt single-handedly, on 10 March
1922, Gandhi was arrested. On 18
March 1922, he was imprisoned for six
years for publishing seditious
materials. This led to suppression of
the movement and was followed by
the arrest of other leaders. The
Working Committee met in Delhi on
24 February 1922 and decided to ban
all the activities that violated the law.
The sudden suspension of the
movement was a shock to Gandhiji’s
followers. Dr.Moonje tables a vote of
censure against Gandhiji for
suspending the movement.
On September 4,1920 Congress met
in Calcutta at a special session in
which Gandhiji proposed the Non-
Cooperation resolution which was
opposed by C.R.Das. In December
1920, at annual congress session in
Nagpur it was discussed and endorsed
by all. During Nagpur session, C.R.Das
himself proposed the Non-Cooperation
movement.
Rahul Sankrityayan, original name
Kedar Nath Pandey, carried out the
Non-Cooperation movement in
Chhapra, Bihar.
Chauri Chaura incident
The Chauri Chaura
incident occurred at Chauri
Chaura in the Gorakhpur
district of the United Province,
(modern Uttar Pradesh.
It occured on 5 February 1922.
A large group of protesters,
participating in the Non-
cooperation movement, clashed
with police, who opened fire.
In retaliation the demonstrators
attacked and set fire to a police
station, killing all of its
occupants.
The incident led to the deaths of
three civilians and 22
policemen.
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Mahatma Gandhi, who was
strictly against violence, halted
the Non-cooperation Movement
on the national level on 12
February 1922, as a direct
result of this incident.
Gandhiji was at Bardoli at the
time of Chauri Chaura incident.
He called up a meeting of
Congress Working Committee
on Februrary 12, 1922 and
passed a resolution known as
Bardoli Resolution. He
announced the withdrawal of
the Non-Cooperation
Movement.
The Incident-
Two days before the incident, on 2
February 1922, volunteers
participating in the Non-cooperation
Movement protested against high
meat prices in the marketplace. The
demonstrators were beaten back by
local police. Several of their leaders
were arrested and put in the lockup at
the Chauri Chaura police station. In
response, a protest against the police
was called for 4 February, to be held
in the local marketplace.
On 5 February, approximately 2,000
to 2,500 protesters assembled and
began marching towards the market
at Chauri Chaura. They had gathered
to picket a liquor shop in the market
place. One of their leaders was
arrested. Part of the crowd gathered
in front of the local police station
shouting slogans demanding the
release of their leader. Armed police
were dispatched to control the
situation while the crowd marched
towards the market and started
shouting anti-government slogans. In
an attempt to frighten and disperse
the crowd, the police fired warning
shots into the air. This only agitated
the crowd who began to throw stones
at the police.
With the situation getting out of
control, the Indian sub-inspector in
charge ordered the police to open fire
on the advancing crowd, killing three
and wounding several others.
Infuriated by the gunfire into their
ranks, the crowd set
the chowki ablaze, killing all of the
Indian policemen
and chaprassis (official messengers)
trapped inside. Most were burned to
death though several appear to have
been killed by the crowd at the
entrance to the chowki and their
bodies thrown back into the fire.
Swaraj Party
The Swaraj Party, was formed
on 9 January 1923 by
Chittaranjan Das and Motilal
Nehru after the Gaya annual
conference in December 1922
of the National Congress, that
sought greater self-government
and political freedom for the
Indian people from the British
Raj.
Other prominent leaders
included Huseyn Shaheed
Suhrawardy and Subhas
Chandra
Bose of Bengal, Vithalbhai
Patel and other Congress
leaders who were becoming
dissatisfied with the Congress.
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Chittaranjan Das was its
president and Motilal Nehru was
its secretary.
It was against Gandhiji’s
suspension of Non-Cooperation
movement.
Das and Nehru thought of
contesting elections to enter the
legislative council with a view to
obstructing a foreign
government.
Many candidates of the Swaraj
Party got elected to the central
legislative assembly and
provincial legislative council in
the 1923 elections.
In these legislatures ,they
strongly opposed the unjust
government policies.
The establishment of fully
responsible government for
India, the convening of a round
table conference to resolve the
problems of Indians, and the
releasing of certain political
prisoners, were the resolutions
in the central legislative council.
After non-cooperation movement
congress was divided into two parts-
Pro-changers and No-changers. Pro
changers opposed the suspension of
non-cooperation movement whereas
no changers were happy with the
suspension. So Pro-changes formed
Swaraj Party.
Now both the Swarajists and
the No-Changers were engaged
in a fierce political struggle, but
both were determined to avoid
the disastrous experience of the
1907 split at Surat.
On the advice of Gandhi, the
two groups decided to remain in
the Congress but to work in
their separate ways.
There was no basic difference
between the two.
Swarajist members were elected to
the councils. Vithalbhai Patel became
the president of the Central Legislative
Assembly.
With the death of Chittaranjan Das in
1925, and with Motilal Nehru's return
to the Congress the following year,
the Swaraj party was greatly
weakened.
The Madras Province Swarajya Party
was established in 1923. S.
Satyamurti and S. Srinivasa
Iyengar led the party.
In 1934, the Madras Province
Swarajya Party merged with the All
India Swarajya Party which
subsequently merged with the Indian
National Congress when it contested
the 1935 elections to the Imperial
Legislative Council under
the Government of India Act 1935.
Simon Commission
The Indian Statutory Commission,
commonly referred to as the Simon
Commission, was a group of
seven British Members
of Parliament under the chairmanship
of Sir John Allsebrook Simon. The
commission arrived in British India in
1928 to study constitutional reform.
Members-
Sir John Simon, (Liberal Party ,
chairman)
Clement Attlee, (Labour Party)
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Harry Levy-Lawson, 1st
Viscount Burnham
Edward Cadogan, (Conservative
Party)
Vernon Hartshorn, (Labour
Party)
George Lane-Fox, (Conservative
Party)
Donald Howard, 3rd Baron
Strathcona and Mount Royal
One of its members was Clement
Attlee, who became committed to
Indian independence by 1934 and
achieved that goal when he became
Prime Minister in 1947 and granted
independence to India and Pakistan.
At the time of introducing
the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms in
1919, the British Government declared
that a commission would be sent to
India after ten years to examine the
effects and operations of the
constitutional reforms and to suggest
more reforms for India. In November
1927, the British government
appointed a commission to report on
India's constitutional progress for
introducing constitutional reforms, as
promised.
People in India were outraged and
insulted that the Simon Commission,
which was to determine the future of
India, did not include a single Indian
member. Lord Irwin suggested to not
to include Indians in Simon
Commission. The Indian National
Congress, at its December 1927
meeting in Madras (now Chennai),
resolved to boycott the Commission
and challenged Lord Birkenhead,
the Secretary of State for India, to
draft a constitution that would be
acceptable to the Indian populace. A
faction of the Muslim League, led
by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, also decided
to boycott the Commission.
However, opinion was divided, with
support for co-operation coming from
some members of the Muslim League
and also both Hindus and members of
the Central Sikh League. An All-India
Committee for Cooperation with the
Simon Commission was established by
the Council of India and by selection
of the Viceroy, Lord Irwin. The
members of the committee were: C.
Sankaran Nair (Chairman), Arthur
Froom, Nawab Ali Khan, Shivdev
Singh Uberoi, Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Hari
Singh Gour, Abdullah Al-Mamun
Suhrawardy, Kikabhai Premchand
and M. C. Rajah.
The Simon Commission left England in
January 1928. Almost immediately
with its arrival in Bombay on 3
February 1928, its members were
confronted by throngs of protesters,
although there were also some
supporters among the crowds who
saw it as the next step on the road to
self-governance. A strike began and
many people turned out to greet the
Commission with black flags. Similar
protests occurred in every major
Indian city that the seven British MPs
visited.
One protest against the Simon
Commission became infamous. On 30
October 1928, the Commission arrived
in Lahore where it was met by
protesters waving black flags. The
protest was led by Indian
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nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai, who had
moved a resolution against the
Commission in the Legislative
Assembly of Punjab in February 1928.
In order to make way for the
Commission, the local police force
began beating protestors. Lala Lajpat
Rai was critically injured and died a
fortnight later.
The Commission published its 2-
volume report in May 1930. It
proposed the abolition of dyarchy and
the establishment of representative
government in the provinces. It also
recommended that separate
communal electorates be retained, but
only until tensions
between Hindus and Muslims had died
down.
The outcome of the Simon
Commission was the Government of
India Act 1935, which called for
"responsible" government at the
provincial level in India but not at the
national level—that is a government
responsible to the Indian community
rather than London. It is the basis of
many parts of the Indian Constitution.
In 1937 the first elections were held in
the Provinces, resulting in Congress
Governments being returned in almost
all Provinces.
The Nehru Report
The Nehru Report of 28-30
August, 1928 was a
memorandum outlining a
proposed new dominion status
constitution for India.
It was prepared by a committee
of the All Parties Conference
chaired by Motilal Nehru with
his son Jawaharlal Nehru acting
as secretary.
There were nine other members
in this committee.
The final report was signed by
Motilal Nehru, Ali Imam, Tej
Bahadur Sapru, Madhav
Shrihari Aney, Mangal Singh,
Shuaib Qureshi, Subhas
Chandra Bose, and G. R.
Pradhan.
This was the first attempt by
Indians to draft a new
constitution.
Points of Nehru Report-
Unlike the eventual Government
of India Act 1935 it contained
a Bill of Rights.
All power of government and all
authority -
legislative, executive and judici
al - are derived from the people
and the same shall be exercised
through organisations
established by, or under, and in
accord with, this Constitution.
There shall be no state religion;
men and women shall have
equal rights as citizens.
