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Hel (being) 1

Hel (being)

Hel (1889) by Johannes Gehrts.

In Norse mythology, Hel is a being who presides over a realm of the

same name, where she receives a portion of the dead. Hel is attested in

the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional

sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri

Sturluson. In addition, she is mentioned in poems recorded in

Heimskringla andEgils saga that date from the 9th and 10th centuries,

respectively. An episode in the Latin work Gesta Danorum, written in

the 12th century by Saxo Grammaticus, is generally considered to refer

to Hel, and Hel may appear on various Migration Period bracteates.

In the Poetic Edda, Prose Edda, and Heimskringla, Hel is referred to

as a daughter of Loki, and to "go to Hel" is to die. In the Prose Edda

book Gylfaginning, Hel is described as having been appointed by the

god Odin as ruler of a realm of the same name, located in Niflheim. Inthe same source, her appearance is described as half black and half

flesh-coloured and further as having a gloomy, downcast appearance.

TheProse Edda details that Hel rules over vast mansions, her servants

in her underworld realm, and as playing a key role in the attempted

resurrection of the god Baldr.

Scholarly theories have been proposed about Hel's potential connections to figures appearing in the 11th century Old

English Gospel of Nicodemus and Old Norse Bartholomeus saga postola, potential Indo-European parallels to

Bhavani, Kali, and Mahakali, and her origins.

Attestations

Poetic Edda

ThePoetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, features various poems that mention

Hel. In thePoetic Edda poem Vlusp, Hel's realm is referred to as the "Halls of Hel."[1] In Grmnisml, Hel is listed

as living beneath one of three roots growing from the world tree Yggdrasil. [2] InFfnisml, the hero Sigurd stands

before the mortally wounded body of the dragon Ffnir, and states that Ffnir lies in pieces, where "Hel can take"

him.[3] InAtlaml, the phrases "Hel has half of us" and "sent off to Hel" are used in reference to death.[4] In stanza 4

ofBaldrs draumar, Odin rides towards the "high hall of Hel."[5]

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baldrs_draumarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlam%C3%A1lhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=F%C3%A1fnirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sigurdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=F%C3%A1fnism%C3%A1lhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yggdrasilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1lhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahakalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bhavanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Indo-European_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bartholomeus_saga_postolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_English_Gospel_of_Nicodemushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_English_Gospel_of_Nicodemushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baldrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niflheimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Odinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gylfaginninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lokihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bracteatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Migration_Periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxo_Grammaticushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gesta_Danorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egils_sagahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heimskringlahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snorri_Sturlusonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snorri_Sturlusonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prose_Eddahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poetic_Eddahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hel_%28location%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norse_mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AHel_%281889%29_by_Johannes_Gehrts.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Gehrts

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Prose Edda

A depiction of a young Hel (center) being led to

the assignment of her realm, while her brother

Fenrir is led forward (left) and Jrmungandr

(right) is about to be cast by Odin (1906) by

Lorenz Frlich.

"Hermod before Hela" (1909) by John Charles

Dollman.

"The children of Loki" (1920) by Willy Pogany.

Hel is referenced in the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by

Snorri Sturluson, various times. In chapter 34 of the book

Gylfaginning, Hel is listed by High as one of the three children of Loki

and Angrboa; the wolf Fenrir, the serpent Jrmungandr, and Hel.

High continues that, once the gods found that these three children arebeing brought up in the land of Jtunheimr, and when the gods "traced

prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would

arise for them" then the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three

children, partially due to the nature of the mother of the children, yet

worse so due to the nature of their father.[6]

High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them

to him. Upon their arrival, Odin threw Jrmungandr into "that deep sea

that lies round all lands," Odin threw Hel into Niflheim, and bestowed

upon her authority over nine worlds, in that she must "administer boardand lodging to those sent to her, and that is those who die of sickness

or old age." High details that in this realm Hel has "great Mansions"

with extremely high walls and immense gates, a hall called ljnir, a

dish called "Hunger," a knife called "Famine," the servant Ganglati

(Old Norse "lazy walker"[7]), the serving-maid Ganglt (also "lazy

walker"[7]), the entrance threshold "Stumbling-block," the bed

"Sick-bed," and the curtains "Gleaming-bale." High describes Hel as

"half black and half flesh-coloured," adding that this makes her easily

recognizable, and furthermore that Hel is "rather downcast and

fierce-looking."