There should be federal form of
government with residuary
powers vested in
the centre.(Some scholars, such
as Moore 1988 considered the
Nehru Report proposal as
essentially unitary rather
than federal);
It included a description of the
machinery of government
including a proposal for the
creation of a Supreme
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Court and a suggestion that the
provinces should
be linguistically determined.
It did not provide for separate
electorates for any community
or weightage for minorities.
Both of these were liberally
provided in the
eventual Government of India
Act 1935. However, it did allow
for the reservation of minority
seats in provinces having
a minorities of at least ten
percent, but this was to be in
strict proportion to the size of
the community.
The language of the Union shall
be Indian, which may be written
either in Devanagari
(Hindi/Sanskrit), Telugu,
Kannada, Marathi, Gujarati,
Bengali or Tamil in character.
The use of the English language
shall be permitted.
Fourteen Points of Jinnah
The Fourteen Points of
Jinnah were proposed
by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Jinnah's aim was to get more
rights for Muslims.
The report was given in a
meeting of the council of the All
India Muslim League on 9 March
1929.
Nehru Report was criticised by
Muslim leaders Aga
Khan and Muhammad Shafi.
They considered it as a death
warrant because it
recommended joint electoral
rolls for Hindus and Muslims.
14 points-
1. The form of the future constitution should be federal, with the residuary powers vested in the provinces;
2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be guaranteed to all provinces;
3. All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality;
4. In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one third;
5. Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by means of separate electorate as at present: provided it shall be open to any community, at any time to abandon its separate electorate in favour of a joint electorate.
6. Any territorial distribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim majority.
7. Full religious liberty, i.e. liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education, shall be guaranteed to all communities.
8. No bill or resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if three fourths of the members of any community in that particular body oppose it as being injurious to the interests of that community or
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in the alternative, such other method is devised as may be found feasible and practicable to deal with such cases.
9. Sindh should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.
10. Reforms should be introduced in the North West Frontier Province and Balochistan on the same footing as in the other provinces.
11. Provision should be made in the constitution giving Muslims an adequate share, along with the other Indians, in all the services of the state and in local self-governing bodies having due regard to the requirements of efficiency.
12. The constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture and for the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws and Muslim charitable institutions and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the state and by local self-governing bodies.
13. No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of at least one-third Muslim ministers.
14. No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature except with the concurrence of the States constituting of the Indian Federation.
Purna Swaraj
Purna Swaraj was declared in
Lahore session in 1929.
Jawaharlal Nehru was the
president of this session.
The flag of India was hoisted by
Jawaharlal Nehru on 31
December 1929 on the banks of
river Ravi.
The Congress asked the people
of India to observe 26th of
January as Independence Day.
Hasrat Mohani was the first
activist to demand complete
independence (Poorna Swaraj)
from the British in 1921.
Major decisions taken at the
Lahore session-
The Round Table conference
was to be boycotted.
Complete independence was
declared as the aim of the
congress.
Congress working committee
was authorized to launch a
programme of civil disobedience
including non-payment of taxes
and all members of legislatures
were asked to resign their
seats.
January 26, 1930 was fixed as
the first independence day
Salt March
It started on 12 March 1930 to
6 April 1930. It started from
Sabarmati Ashram to the
coastal village of Dandi.
Mahatma Gandhi started this
march with 78 of his trusted
volunteers.
They covered a distance of 242
miles (390 km) miles.
They walked for 24 days 10
miles a day.
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It was a direct action campaign
of tax resistance and nonviolent
protest against the British salt
monopoly.
The 24-day march would pass
through 4 districts and 48
villages.
The Salt March was also called
the White Flowing
River because all the people
were joining the procession
wearing white khadi.
The Salt Satyagraha quickly
grew into a mass Satyagraha.
British cloth and goods were
boycotted.
Unpopular forest laws were
defied in the Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Central
Provinces.
Gujarati peasants refused to
pay tax, under threat of losing
their crops and land.
In Midnapore, Bengalis took
part by refusing to pay the
chowkidar tax.
The British responded with
more laws, including censorship
of correspondence and
declaring the Congress and its
associate organisations illegal.
None of those measures slowed
the civil disobedience
movement.
C. Rajagopalachari led the salt
march in Tamil Nadu.
K.Kelappan led the salt march
in Malabar.
In Peshawar, satyagraha was led by a
Muslim Pashto disciple of
Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan, who had
trained 50,000 nonviolent activists
called Khudai Khidmatgar. On 23 April
1930, Ghaffar Khan was arrested. A
crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered
in Peshawar's Kissa Khani
(Storytellers) Bazaar. The British
ordered troops of 2/18 battalion of
Royal Garhwal Rifles to open fire with
machine guns on the unarmed crowd,
killing an estimated 200–250. The
Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord
with their training in nonviolence,
willingly facing bullets as the troops
fired on them. One British Indian
Army Soldier Chandra Singh Garwali
and troops of the renowned Royal
Garhwal Rifles, refused to fire at the
crowds. The entire platoon was
arrested and many received heavy
penalties, including life imprisonment.
Women in civil disobedience
The civil disobedience in 1930 marked
the first time women became mass
participants in the struggle for
freedom. Thousands of women, from
large cities to small villages, became
active participants in
satyagraha. Gandhi had asked that
only men take part in the salt march,
but eventually women began
manufacturing and selling salt
throughout India. It was clear that
though only men were allowed within
the march, that both men and women
were expected to forward work that
would help dissolve the salt laws.
Gandhi himself avoided further active
involvement after the march, though
he stayed in close contact with the
developments throughout India. He
created a temporary ashram near
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Dandi. From there, he urged women
followers in Bombay (now Mumbai) to
picket liquor shops and foreign cloth.
He said that "a bonfire should be
made of foreign cloth. Schools and
colleges should become empty."
For his next major action, Gandhi
decided on a raid of the Dharasana
Salt Works in Gujarat, 25 miles south
of Dandi. He wrote to Lord Irwin,
again telling him of his plans. Around
midnight of 4 May, as Gandhi was
sleeping on a cot in a mango grove,
the District Magistrate of Surat drove
up with two Indian officers and thirty
heavily armed constables. He was
arrested under an 1827 regulation
calling for the jailing of people
engaged in unlawful activities, and
held without trial
near Poona (now Pune).
The Dharasana Satyagraha went
ahead as planned, with Abbas Tyabji,
a seventy-six-year-old retired judge,
leading the march with Gandhi's
wife Kasturba at his side. Both were
arrested before reaching Dharasana
and sentenced to three months in
prison. After their arrests, the march
continued under the leadership
of Sarojini Naidu. Vithalbhai Patel,
former Speaker of the Assembly,
watched the beatings and remarked,
"All hope of reconciling India with the
British Empire is lost forever. Time
magazine declared Gandhi its 1930
Man of the Year, comparing Gandhi's
march to the sea "to defy Britain's salt
tax as some New Englanders once
defied a British tea tax.
Salt Satyagraha produced little
progress toward dominion status or
self-rule for India, and did not win any
major concessions from the British. It
also failed to attract Muslim support.
Congress leaders decided to end
satyagraha as official policy in 1934.
Nehru and other Congress members
drifted further apart from Gandhi.
Gandhi withdrew from Congress to
concentrate on his Constructive
Programme, which included his efforts
to end untouchability in
the Harijan movement.
Khudai Khidmatgar was a
Pashtun non-violent movement
against the British Empire by the
people (also known as Pathans,
Pakhtuns or Afghans) of the North-
West Frontier Province of British
India (now in Pakistan). It was also
called Surkh Posh or "Red Shirts". The
movement was led by Khan Abdul
Ghaffar Khan, known locally as Bacha
Khan or Badshah Khan.
The Bannu Resolution was a formal
political statement adopted in India on
June 21, 1947, seven weeks before
the Partition of India, by Bacha
Khan, Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai,
the Khudai Khidmatgars, members of
the Provincial Assembly, Mirzali
Khan (Faqir of Ipi), and other tribal
chiefs at a loya jirga held at Bannu.
The resolution demanded that
the Pashtuns be given a choice to
have an independent state
of Pashtunistan, composing all
Pashtun territories of British India,
instead of being made to join either
India or Pakistan. But, the British
Raj refused to comply with the
resolution.
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Gandhi Irwin Pact
The Gandhi Irwin Pact was a
political agreement signed
by Mahatma Gandhi and the
then Viceroy of India, Lord
Irwin on 5 March 1931 before
the second Round Table
Conference in London.
Before this, the viceroy Lord
Irwin announced in October
1929, a vague offer of
'dominion status' for India in an
unspecified future and a Round
Table Conference to discuss a
future constitution.
The main purpose of this pact
to make Congress participated
in round table conference.
Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R.
Jaykar played an important role
in the signing of this pact.
Sarojini Naidu called Gandhi
and Irwin “the two Mahatmas”. Alan Campbell Johnson termed
Gandhi’s gain in the pact as
“Consolation Prizes”.
Below are the proposed
conditions:-
Discontinuation of the civil disobedience movement by the Indian National Congress
Participation by the Indian National Congress in the Round Table Conference
Withdrawal of all ordinances issued by the British Government imposing curbs on the activities of the Indian National Congress
Withdrawal of all prosecutions relating to several types of offenses except those involving violence
Release of prisoners arrested for participating in the civil disobedience movement
Removal of the tax on salt, which allowed the Indians to produce, trade, and sell salt legally and for their own private use
In reply, the British Government agreed to:-
1. Withdraw all ordinances and end prosecutions
2. Release all political prisoners, except those guilty of violence
3. Permit peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops
4. Restore confiscated properties of the satyagrahis
5. Permit free collection or manufacture of salt by persons near the sea-coast
6. Lift the ban over the congress.
Karachi Session -1931
The Gandhi Irwin Pact was
approved by the Congress in
the Karachi Session of
1931,that was held from March
26-31.