[8]

In chapter 49, High describes the events surrounding the death of the

god Baldr. The goddess Frigg asks who among the sir will earn "all

her love and favour" by riding to Hel, the location, to try to find Baldr,

and offer Hel herself a ransom. The god Hermr volunteers and sets

off upon the eight-legged horse Sleipnir to Hel. Hermr arrives in

Hel's hall, finds his brother Baldr there, and stays the night. The next

morning, Hermr begs Hel to allow Baldr to ride home with him, and

tells her about the great weeping the sir have done upon Baldr's

death.[9] Hel says the love people have for Baldr that Hermr has

claimed must be tested, stating:

"If all things in the world, alive or dead, weep for him,

then he will be allowed to return to the sir. If anyone

speaks against him or refuses to cry, then he will remain

with Hel."[10]

Later in the chapter, after the female jtunn kk refuses to weep for

the dead Baldr, she responds in verse, ending with "let Hel hold what

she has."[11] In chapter 51, High describes the events of Ragnark, and details that when Loki arrives at the field

Vgrr "all of Hel's people" will arrive with him.[12]

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%ADgr%C3%AD%C3%B0rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ragnar%C3%B6khttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%9E%C3%B6kkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B6tunnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sleipnirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herm%C3%B3%C3%B0rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%86sirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frigghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baldrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%89lj%C3%BA%C3%B0nirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norse_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niflheimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B6tunheimrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B6rmungandrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fenrirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angrbo%C3%B0ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lokihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=High%2C_Just-As-High%2C_and_Thirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gylfaginninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snorri_Sturlusonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prose_Eddahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AThe_children_of_Loki_by_Willy_Pogany.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Willy_Poganyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AHermod_before_Hela.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Charles_Dollmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Charles_Dollmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herm%C3%B3%C3%B0rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ALoki%27s_children_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lorenz_Fr%C3%B8lich

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"Loki's Brood" (1905) by Emil Doepler.

In chapter 5 of theProse Edda book Skldskaparml, Hel is mentioned

in a kenning for Baldr ("Hel's companion").[13] In chapter 16, "Hel's

[...] relative or father" is given as a kenning for Loki.[14] In chapter 50,

Hel is referenced ("to join the company of the quite monstrous wolf's

sister") in the skaldic poemRagnarsdrpa.[15]

Heimskringla

In theHeimskringla book Ynglinga saga, written in the 13th century by

Snorri Sturluson, Hel is referred to, though never by name. In chapter

17, the king Dyggvi dies of sickness. A poem from the 9th century

Ynglingatal that forms the basis ofYnglinga saga is then quoted that describes Hel's taking of Dyggvi:

I doubt not

but Dyggvi's corpse

Hel does hold

to whore with him;

for Ulf's sib

a scion of kings

by right should

caress in death:

to love lured

Loki's sister

Yngvi's heir

o'er all Sweden.[16]

In chapter 45, a section from Ynglingatal is given which refers to Hel as "howes'-warder" (meaning "guardian of the

graves") and as taking King Halfdan Hvitbeinn from life.[17] In chapter 46, King Eystein Halfdansson dies by being

knocked overboard by a sail yard. A section from Ynglingatal follows, describing that Eystein "fared to" Hel

(referred to as "Bleistr's-brother's-daughter").[18] In chapter 47, the deceased Eystein's son King Halfdan dies of an

illness, and the excerpt provided in the chapter describes his fate thereafter, a portion of which references Hel:

Loki's child

from life summoned

to her thing

the third liege-lord,

when Halfdan

of Holtar farm

left the life

allotted to him.[19]

In a stanza from Ynglingatal recorded in chapter 72 of theHeimskringla book Saga of Harald Sigurdsson, "given to

Hel" is again used as a phrase to referring to death. [20]

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harald_Sigurdssonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thing_%28assembly%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Halfdan_the_Mildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B%C3%BDleistrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eystein_Halfdanssonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Halfdan_Hvitbeinnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bowl_barrowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yngvihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ynglingatalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyggvihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snorri_Sturlusonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ynglinga_sagahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ragnarsdr%C3%A1pahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skaldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kenninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1lhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ALokis_Gez%C3%BCcht.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emil_Doepler

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Egils saga

The Icelanders' saga Egils saga contains the poem Sonatorrek. The saga attributes the poem to 10th century skald

Egill Skallagrmsson, and writes that it was composed by Egill after the death of his son Gunnar. The final stanza of

the poem contains a mention of Hel, though not by name:

Now my course is tough:

Death, close sister

of Odin's enemy

stands on the ness:

with resolution

and without remorse

I will gladly

await my own.[21]

Gesta DanorumIn the account of Baldr's death in Saxo Grammaticus' early 13th century work Gesta Danorum, the dying Baldr has a

dream visitation from Proserpina (here translated as "the goddess of death"):