Vallabhbhai Patel was the
president of this session.
Congress passed the resolutions
related to Fundamental Rights
and the national economic
programmes for the first time in
this session.
Jawahar Lal Nehru with the help
of M.N.Roy drafted the
resolution of Fundamental
Rights and the national
economic programmes.
Subhash Chandra Bose
regarded Karachi session as the
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pinnacle of Gandhiji’s popularity
and prestige.
Some important aspects of these
resolutions were:
Basic civil rights of freedom of
speech, Freedom of Press,
Freedom of assembly, Freedom
of association,
Equality before law
Elections on the basis of
Universal Adult Franchise
Free and compulsory primary
education.
Substantial reduction in rent
and taxes
Better conditions for workers
including a living wage, limited
hours of work.
Protection of women and
peasants
Government ownership or
control of key industries, mines,
and transport.
Protection of Minorities.
Round Table Conferences
The three Round Table
Conferences of 1930–32 were
a series of conferences
organized by the British
Government to discuss
constitutional reforms in India.
These started in November
1930 and ended in December
1932.
They were conducted as per the
recommendation
of Jinnah to Viceroy Lord
Irwin and Prime
Minister Ramsay
MacDonald, and by the report
submitted by the Simon
Commission in May 1930.
Demands for swaraj, or self-
rule, in India had been growing
increasingly strong.
By the 1930s, many British
politicians believed that India
needed to move
towards dominion status.
However, there were significant
disagreements between the
Indian and the British political
parties that the Conferences
would not resolve.
B.R.Ambedkar and Tej Bahadur
Sapru attended all the three
conferences.
First Round Table Conference
(November 1930 – January 1931)
The Round Table Conference
officially inaugurated by His
Majesty George V on November
12, 1930 in Royal Gallery House
of Lords at London and chaired
by the British Prime
Minister, Ramsay MacDonald.
The three British political
parties were represented by
sixteen delegates.
There were fifty-eight political
leaders from British India and
sixteen delegates from the
princely states.
In total 74 delegates from India
attended the Conference.
However, the Indian National
Congress, along with Indian
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business leaders, kept away
from the conference.
Many of them were in jail for
their participation in Civil
Disobedience Movement.
The idea of an All-India
Federation was moved to the
centre of discussion by Tej
Bahadur Sapru.
Other important discussions
were the responsibility of the
executive to the legislature and
a separate electorate for
the Untouchables as demanded
by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
Second Round Table Conference
(September – December 1931)
The Congress had boycotted the
first conference was requested
to come to a settlement by
Sapru, M. R. Jayakar and V. S.
Srinivasa Sastri.
A settlement between Mahatma
Gandhi and Viceroy Lord
Irwin known as the Gandhi–Irwin Pact was reached and
Gandhi was appointed as the
sole representative of the
Congress to the second Round
Table Conference.
Although MacDonald was still
Prime Minister of Britain, he
was by this time heading a
coalition Government (the
"National Government") with a
Conservative majority. It was
held in London in September
1931.
The discussion led to the
passing of the Government Of
India act of 1935.
The Gandhi-Irwin Pact opened
the way for Congress
participation in this conference.
Mahatma Gandhi was invited
from India and attended as the
sole official Congress
representative accompanied
by Sarojini Naidu and
also Madan Mohan
Malaviya, Ghanshyam Das
Birla, Muhammad Iqbal, Sir
Mirza Ismail (Diwan of
Mysore), S.K. Dutta and Sir
Syed Ali Imam.
Gandhi claimed that the
Congress alone represented
political India; that the
Untouchables were Hindus and
should not be treated as a
“minority”; and that there
should be no separate
electorates or special
safeguards for Muslims or other
minorities.
These claims were rejected by
the other Indian participants.
During the Conference, Gandhi
could not reach agreement with
the Muslims on Muslim
representation and safeguards.
At the end of the conference
Ramsay MacDonald undertook
to produce a Communal
Award for minority
representation, with the
provision that any free
agreement between the parties
could be substituted for his
award.
Third Round Table Conference
(November – December 1932)
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The third and last session
assembled on November 17,
1932.
Only forty-six delegates
attended since most of the main
political figures of India were
not present.
The Labour Party from Britain
and the Indian National
Congress refused to attend.
From September 1931 until
March 1933, under the
supervision of the Secretary of
State for India, Sir Samuel
Hoare, the proposed reforms
took the form reflected in
the Government of India Act
1935.
Communal Award
The Communal Award was made by the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald on 16 August 1932 granting separate electorates in India for the Forward Caste, scheduled Caste, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and Depressed Classes (now known as the Scheduled Caste) etc.
The principle of weightage was also applied.
The reason behind introduction of this 'Award' was that Ramsay MacDonald considered himself as 'a friend of the Indians' and thus wanted to resolve the issues in India.
The 'Communal Award' was announced after the failure of
the Second of the Three Round Table Conferences.
The Award was highly controversial and opposed by Gandhi, who was in Yerwada jail, and fasted in protest against it.
Gandhi feared that it would disintegrate Hindu society.
However, the Communal Award was supported by many among the minority communities, most notably the leader of the Scheduled Castes, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
According to Ambedkar, Gandhi was ready to award separate electorates to Muslims and Sikhs. But Gandhi was reluctant to give separate electorates to scheduled castes.
He was afraid of division inside Congress and Hindu society due to separate scheduled caste representations.
But Ambedkar insisted for separate electorate for scheduled caste.
After lengthy negotiations, Gandhi reached an agreement with Ambedkar to have a single Hindu electorate, with scheduled castes having seats reserved within it.
This is called the Poona Pact.
Electorates for other religions like Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans remained separate.
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Poona Pact
The Poona Pact refers to an
agreement between B. R.
Ambedkar and M. K. Gandhi on
the reservation of electoral
seats for the depressed classes
in the legislature of British
India government.
It was made on the 24th of
September 1932 at Yerwada
Central Jail in Poona, India.
It was signed by Madan Mohan
Malviya, Ambedkar and some
other leaders as a means to end
the fast that Gandhi was
undertaking in jail as a protest
against the decision by British
Prime Minister Ramsay
MacDonald to give separate
electorates to depressed classes
for the election of members of
provincial legislative assemblies
in British India.
They finally agreed upon 148
seats whereas Communal
Award had reserved 71 seats
for depressed classes.
Terms of the Poona Pact
Seat reservation for the
Scheduled Castes (SC) and
Scheduled Tribes (ST) in
provincial legislature
The STs and SCs would form an
electoral college which would
elect four candidates for the
general electorate
The representation of these
classes was based on the
standards of joint electorates
and reserved seats
About 19 per cent of seats were
to be reserved for these classes
in legislature
The system of election to the
panel of candidates in both,
Central and Provincial
Legislature should come to end
in 10 years, unless it ends on
mutual terms
The representation of the
classes through reservation
should continue as per clauses
1 and 4 until determined, else
by mutual agreement between
the communities
The franchise for the Central
and Provincial Legislatures of
these classes should be
indicated in the Lothian
Committee report
There should be a fair
representation of these classes
In every province, the SCs and
STs should be provided with
sufficient educational facilities.
After Poona Pact Gandhiji was not
actively involved in civil disobedience
movement but now he took an
interest in anti-untouchability
movements and launched ‘All India
Untouchability League’. Its name was
later changed to ‘Harijan Sewak
Sangh’. Ghanshyam Das Birla was the
first president of this Sangh and Amrit
Lal Thakkar was the first secretary of
this Sangh.
All India Depressed Class Federation
was founded by B.R.Ambedkar in
1920. He started publication of
Marathi paper ‘Bahiskrit Bharat’. He
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said ‘Mahatma Gandhi like fleeting
phantom raised dust not the level’.
Congress Socialist Party
The Congress Socialist
Party (CSP) was founded in
1934 by Rambriksh Benipuri, Jai
Prakash Narayan, Ram Manohar
Lohia, Acharya Narendra Deva
as a socialist group within
the Indian National Congress.
Influenced by Fabianism as well
as Marxism-Leninism, the CSP
included advocates of armed
struggle or sabotage (such as
Yusuf Meherally, Jai Prakash
Narayan, Rambriksh
Benipuri and Basawon Singh
(Sinha) as well as those who
insisted upon ahimsa or
nonviolent resistance (such as
Acharya Narendra Deva).
The CSP advocated
decentralized socialism in
which co-operatives, trade
unions, independent farmers,
and local authorities would hold
a substantial share of the
economic power.
JP Narayan and Minoo Masani
were released from jail in April
1934.Rambriksh Benipuri &
Narayan convened a meeting
in Patna on 17 May 1934, which
founded the Bihar Congress
Socialist Party.
Rambriksh Benipuri & Narayan
convened a meeting in Patna on
17 May 1934, which founded
the Bihar Congress Socialist
Party.Rambriksh Benipuri was
the driving force behind the
formation of socialist party.
He was a Gandhian Socialist.
Narayan became general
secretary of the party and
Acharya Narendra Deva became
president.
In the new party the greeting
'comrade' was used.
Masani mobilised the party
in Bombay,
whereas Kamaladevi
Chattopadhyaya and Puroshotta
m Trikamdas organised the
party in other parts
of Maharashtra.
Ganga Sharan Singh (Sinha)
was among the prominent
leaders of the Indian National
Congress Party as among the
founders of the Congress
Socialist Party.
The constitution of the CSP
defined that the members of
CSP were the members of the
Provisional Congress Socialist
Parties and that they were all
required to be members of the
Indian National Congress.
Indian provincial elections, 1937
Provincial elections were held
in British India in 1936-37 as
mandated by the Government
of India Act 1935.
Elections were held in eleven
provinces - Madras, Central
Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United
Provinces, Bombay
Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Beng
al, Punjaband Sindh.
The final results of the elections
were declared in February
1937.
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The Indian National Congress
emerged in power in eight of
the provinces - the three
exceptions being Bengal,
Punjab, and Sindh.
The All-India Muslim
League failed to form the
government in any province.
The Congress ministries
resigned in October and
November 1939, in protest
against Viceroy Lord
Linlithgow's action of declaring
India to be a belligerent in
the Second World War without
consulting the Indian people.
Election-
The 1937 election was the first
in which large masses of
Indians were eligible to
participate.
An estimated 30.1 million
persons, including 4.25 million
women, had acquired the right
to vote (12% of the total
population), and 15.5 million of
these, including 917,000
women, participated to exercise
their franchise.
Nehru admitted that while the
elections were on a restricted
franchise, they were a big
improvement as compared to
earlier elections conducted by
the British raj that had been
extremely restricted.
The results were in favour of
the Indian National Congress.
Of the total of 1,585 seats, it
won 707 (44.6%).
Among the 864 seats assigned
"general" constituencies, it
contested 739 and won 617. Of
the 125 non-general
constituencies contested by
Congress, 59 were reserved for
Muslims and in those the
Congress won 25 seats, 15 of
them in the entirely-
Muslim North-West Frontier
Province.
The All-India Muslim
League won 106 seats (6.7% of
the total), placing it as second-
ranking party.
The only other party to win
more than 5 percent of the
assembly seats was
the Unionist Party (Punjab),
with 101 seats.
Neither the Muslim League nor
the Congress did well in the
Muslim constituencies.
While the Muslim League fared
better on Muslim seats from the
non-Muslim majority provinces,
its performance was less
impressive in the Muslim
majority provinces such as
Punjab and Bengal.
The Congress was also unable
to show popularity among
Muslims.
The elections showed that
Muslims thought along
provincial or local lines and
were less interested in all-India
matters.
In Madras, the Congress won 74% of
all seats, eclipsing the
incumbent Justice Party (21 seats).
The Sind Legislative Assembly had 60
members. The Sind United Party
emerged the leader with 22 seats, and
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the Congress secured 8 seats.
Mohammad Ali Jinnah had tried to set
up a League Parliamentary Board in
Sindh in 1936, but he failed, though
72% of the population was
Muslim. Though 34 seats were
reserved for Muslims, the Muslim
League could secure none of them.
The United Provinces legislature
consisted of a Legislative Council of 52
elected and 6 or 8 nominated
members and a Legislative Assembly
of 228 elected members: some from
exclusive Muslim constituencies, some
from "General" constituencies, and
some "Special" constituencies. The
Congress won a clear majority in the
United Provinces, with 133
seats, while the Muslim League won
only 27 out of the 64 seats reserved
for Muslims.
In Assam, the Congress won 33 seats
out of a total of 108 making it the
single largest party, though it was not
in a position to form a ministry. The
Governor called upon Sir Muhammad
Sadulla, ex-Judicial Member of Assam
and Leader of the Assam Valley
Muslim Party to form the ministry. The
Congress was a part of the ruling
coalition.
In Bombay, the Congress fell just
short of gaining half the seats.
However, it was able to draw on the
support of some small pro-Congress
groups to form a working
majority. B.G. Kher became the first
Chief Minister of Bombay.
In three additional provinces, Central
Provinces, Bihar, and Orissa, the
Congress won clear majorities. In the
overwhelmingly Muslim North-West
Frontier Province, Congress won 19
out of 50 seats and was able, with
minor party support, to form a
ministry.
The Unionist Party under Sikander
Hyat Khan formed the government
in Punjab with 95 out of 175 seats.
The Congress won 18 seats and the
Akali Dal, 10. In Bengal, though the
Congress was the largest party (with
54 seats), The Krishak Praja
Party of A. K. Fazlul Huq (with 36
seats) was able to form a coalition
government.
The election results were a blow to the
League. After the election, Muhammad
Ali Jinnah of the League offered to
form coalitions with the Congress. The
League insisted that the Congress
should not nominate any Muslims to
the ministries, as it (the League)
claimed to be the exclusive
representative of Indian Muslims. This
was not acceptable to the Congress,
and it declined the League's offer.
Resignation of Congress ministries
Viceroy Linlithgow declared
India at war with Germany on 3
September 1939.
The Congress objected strongly
to the declaration to war
without prior consultation with
Indians.
The Congress Working
Committee suggested that it
would cooperate if there were a
central Indian national
government formed, and a
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commitment made to India's
independence after the war.
The Muslim League promised its
support to the British, with
Jinnah calling on Muslims to
help the Raj by "honourable co-
operation" at the "critical and
difficult juncture," while asking
the Viceroy for increased
protection for Muslims.
The government did not come
up with any satisfactory
response. The viceroy
Linlithgow could only offer to
form a 'consultative committee'
for advisory functions.
Thus, Linlithgow refused the
demands of the Congress.
On 22 October 1939, all
Congress ministries were called
upon to tender their
resignations."
Both Viceroy Linlithgow and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah were
pleased with the resignations.
On 2 December 1939, Jinnah
put out an appeal, calling for
Indian Muslims to celebrate
22 December 1939 as a "Day
of Deliverance" from
Congress.
Butler Committee
The Indian states committee
appointed a committee under
the Chairmanship of Sir
Harcourt Butler which was
popularly known as ‘the Butler
Committee’ to investigate and
clarify the relationship between
the British Government of India
and the Princes of Princely
States in AD 1927.
The committee visited16 States
and submitted its report in
1929.
The committee consisted of Sir
Harcourt Butler, Prof. W.S.
Holdsworth and S.C. Peel.
They visited sixteen Princely
States.
They submitted their report in
February 1929.
Recommendations of the Butler
committee -
(i) The relationship of the paramount
power with the state was not merely a
contractual relationship, but a living,
growing relationship shaped by the
circumstances and policy, resting on
the mixture of history and theory.
(ii) State should not be transferred
without their own agreement to a
relationship with a new government in
British India responsible to an Indian
legislature.
(iii) British paramountcy preserve the
princely state.
August Offer
On 8 August 1940, the Viceroy of
India, Lord Linlithgow, made the so-
called "August Offer".
The following proposals were put in:
1. After the war a representative
Indian body would be set up to
frame a constitution for India.
2. Viceroy's Executive Council
would be expanded without
delay.
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3. The minorities were assured
that the government would not
transfer power "to any system
of government whose authority
is directly denied by large and
powerful elements in Indian
national life.
In return, it was hoped that all parties
and communities in India would
cooperate in Britain's war effort.
The Congress Working
Committee meeting at Wardha on
21st August 1940 eventually rejected
the offer, and asserted its demand for
complete freedom from the imperial
power. The Muslim League did not
accept the offer as it did not give a
clear assurance that a separate
Pakistan would be established.
Individual Satyagraha
The Congress was in a confused
state again after the August
Offer.
The radicals and leftists wanted
to launch a mass Civil
Disobedience Movement, but
here Gandhi insisted on
Individual Satyagraha.
The Individual Satyagraha was
not to seek independence but to
affirm the right of speech.
The other reason for this
Satyagraha was that a mass
movement might turn violent
and he would not like to see the
Great Britain embarrassed by
such a situation.
This view was conveyed to Lord
Linlithgow by Gandhi when he
met him on 27 September
1940.
The non-violence was set as the
centerpiece of Individual
Satyagraha.
This was done by carefully
selecting the Satyagrahis.
The first Satyagrahi selected
was Acharya Vinoba Bhave, who
was sent to Jail when he spoke
against the war.
He was followed nearly by
25,000 individual satygrahis.
The second Satyagrahi was
Jawahar Lal Nehru.
The third was Brahma Datt, one
of the inmates of the Gandhi's
Ashram. They all were sent to
jail for violating the Defence of
India Act, and many others
were also later imprisoned.
But since it was not a mass
movement, it attracted little
enthusiasm and in December
1940, Gandhi suspended it.
The campaign started again in
January 1941; this time
thousands of people joined and
around 20,000 people were
arrested.
Significant modifications were
made to the August Offer in
1942 in the form of Cripps
Proposals.
Cripps Mission - 1942
Cripps Mission was sent by the British
Government in March 1942 to India
with key objective to secure Indian
cooperation and support for British
War Efforts. It was headed by Sir
Stafford Cripps and sought to
negotiate an agreement with Indian
leaders. Winston Churchill was the
prime minister at that time.
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Proposals -
An Indian Union with a
dominion status; would be set
up; it would be free to decide
its relations with the
Commonwealth and free to
participate in the United Nations
and other international bodies.
After the end of the war, a
constituent assembly would be
convened to frame a new
constitution. Members of this
assembly would be partly
elected by the provincial
assemblies through proportional
representation and partly
nominated by the princes.
The British Government would
accept the new constitution only
on the following conditions :(a)
any province not willing to join
the Union could have a separate
constitution and form a
separate Union, and (b) the
new constitution- making body
and the British Government
would negotiate a treaty to
effect the transfer of power and
to safeguard racial and religious
minorities.
The post of governor-general’s would remain intact and
defence of India would remain
in British hands.
The Congress stopped talks with
Cripps and, guided by Gandhi, the
national leadership demanded
immediate self-government in
return for war support. Gandhi said
that Cripps' offer of Dominion
Status after the war was a "post-
dated cheque drawn on a failing
bank".