The following night the goddess of death appeared to him in a dream standing at his side, and declared

that in three days time she would clasp him in her arms. It was no idle vision, for after three days the

acute pain of his injury brought his end.[22]

Scholars have assumed that Saxo used Proserpina as a goddess equivalent to the Norse Hel. [23]

Archaeological record

It has been suggested that several Migration Period imitation medallions and bracteates feature depictions of Hel. Inparticular the bracteates IK 14 and IK 124 depict a rider traveling down a slope and coming upon a female being

holding a scepter or a staff. The downward slope may indicate that the rider is traveling towards the realm of the

dead and the woman with the scepter may be a female ruler of that realm, corresponding to Hel. [24]

Some B-class bracteates showing three godly figures have been interpreted as depicting Baldr's death, the best

known of these is the Fakse bracteate. Two of the figures are understood to be Baldr and Odin while both Loki and

Hel have been proposed as candidates for the third figure. If it is Hel she is presumably greeting the dying Baldr as

he comes to her realm.[25]

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bracteatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Migration_Periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proserpinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gesta_Danorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxo_Grammaticushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egill_Skallagr%C3%ADmssonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sonatorrekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egils_sagahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sagas_of_Icelanders

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Theories

An 18th centuryProse Edda manuscript

illustration featuring Hermr upon Sleipnir

(left), Baldr (upper right), and Hel (lower right).

Details include Hel's dish "hunger" and the knife

" famine".

"Heimdallr desires Iunn's return from the

Underworld" (1881) by Carl Emil Doepler.

Seo Hell

The Old English Gospel of Nicodemus, preserved in two manuscripts

from the 11th century, contains a female figure referred to as Seo hell

who engages in flyting with Satan and tells him to leave her dwelling

(Old English ut of mynre onwununge). Regarding Seo Hell in the Old

English Gospel of Nicodemus, Michael Bell states that "her vivid

personification in a dramatically excellent scene suggests that her

gender is more than grammatical, and invites comparison with the Old

Norse underworld goddess Hel and the Frau Holle of German folklore,

to say nothing of underworld goddesses in other cultures" yet adds that

"the possibility that these genders are merely grammatical is

strengthened by the fact that an Old Norse version of Nicodemus,

possibly translated under English influence, personifies Hell in the

neuter (Old Norseat helviti)."[26]

Bartholomeus saga postola

The Old Norse Bartholomeus saga postola, an account of the life of

Saint Bartholomew dating from the 13th century, mentions a "Queen

Hel." In the story, a devil is hiding within a pagan idol, and bound by

Bartholomew's spiritual powers to acknowledge himself and confess,

the devil refers to Jesus as the one which "made war on Hel our queen"

(Old Norse heriai a Hel drottning vara). "Queen Hel" is not

mentioned elsewhere in the saga.[26]

Michael Bell says that while Hel "might at first appear to be identical

with the well-known pagan goddess of the Norse underworld" as

described in chapter 34 ofGylfaginning, "in the combined light of the

Old English and Old Norse versions ofNicodemus she casts quite a

different a shadow," and that in Bartholomeus saga postola "she is

clearly the queen of the Christian, not pagan, underworld."[27]

Origins and development

Jacob Grimm theorized that Hel (whom he refers to here asHalja, the

theorized Proto-Germanic form of the term) is essentially an "image of

a greedy, unrestoring, female deity" and that "the higher we are

allowed to penetrate into our antiquities, the less hellish and more

godlike may Halja appear. Of this we have a particularly strong

guarantee in her affinity to the Indian Bhavani, who travels about and

bathes like Nerthus and Holda, but is likewise calledKali orMahakali,

the great blackgoddess. In the underworld she is supposed to sit in judgment on souls. This office, the similar name

and the black hue [...] make her exceedingly like Halja. AndHalja is one of the oldest and commonest conceptions

of our heathenism."

[28]

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahakalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holdahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nerthushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bhavanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Germanichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacob_Grimmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saint_Bartholomewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bartholomeus_saga_postolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Norsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holdahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flytinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_English_Gospel_of_Nicodemushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AHeimdal_verlangt_die_R%C3%BCckkehr_Iduns_aus_der_Unterwelt.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Emil_Doeplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I%C3%B0unnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heimdallrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ATreated_NKS_hermodr.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baldrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sleipnir

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Grimm theorizes that the Helhest, a three legged-horse that roams the countryside "as a harbinger of plague and

pestilence" in Danish folklore, was originally the steed of the goddess Hel, and that on this steed Hel roamed the land