The Muslim League rejected the
Cripps proposal. Jinnah argued that
the proposals were merely a draft
declaration and did not meet the
demand for Pakistan sufficiently
and preferred a scheme of United
India.
Quit India Movement
The Quit India Movement, or
the India August Movement,
was a movement launched at
the Bombay session of the All-
India Congress Committee
by Mahatma Gandhi on 8
August 1942, during World War
II, demanding an end to British
Rule of India.
The Cripps Mission had failed,
and on August 8th 1942,
Gandhi made a call to Do or
Die in his Quit India
speech delivered in Bombay at
the Gowalia Tank Maidan.
The Congress Working
Committee meeting
at Wardha (14 July 1942)
passed a resolution demanding
complete independence from
the British government.
The draft proposed massive civil
disobedience if the British did
not accede to the demands.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad,
Sarojini Naidu, Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr.
Rajendra Prasad,Sitaramaiyya,
G.V.Pant,Praful Chandra Ghosh,
Saiyyad Mehmood, Asaf Ali,
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J.B.Kriplani, Mahatma Gandhi,
etc. had taken part.
The president of this session
was Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
On August 8, 1942 in the
meeting of AICC, Jawaharlal
Nehru presented Quit India
resolution and Sardar Patel
supported it. The draft of Quit
India Resolution was prepared
by Mahatma Gandhi.
The commander-in-chief of the
Indian Army during Quit Indian
movement was Lord Wavell.
On the eve of commencing Quit
India movement, 1942 Mahatma
Gandhi had given the following
statements-
1. Government employees should
not leave their work but should
declare their allegiance for
congress
2. Soldiers should refuse to fire on
their countrymen.
3. Students should leave their
study only if they stay firm on
their decision until freedom is
achieved
4. The Princess of the princely
states should accept the
sovereignty of their people and
people living in their states
should declare them as a part of
the Indian nation and accept
the leadership of the king only
when they take their future
linked with public.
However, it proved to be controversial
within the party. A prominent
Congress national
leader, Chakravarti Rajgopalachari,
quit the Congress over this
decision, and so did some local and
regional level organisers. Jawaharlal
Nehru and Maulana Azad were
apprehensive and critical of the call,
but backed it and stuck with
Gandhi's leadership until the
end. Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel, Rajendra Prasad and Anugrah
Narayan Sinha openly and
enthusiastically supported such a
disobedience movement, as did many
veteran Gandhians and socialists
like Asoka Mehta and Jayaprakash
Narayan.
Muslim League, the Hindu
Mahasabha, the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh,
the Communist Party of India and
the princely states opposed the
Quit India movement.
Hindu nationalist parties like
the Hindu Mahasabha openly
opposed the call for the Quit India
Movement and boycotted it
officially. Vinayak Damodar
Savarkar, the president of the Hindu
Mahasabha at that time, even went to
the extent of writing a letter titled
"Stick to your Posts", in which he
instructed Hindu Sabhaites who
happened to be "members of
municipalities, local bodies,
legislatures or those serving in the
army... to stick to their posts" across
the country, and not to join the Quit
India Movement at any cost.
Syama Prasad Mukherjee was the
leader of the Hindu Mahasabha in
Bengal, (which was a part of the ruling
coalition in Bengal led by Krishak
Praja Party of Fazlul Haq).
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During Quit India Movement,
congress radio was secretly being
broadcasted form different parts of
India which could be heard upto
Madras. Ram Manohar Lohia was
regularly broadcasted on the radio.
Usha Mehta was a member of the
small group of congress that managed
underground congress radio.
The American journalist Louis
Fischer and other intellectuals Pearl
Buck, Adgersnow, M.L.Surment and
Norman Thomas were with Gandhiji
and demanded India’s freedom.
After passing the movement, Gandhiji
was arrested in Bombay and kept in
Aga Khan Palace, Pune.
Jai Prakash Narayan got the
recognition as a national leader during
the Quit India movement. All the main
leaders of the congress were arrested
in the starting of the movement.
Congress leaders such as Jai Prakash
Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna
Asaf Ali who were outside jail started
consolidating public secretly. Jai
Prakash Narayan was put under arrest
in Hazaribagh Jail during the Quit
India movement. He escaped from
high security prison and organized
under ground activities.
Parallel government was
established in –
1. Ballia (Uttar pradesh under
the leadership of Chittu
Pandey.
2. Tamluk (Midnapore) Bengal
3. Satara (Mahrashtra)
One of the important achievements of
the movement was keeping the
Congress party united through all the
trials and tribulations that followed.
The British, already alarmed by the
advance of the Japanese army to the
India-Burma border, responded by
imprisoning Gandhi. All the members
of the Party's Working Committee
(national leadership) were imprisoned
as well. Due to the arrest of major
leaders, a young and until then
relatively unknown Aruna Asaf
Ali presided over the AICC session on
9 August and hoisted the flag; later
the Congress party was banned.
C. Rajagopalachari's formula
C. Rajagopalachari's
formula (or C. R. formulaor Rajaji formula) was a proposal formulated by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim League and the Indian National Congress on the independence of British India.
The League's position was that the Muslims and Hindus of British India were of two separate nations and hence the Muslims had the right to their own nation.
The Congress, which included both Hindu and Muslim members, was opposed to the idea of partitioning India.
With the advent of the Second World War the British administration required both parties to agree so that Indian help could be sought for the war effort.
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C. Rajagopalachari, a Congress leader from Madras, devised a proposal for the Congress to offer the League, the predominantly Muslim region that became Pakistanbased on a plebiscite of all the people in those regions where Muslims were in the majority.
Although the formula was opposed, even within the Congress party, Gandhi used it as the basis of his proposal in talks with Jinnah in 1944.
However, Jinnah rejected the proposal and the talks failed.
Proposals of the CR formula -
The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with the Congress in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period.
At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be conducted on all inhabitants (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage.
All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views before the plebiscite.
In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding essential matters such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential services.
The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis.
The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by Britain to Government of India.
The Indian National Army (Azad
Hind Fauj)
The Indian National
Army (INA; Azad Hind Fauj)
was an armed force formed by
Indian nationalists in 1942
in Southeast Asia during World
War II.
Its aim was to secure Indian
independence from British rule.
It formed an alliance
with Imperial Japan in the
latter's campaign in
the Southeast Asian theatre of
WWII.
The army was first formed in
1942 under Mohan Singh, by
Indian PoWs of the British-
Indian Army captured by Japan
in the Malayan campaign and at
Singapore.
This first INA collapsed and was
disbanded in December that
year after differences between
the INA leadership and the
Japanese military over its role
in Japan's war in Asia.
It was revived under the
leadership of Subhas Chandra
Bose after his arrival in
Southeast Asia in 1943.
The army was declared to be
the army of Bose's Arzi
Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (the
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Provisional Government of Free
India).
Under Bose's leadership, the
INA drew ex-prisoners and
thousands of civilian volunteers
from the Indian
expatriate population
in Malaya (present-day
Malaysia) and Burma.
This second INA fought along
with the Imperial Japanese
Army against the British
and Commonwealth forces in
the campaigns in Burma, in
Imphaland at Kohima, and later
against the successful Burma
Campaign of the Allies.
The end of the war saw a large
number of the troops repatriated to
India where some faced trials for
treason. These trials became a
galvanising point in the Indian
Independence
movement. The Bombay mutiny in
the Royal Indian Navy and other
mutinies in 1946 are thought to have
been caused by the nationalist feelings
that were caused by the INA trials.
First INA
Before the start of World War
II, Japan and South-East Asia
were major refuges for exiled
Indian nationalists.
Meanwhile, Japan had sent
intelligence missions, notably
under Maj. Iwaichi Fujiwara,
into South Asia to gather
support from the Malayan
sultans, overseas Chinese, the
Burmese resistance and
the Indian independence
movement.
The Minami Kikan successfully
recruited Burmese nationalists,
while the F Kikan was
successful in establishing
contacts with Indian nationalists
in exile in Thailand and Malaya.
Fujiwara, later self-described as
"Lawrence of the Indian
National Army" (after Lawrence
of Arabia) is said to have been
a man committed to the values
which his office was supposed
to convey to the expatriate
nationalist leaders, and found
acceptance among them.
His initial contact was with Giani
Pritam Singh and the Thai-
Bharat Cultural Lodge.
At the outbreak of World War
II in South-East Asia, 70,000
Indian troops (mostly Sikhs)
were stationed in Malaya. In
Japan's spectacular Malayan
Campaign a large number of
Indian prisoners-of-war were
captured, including nearly
45,000 after the fall of
Singapore alone.
The conditions of service within
the British-Indian Army and the
social conditions in Malaya had
led to dissension among these
troops.
From these prisoners, the First
Indian National Army was
formed under Mohan Singh.
Singh was an officer in the
British-Indian Army who was
captured early in the Malayan
campaign.
His nationalist sympathies
found an ally in Fujiwara and he
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61
received considerable Japanese
aid and support.
Ethnic Indians in Southeast Asia
also supported the cause of
Indian independence and had
formed local leagues in Malaya
before the war.
These came together with
encouragement from Japan
after the occupation, forming
the Indian Independence
League (IIL).
Although there were a number
of prominent local Indians
working in the IIL, the overall
leadership came to rest
with Rash Behari Bose, an
Indian revolutionary who had
lived in self-exile in Japan since
World War I.
The League and INA leadership
decided that the INA was to be
subordinate to the IIL.
A working council – composed
of prominent members of the
League and the INA leaders – was to decide on decisions to
send the INA to war.
The Indian leaders feared that
they would appear to be
Japanese puppets, so a decision
was taken that the INA would
go to battle only when
the Indian National
Congress called it to do so.
In November and December
1942, concern about Japan's
intentions towards the INA led
to disagreement between the
INA and the League on the one
hand and the Japanese on the
other.
The INA leadership resigned
along with that of the League
(except Rash Behari).
The unit was dissolved by
Mohan Singh in December
1942, and he ordered the
troops of the INA to return to
PoW camps.
Mohan Singh was expected to
be shot.
Between December 1942 and
February 1943, Rash Behari
struggled to hold the INA
together.
Second INA
Bose was a hard-line radical
nationalist. He had joined the
Gandhian movement after resigning
from a prestigious post in the Indian
Civil Service in 1922, quickly rising in
the Congress and being incarcerated
repeatedly by the Raj. By late 1920s
he and Nehru were considered the
future leaders of the Congress. In the
late 1920s, he was amongst the first
Congress leaders to call for complete
independence from Britain (Purna
Swaraj), rather than the previous
Congress objective of India becoming
a British dominion. In Bengal, he was
repeatedly accused by Raj officials of
working with the revolutionary
movement. Under his leadership, the
Congress youth group in Bengal was
organised into a quasi-military
organisation called the Bengal
Volunteers. Bose deplored Gandhi's
pacifism; Gandhi disagreed with
Bose's confrontations with the
Raj. The Congress's working
committee, including Nehru, was
predominantly loyal to Gandhi. While
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openly disagreeing with Gandhi, Bose
won the presidency of Indian National
Congress twice in the 1930s. His
second victory came despite
opposition from Gandhi. He defeated
Gandhi's favoured
candidate, Bhogaraju Pattabhi
Sitaramayya, in the popular vote, but
the entire working committee resigned
and refused to work with Bose. Bose
resigned from the Congress
presidency and founded his own
faction, the All India Forward Bloc.
At the start of World War II,
Bose was placed under house-
arrest by the Raj.
He escaped in disguise and
made his way through
Afghanistan and Central -Asia.
He came first to the Soviet
Union and then to Germany,
reaching Berlin on 2 April 1941.
There he -sought to raise an
army of Indian soldiers from
prisoners of war captured by
Germany, forming the Free
India Legion and the Azad
Hind Radio.
In a series of meetings between
the INA leaders and the
Japanese in 1943, it was
decided to cede the leadership
of the IIL and the INA to Bose.
In January 1943, the Japanese
invited Bose to lead the Indian
nationalist movement in East
Asia.
He accepted and left Germany
on 8 February.
After a three-month journey by
submarine and a short stop in
Singapore, he reached Tokyo on
11 May 1943.
In Tokyo, he met Hideki Tojo,
the Japanese prime minister,
and the Japanese High
Command.
He then arrived in Singapore in
July 1943, where he made a
number of radio broadcasts to
Indians in Southeast Asia
exhorting them to join in the
fight for India's independence.
On 4 July 1943, two days after
reaching Singapore, Bose
assumed the leadership of the
IIL and the INA in a ceremony
at Cathay Building.
Divisions of INA
The 1st Division, under M.Z.
Kiani, drew a large number of
ex-Indian army prisoners of war
who had joined Mohan Singh's
first INA. It also drew prisoners
of war who had not joined in
1942.
It consisted of the 2nd Guerrilla
Regiment (the Gandhi Brigade)
consisting of two battalions
under Col. Inayat Kiani; the 3rd
Guerrilla Regiment (the Azad
Brigade) with three battalions
under Col. Gulzara Singh; and
the 4th Guerrilla Regiment
(or Nehru Brigade) commanded
by the end of the war by Lt.
Col Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon.
The 1st Guerrilla Regiment – the Subhas Brigade – under
Col. Shah Nawaz Khan was an
independent unit, consisting of
three infantry battalions.
A special operations group was
also to be set up called
the Bahadur group(Valiant), to
operate behind enemy lines.
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A training school for INA
officers, led by Habib ur
Rahman, and the Azad School
for the civilian volunteers were
set up to provide training to the
recruits.
A youth wing of the INA,
composed of 45 young Indians
personally chosen by Bose and
known as the Tokyo Boys, was
also sent to Japan's Imperial
Military Academy, where its
members trained as fighter
pilots.
A separate all-female unit was
also created under Lakshmi
Sahgal.
This unit was intended to have
combat-commitments.
Named Jhansi ki Rani ("Jhansi
Queens") Regiment (after the
legendary rebel
Queen Lakshmibai of the 1857
rebellion), it drew female
civilian volunteers from Malaya
and Burma.
In October 1943, Bose
proclaimed the formation of
the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind,
or the Provisional Government
of Free India (also known
as Azad Hind or Free India).
The INA was declared to be the
army of Azad Hind.
The British-Indian Army intended to
implement appropriate internal
disciplinary action against its soldiers
who had joined the INA, whilst putting
to trial a selected group in order to
preserve discipline in the Indian Army
and to award punishment for criminal
acts where these had occurred.
Red Fort trials
Between November 1945 and
May 1946, approximately ten
courts-martial were held in
public at the Red Fort in Delhi.
Claude Auchinleck,
the Commander-in-Chief of the
British-Indian army, hoped that
by holding public trials in the
Red Fort, public opinion would
turn against the INA.
General Shah Nawaz Khan,
Colonel Prem Sahgal and
Colonel Gurbaksh Singh
Dhillon were court martialed.
The three accused were from
the three major religions of
India: Hinduism, Islam, and
Sikhism.
Indians felt the INA represented
a true, secular, national army
when judged against the
British-Indian Army, where
caste and religious differences
were preserved amongst ranks.
The Congress quickly came
forward to defend soldiers of
the INA who were to be court-
martialled.
The INA Defence
Committee was formed by the
Indian Congress and included
prominent Indian legal figures,
among whom were Jawaharlal
Nehru, Bhulabhai
Desai, Kailashnath
Katju and Asaf Ali.
Bhulabhai Desai was the head
of the committee.
The trials covered arguments
based on military law,
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constitutional law, international
law, and politics.
In spite of aggressive and
widespread opposition to
continuation of the court
martial, it was completed.
The sentence however was
never carried out. Immense
public pressure,
demonstrations, and riots
forced Claude Auchinleck to
release all three defendants.
Within three months, 11,000
soldiers of the INA were
released after cashiering and
forfeiture of pay and allowance.
On the recommendation of Lord
Mountbatten and with the
agreement of Jawaharlal Nehru,
former soldiers of the INA were
not allowed to join the
new Indian Armed Forces as a
condition for independence.
The Royal Indian Navy revolt
The Royal Indian Navy
revolt (also called the Royal
Indian Navy mutiny
or Bombay mutiny)
encompasses a total strike and
subsequent revolt by Indian
sailors of the Royal Indian
Navyon board ship and shore
establishments
at Bombay harbour on 18
February 1946.
From the initial flashpoint in
Bombay, the revolt spread and
found support
throughout British India,
from Karachi to Calcutta, and
ultimately came to involve over
20,000 sailors in 78 ships and
shore establishments.
The mutiny was repressed with
force by British troops and
Royal Navy warships.
Total casualties were 8 dead
and 33 wounded.
Only the Communist Party
supported the strikers; the
Congress and the Muslim
League condemned it.
Strike
The RIN Revolt started as a
strike by ratings of the Royal
Indian Navy on 18 February in
protest against general
conditions.
A naval rating is an enlisted
member of a country's navy,
subordinate to warrant
officers and officers.
The immediate issues of the
revolt were living conditions and
food.
By dusk on 19 February, a
Naval Central Strike committee
was elected.
Leading Signalman Lieutenant
M.S. Khan and Petty Officer
Telegraphist Madan Singh were
unanimously elected President
and Vice-President respectively.
The actions of the mutineers
was supported by
demonstrations which included
a one-day general
strike in Bombay.
The strike spread to other
cities, and was joined by
elements of the Royal Indian Air
Force and local police forces.
Indian Naval personnel began calling
themselves the "Indian National Navy"
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and offered left-handed salutes to
British officers. At some places, NCOs
in the British Indian Armyignored and
defied orders from British superiors.
In Madras and Poona (now Pune), the
British garrisons had to face some
unrest within the ranks of the Indian
Army. Widespread rioting took place
from Karachi to Calcutta. Notably, the
revolting ships hoisted three flags tied
together – those of
the Congress, Muslim League, and the
Red Flag of the Communist Party of
India (CPI), signifying the unity and
downplaying of communal issues
among the mutineers.
The revolt was called off following a
meeting between the President of the
Naval Central Strike Committee
(NCSC), M. S. Khan, and Vallab Bhai
Patel of the Congress, who had been
sent to Bombay to settle the crisis.
Patel issued a statement calling on the
strikers to end their action, which was
later echoed by a statement issued in
Calcutta by Mohammed Ali Jinnah on
behalf of the Muslim League. Under
these considerable pressures, the
strikers gave way. Arrests were then
made, followed by courts martial and
the dismissal of 476 sailors from the
Royal Indian Navy. None of those
dismissed were reinstated into either
the Indian or Pakistani navies after
independence.
Wavell Plan
In May 1945 Wavell visited London and discussed his ideas with the British Government.
These London talks resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of action which was officially made public simultaneously on June 14, 1945 by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of State for India, in the House of Commons and by Wavell in a broadcast speech delivered from Delhi.
Sir Winston Churchill as prime minister and head of war cabinet proposed Field Marshal Wavell's name to his cabinet in mid-June 1943, as India's next viceroy.
General Sir Claude Auchinleck who had followed Wavell in his middle eastern command was to be the next commander in chief of Indian army after Lord Wavell.
On becoming Viceroy, Wavell’s most important task was to present a formula for the future government of India which would be acceptable to both Congress and the Muslim League.
The plan, commonly known as the Wavell Plan, proposed the
following:
1. The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the number of its members would be increased.
2. In the Council there would be equal representation of high-caste Hindus and Muslims.
3. Other minorities including low-caste Hindus, Shudras and Sikhs would be given representation in the Council.
4. All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy and the
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Commander-in-Chief, would be Indians.
5. An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in the Council. However, a British commissioner would be responsible for trade matters.
6. The defence of India would remain in British hands until power was ultimately transferred to Indians.
7. The Viceroy would convene a meeting of Indian politicians including the leaders of Congress and the Muslim League at which they would nominate members of the new Council.
8. If this plan were to be approved for the central government, then similar councils of local political leaders would be formed in all the provinces.
9. None of the changes suggested would in any way prejudice or prejudge the essential form of the future permanent Constitution of India.
To discuss these proposals with Indian leaders, Wavell summoned them to a conference to take place in Simla on June 25, 1945.
While the plan proposed immediate
changes to the composition of the
Executive Council it did not contain
any guarantee of Indian
independence, nor did it contain any
mention of a future constituent
assembly or any proposals for the
division of power between the various
parties of India.
Shimla Conference 1945
The Shimla
Conference 1945 was a
meeting between the Viceroy
and the major political leaders
of British India at Simla, India.
It was convened to agree on
and approve the Wavell Plan for
Indian self-government.
It reached a potential
agreement for the self-rule of
India that provided separate
representation for Muslims and
reduced majority powers for
both communities in their
majority regions.
Lord Wavell officially opened
the summit on 25 June 1945.
In the beginning Azad being
president of congress spoke of
its "non-communal" character.
Jinnah spoke of Congress'
predominately Hindu character,
at that point there was a tug of
war that was settled down by
Wavell's intervention.
On the morning of June 29 the
conference was reconvened and
Wavell asked parties to submit
list of candidates for his new
council, Azad agreed while
Jinnah refused to submit a list
before consulting Muslim
League's working committee.
Jinnah said that Wavell had
failed to give assurance relating
nomination of all Muslim
members form Muslim League's
platform so he was not able to
submit a list.
Viceroy made his own list of
new council members to
Leopold Amery (secretary of
state to India).
Four were to be Muslim League
members (Liaquat Ali
Khan, Khawaja
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Nazimuddin, Chaudhry
Khaliquzzaman and Eassak
Sait) and another Non-League
Muslim Muhammad Nawaz Khan
(a Punjabi landlord).
The five 'Caste Hindus' had to
be Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabhbhai
Patel, Rajendra Prasad, Madhav
Shrihari Aney, B. N. Rau.
Tara Singh was to represent
Sikhs and B. R. Ambedkar to
untouchables.
John Mathai was the only
Christian thus bringing total to
sixteen with Viceroy and
Commander-in-Chief.
Amery asked Wavell to consult
this list with Jinnah, when
Jinnah was asked about Muslim
names he bitterly refused to
allow any League member to be
part of the government until the
League's right to be the sole
representative of Muslims of
India was acknowledged.
Wavell found this demand
impossible thus he half an hour
later told Gandhi about his
failure. Thus the Wavell plan
that was later to be called
Shimla Conference was badly
failed.
Cabinet Mission - 1946
The Cabinet Mission of 1946
aimed to discuss the transfer of
power from the British
government to the Indian
leadership, with the aim of
preserving India's unity and
granting it independence.
Formulated at the initiative
of Clement Attlee, the Prime
Minister of the United
Kingdom, the mission included
Lord Pethick-Lawrence,
the Secretary of State for
India, Sir Stafford Cripps,
President of the Board of Trade,
and A. V. Alexander, the First
Lord of the Admiralty.
The Cabinet Mission arrived in
India on 23 March 1946 and in
Delhi on 2 April 1946.
The announcement of the Plan
on 16 May 1946 had been
preceded by the Shimla
Conference in the first week of
May.
The Mission proposed its plan over
the composition of the new
government on 16 May 1946. In
its proposals, the creation of a
separate Muslim Pakistan was
rejected.
1. A united Dominion of India
would be given independence.
2. The Muslim-majority provinces
would be grouped,
with Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan
and North-West Frontier
Province forming one group,
and Bengal and Assam would
form another.
3. The Hindu-majority provinces in
central and southern India
would form another group.
4. The central government,
stationed in Delhi, would be
empowered to handle
nationwide affairs, such as
defence, currency, and
diplomacy, and the rest of
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powers and responsibility would
belong to the
provinces,coordinated by
groups.
An interim Government at the Centre
representing all communities would be
installed on the basis of parity
between the representatives of the
Hindus and the Muslims
Congress abhorred the idea of having
the groupings of Muslim-majority
provinces and that of Hindu-majority
provinces with the intention of
balancing one another at the central
legislature. The Muslim League could
not accept any changes to this plan
since they wanted to keep the
safeguards of British Indian laws to
prevent absolute rule of Hindus over
Muslims.
Reaching an impasse, the British
proposed a second plan on 16 June
1946 to arrange for India to be
divided into Hindu-majority India and
a Muslim-majority India that would
later be renamed Pakistan since
Congress had vehemently rejected
'parity' at the centre. A list of princely
states of India, which would be
permitted to accede to the dominion
or attain independence, was also
drawn up.
The Viceroy began organising the
transfer of power to a Congress-
League coalition.
Jinnah withdrew the Muslim
League's acceptance of the
Cabinet Mission Plan on 17 July.
Thus Congress leaders entered
the Viceroy's Executive
Council or the Interim
Government of India.
Nehru became the head, vice-
president in title, but
possessing the executive
authority.
Jinnah and the League condemned
the new government, and vowed to
agitate for Pakistan by any means
possible. The rejection of cabinet
mission plan led to a resurgence of
confrontational politics beginning
with the Muslim League's Direct
action day and the subsequent
killings in Noakhali and Bihar.
Constituent Assembly of India
The Constituent Assembly of India was elected to write the Constitution of India.
The Assembly met for the first time in New Delhi on 9 December 1946, and its last session was held on 24 January 1950.
Following India's independence from Great Britain in 1947, its members served as the nation's first Parliament.
An idea for a Constituent Assembly was proposed in 1934 by M. N. Roy.
It became an official demand of the Indian National Congress in 1935.
C. Rajagopalachari demanded for a Constituent Assembly on 15 November 1939 based on adult franchise, and was accepted by the British in August 1940.
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On 8 August 1940, a statement was made by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow about the expansion of the Governor-General's Executive Council and the establishment of a War Advisory Council. This offer, known as the August Offer, included giving full weight to minority opinions and allowing Indians to draft their own constitution.
Under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, elections were held for the first time for the Constituent Assembly.
The Constitution of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, and it was implemented under the Cabinet Mission Plan on 16 May 1946.
The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the provincial assemblies by a single, transferable-vote system of proportional representation.
The total membership of the Constituent Assembly was 389: 292 were representatives of the states, 93 represented the princely states and four were from the chief commissioner provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg (Near Madikeri) and British Baluchistan.
The elections for the 296 seats assigned to the British Indian provinces were completed by August 1946.
Congress won 208 seats, and the Muslim League 73.
After this election, the Muslim League refused to cooperate with the Congress, and the political situation deteriorated.
Hindu-Muslim riots began, and the Muslim League demanded a separate constituent assembly for Muslims in India.
On 3 June 1947 Lord Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India, announced his intention to scrap the Cabinet Mission Plan; this culminated in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and the separate nations of India and Pakistan.
The Indian Independence Act was passed on 18 July 1947 and, although it was earlier declared that India would become independent in June 1948, this event led to independence on 15 August 1947.
The Constituent Assembly (elected for an undivided India) met for the first time on 9 December 1946, reassembling on 14 August 1947 as a sovereign body and successor to the British parliament's authority in India.
As a result of the partition, under the Mountbatten plan a separate constituent assembly was established in Pakistan on 3 June 1947.
The representatives of the areas incorporated into Pakistan ceased to be members of the Constituent Assembly of India. New elections were held for the West Punjab and East Bengal (which became part of Pakistan, although East Bengal later seceded to become Bangladesh); the membership of the Constituent Assembly was 299 after the
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reorganization, and it met on 31 December 1947.
The Interim Government of India was
formed on 2 September 1946 from the
newly elected Constituent
Assembly. On 26 January 1950 the
constitution took effect
(commemorated as Republic Day),
and the Constituent Assembly became
the Provisional Parliament of India
(continuing until after the first
elections under the new constitution in
1952). Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was
the first chairman (temporary) of
Constituent Assembly. Later
Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as
the president and Its vice-president
was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee.
Jurist B. N. Rau was appointed
constitutional adviser to the assembly.
Rau prepared the original draft of the
constitution, and was later appointed
a judge in the Permanent Court of
International Justice in The Hague.
Timeline
9 December 1946: The first
meeting of the Constituent
Assembly was held in the
constitution hall (now the
Central Hall of Parliament
House). Demanding a separate
state, the Muslim League
boycotted the meeting.
Sachchidananda Sinha was
elected temporary president of
the assembly, in accordance
with French practice.
11 December 1946: Rajendra
Prasad was elected as president
and H. C. Mukherjeewas elected
as vice-president of the
constituent assembly. B. N. Rau
was appointed as its
constitutional adviser.
13 December 1946: An
'Objective Resolution' was
moved by Jawaharlal Nehru in
the assembly, laying down the
underlying principles of the
constitution. It finally became
the Preamble of the
constitution.
22 January 1947: Objective
resolution unanimously
adopted.
22 July 1947: National
flag adopted.
15 August 1947: Indian
independence achieved as
the Dominion of India.
29 August 1947: Drafting
Committee appointed with Dr.
B. R. Ambedkar as the
Chairman.
16 July 1948: Along
with Harendra Coomar
Mookerjee V. T.
Krishnamachari was also
elected as second vice-
president of Constituent
Assembly.
26 November
1949: Constitution passed and
accepted by the assembly.
24 January 1950: "Jana Gana
Mana" adopted as the national
anthem, with the first two
verses of "Vande Mataram" the
national song. Rajendra Prasad
elected the first president of
India.
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The assembly was chaired by Dr.
Rajendra Prasad when it met as a
constituent body, and by G. V.
Mavlankar when it met as a legislative
body. It completed the task of drafting
a constitution in two years, eleven
months and eighteen days, at a total
expenditure of ₹ 6.4 million.
The Constituent Assembly appointed a
total of 22 committees to deal with
different tasks of constitution-making.
Out of these, eight were major
committees and the others were minor
committees.
Major Committees
1. Drafting Committee – Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar
2. Union Powers Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
3. Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
4. Provincial Constitution
Committee – Sardar Patel
5. Advisory Committee on
Fundamental Rights, Minorities
and Tribal and Excluded Areas – Sardar Patel. This committee
had the following
subcommittees:
1. Fundamental Rights Sub-
Committee – J.B.
Kripalani
2. Minorities Sub-
Committee – Harendra
Coomar Mookerjee,
3. North-East Frontier Tribal
Areas and Assam
Excluded & Partially
Excluded Areas Sub-
Committee – Gopinath
Bardoloi
4. Excluded and Partially
Excluded Areas (Other
than those in Assam)
Sub-Committee – A V
Thakkar
6. Rules of Procedure Committee – Dr. Rajendra Prasad
7. States Committee (Committee
for Negotiating with States) – Jawaharlal Nehru
8. Steering Committee – Dr.
Rajendra Prasad
Interim Government of India-1946
The Interim Government of
India, formed on 2 September
1946 from the newly
elected Constituent Assembly of
India, had the task of assisting
the transition of British India to
independence.
It remained in place until 15
August 1947, the date of the
independence (and partition)
of India, and the creation
of Pakistan.
After the end of the Second
World War, the British
authorities in India released all
political prisoners who had
participated in the Quit India
movement.
The Indian National Congress,
the largest Indian political
party, which had long fought for
national independence, agreed
to participate in elections for
a constituent assembly, as did
the Muslim League.
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The newly elected government
of Clement Attlee dispatched
the 1946 Cabinet Mission to
India to formulate proposals for
the formation of a government
that would lead to an
independent India.
The elections for the
Constituent Assembly were not
direct elections, as the
members were elected from
each of the provincial legislative
assemblies.
In the event, the Indian
National Congress won a
majority of the seats, some 69
per cent, including almost every
seat in areas with a majority
Hindu electorate.
The Congress had clear
majorities in eight of the eleven
provinces of British India.
The Muslim League won the
seats allocated to the Muslim
electorate.
The Viceroy's Executive
Council became the executive
branch of the interim government.
Originally it was headed by the
Viceroy of India. Later, it was
transformed into a council of
ministers, with the powers of
a prime minister bestowed on the
vice-president of the Council. This
position was held by the Congress
leader Jawaharlal Nehru.
Office Name
Viceroy and
Governor-
General of
India
President of
The Viscount
Wavell
British
Raj
the Executive
Council
Commander-
in-Chief
Sir Claude
Auchinleck
Vice President
of the
Executive
Council
External
Affairs and
Commonweal
th Relations
Jawaharlal
Nehru
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Home Affairs
Information
and
Broadcasting
Vallabhbhai
Patel
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Agriculture
and Food
Rajendra
Prasad
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Arts,
Education
and Health
Shafaat
Ahmed Khan
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Commerce C.H. Bhabha
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Defence Baldev Singh
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
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Finance John Mathai
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Industries
and Supplies
C.
Rajagopalach
ari
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Labour Jagjivan Ram
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Law Syed Ali
Zaheer
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Railways and
Communicati
ons
Post and Air
Asaf Ali
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Works, Mines
and Power
Sarat
Chandra
Bose
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Reconstituted Cabinet
Cabinet was reconstituted when
Muslim league joined the interim
government.
Office Name
Viceroy and
Governor-
General of
India
President of
the Executive
Council
The Viscount
Wavell (15
October
1946 – 20
February
1947)
British
Raj The Viscount
Mountbatten
of Burma(21
February
1947 -)
Commander-
in-Chief
Sir Claude
Auchinleck
Vice President
of the
Executive
Council
External
Affairs and
Commonweal
th Relations
Jawaharlal
Nehru
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Agriculture
and Food
Rajendra
Prasad
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Commerce
Ibrahim
Ismail
Chundrigar
All-
India
Muslim
League
Defence Baldev Singh
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Finance Liaquat Ali
Khan
All-
India
Muslim
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League
Education
C.
Rajagopalach
ari
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Health Ghazanfar Ali
Khan
All-
India
Muslim
League
Home Affairs
Information
and
Broadcasting
Vallabhbhai
Patel
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Labour Jagjivan Ram
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Law Jogendra
Nath Mandal
All-
India
Muslim
League
Railways and
Communicati
ons
Post and Air
Abdur Rab
Nishtar
All-
India
Muslim
League
Works, Mines
and Power C.H. Bhabha
Indian
Nationa
l
Congre
ss
Indian Independence Act 1947
The Indian Independence
Act 1947 is an Act of
the Parliament of the United
Kingdom that partitioned British
India into the two new
independent dominions of India
and Pakistan.
The Act received the royal
assent on 18 July 1947.
The legislation was formulated
by the government of Prime
Minister Clement Attlee and the
Governor General of India Lord
Mountbatten, after
representatives of the Indian
National Congress, the Muslim
League, and
the Sikh community came to an
agreement with Lord
Mountbatten on 3 June
Plan or Mountbatten Plan. This
plan was the last plan for
independence.
The Prime Minister of the United
Kingdom announced on 20
February 1947 that:
1. the British Government would
grant full self-government to
British India by June 1948 at
the latest,
2. The future of the Princely
States would be decided after
the date of final transfer is
decided.
3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan
This was also known as the
Mountbatten Plan. The British
government proposed a plan
announced on 3 June 1947 that
included these principles:
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1. Principle of the Partition of
British India was accepted by
the British Government
2. Successor governments would
be given dominion status
Dickie Bird Plan or Plan Balkan
It was prepared by Lord
Mountabtten.
This plan was prepared by a
committee of General Sir
Hastings Ismay, Sir George
Abell and Lord Mountbatten.
The Plan Balkan was completed
and presented on 15-16 April
1947 by Hastings Ismay to
assembly of provincial
governors in Delhi.
It was decided that instead of
giving sovereignity to a
common center, all the existing
states be rendered free.
Provinces should become first
independent successor states
rather than an Indian Union or
the two dominions of India &
Pakistan.
Nehru rejected the plan right
away and told him that this plan
would invite Balkanization of
India and would provoke
conflict and violence.
The Act's most important
provisions were:
division of British India into the
two new and fully sovereign
dominions
of India and Pakistan, with
effect from 15 August 1947;
partition of the provinces
of Bengal and Punjab between
the two new countries;
establishment of the office
of Governor-General in each of
the two new countries, as
representatives of the Crown;
conferral of complete legislative
authority upon the
respective Constituent
Assembliesof the two new
countries;
termination of
British suzerainty over
the princely states, with effect
from 15 August 1947, and
recognised the right of states to
remain independent or accede
to either dominion[7]
abolition of the use of the title
"Emperor of India" by
the British monarch (this was
subsequently executed by King
George VI by royal
proclamation on 22 June 1948).
The Act also made provision for the
division of joint property, etc. between
the two new countries, including in
particular the division of the armed
forces.
Lord Mountbatten, the last
Viceroy, was asked by the Indian
leaders to continue as
the Governor-General of
India. Jawaharlal Nehru became
the Prime Minister of India
and Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel became the Home Minister.
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Over 560 princely states acceded
to India by 15 August. The exceptions
were Junagadh, Hyderabad and Jamm
u and Kashmir. The state of Jammu
and Kashmir, which was contiguous to
both India and Pakistan but, its Hindu
ruler chose to remain initially
independent. Following a Pakistani
tribal invasion, he acceded to India on
26 October 1947, and the state
became a dispute between India and
Pakistan. The state
of Junagadh initially acceded to
Pakistan but faced a revolt from its
Hindu population. Following a
breakdown of law and order, its
Dewan requested India to take over
the administration on 8 November
1947. India conducted a referendum
in the state on 20 February 1948, in
which the people voted
overwhelmingly to join India. The
state of Hyderabad, with majority
Hindu population but Muslim ruler,
faced an intense turmoil and sectarian
violence. India invaded the state on
13 September 1948, following which
the ruler of the state signed
the Instrument of Accession, joining
India.
After Lord Mountabatten,
C.Rajagopalchari became the first
Indian governor general and the
last the last governor general.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah became
the Governor-General of Pakistan,
and Liaquat Ali Khanbecame the Prime
Minister of Pakistan.
The Indian Independence Act was
subsequently repealed in Article 395
of the Constitution of India and in
Article 221 of the Constitution of
Pakistan of 1956, to bring about
greater independence for the new
states. Although, under British law,
the new constitutions did not have the
legal authority to repeal the Act. The
Act has not been repealed in the
United Kingdom, where it still has
effect, although some sections of it
have been repealed.
The Congress committee had accepted
the proposal of divided India on 14
June 1947. J.B.Kriplani was the
chairman of the INC at that time. This
proposal was presented by Gobind
Vallabh Pant and supported by
Maulana Azad, Sardar Patel and
Jawaharlal Nehru.
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