"picking up the dead that were her due." In addition, Grimm says that a wagon was once ascribed to Hel, with which

Hel made journeys.[29] Grimm says that Hel is an example of a "half-goddess;" "one who cannot be shown to be

either wife or daughter of a god, and who stands in a dependent relation to higher divinities" and that

"half-goddesses" stand higher than "half-gods" in Germanic mythology.[30]

Hilda Ellis Davidson (1948) states that Hel "as a goddess" in surviving sources seems to belong to a genre of literary

personification, that the word hel is generally "used simply to signify death or the grave," and that the word often

appears as the equivalent to the English 'death,' which Davidson states "naturally lends itself to personification by

poets." Davidson explains that "whether this personification has originally been based on a belief in a goddess of

death called Hel is another question," but that she does not believe that the surviving sources give any reason to

believe so. Davidson adds that, on the other hand, various other examples of "certain supernatural women"

connected with death are to be found in sources for Norse mythology, that they "seem to have been closely

connected with the world of death, and were pictured as welcoming dead warriors," and that the depiction of Hel "as

a goddess" in Gylfaginning "might well owe something to these."[31]

In a later work (1998), Davidson states that the description of Hel found in chapter 33 of Gylfaginning "hardlysuggests a goddess." Davidson adds that "yet this is not the impression given in the account of Hermod's ride to Hel

later in Gylfaginning (49)" and points out that here Hel "[speaks] with authority as ruler of the underworld" and that

from her realm "gifts are sent back to Frigg and Fulla by Balder's wife Nanna as from a friendly kingdom." Davidson

posits that Snorri may have "earlier turned the goddess of death into an allegorical figure, just as he made Hel, the

underworld of shades, a place 'where wicked men go,' like the Christian Hell ( Gylfaginning 3)." Davidson continues

that:

"On the other hand, a goddess of death who represents the horrors of slaughter and decay is something

well known elsewhere; the figure of Kali in India is an outstanding example. Like Snorri's Hel, she is

terrifying to in appearance, black or dark in colour, usually naked, adorned with severed heads or arms

or the corpses of children, her lips smeared with blood. She haunts the battlefield or cremation ground

and squats on corpses. Yet for all this she is 'the recipient of ardent devotion from countless devotees

who approach her as their mother' [...].[32]

Davidson further compares to early attestations of the Irish goddesses Badb (Davidson points to the description of

Badb from The Destruction of Da Choca's Hostel where Badb is wearing a dusky mantle, has a large mouth, is dark

in color, and has gray hair falling over her shoulders, or, alternatively, "as a red figure on the edge of the ford,

washing the chariot of a king doomed to die") and The Morrgan. Davidson concludes that, in these examples, "here

we have the fierce destructive side of death, with a strong emphasis on its physical horrors, so perhaps we should not

assume that the gruesome figure of Hel is wholly Snorri's literary invention." [33]

John Lindow states that most details about Hel, as a figure, are not found outside of Snorri's writing in Gylfaginning,and says that when older skaldic poetry "says that people are 'in' rather than 'with' Hel, we are clearly dealing with a

place rather than a person, and this is assumed to be the older conception," that the noun and place Hel likely

originally simply meant "grave," and that "the personification came later."[34] Rudolf Simek theorizes that the figure

of Hel is "probably a very late personification of the underworld Hel," and says that "the first kennings using the

goddess Hel are found at the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries." Simek states that the allegorical description

of Hel's house in Gylfaginning "clearly stands in the Christian tradition," and that "on the whole nothing speaks in

favour of there being a belief in Hel in pre-Christian times." [35] However, Simek also cites Hel as possibly appearing

as one of three figures appearing together on Migration Period B-bracteates.[36]

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Simekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Lindowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morr%C3%ADganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Destruction_of_Da_Choca%27s_Hostelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Badbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shade_%28mythology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanna_%28Norse_deity%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fullahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frigghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hilda_Ellis_Davidsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helhest

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Notes

[1][1] Larrington (1999:9).

[2][2] Larrington (1999:56).

[3][3] Larrington (1999:61).

[4][4] Larrington (1999:225 and 232).

[5][5] Larrington (1999:243).

[6] Faulkes (1995:2627).[7][7] Orchard (1997:79).

[8][8] Faulkes (1995:27).

[9] Faulkes (1995:4950).

[10][10] Byock (2005:68).

[11][11] Byock (2005:69).

[12][12] Faulkes (1995:54).

[13][13] Faulkes (1995:74).

[14][14] Faulkes (1995:76).

[15][15] Faulkes (1995:123).

[16][16] Hollander (2007:20).

[17][17] Hollander (2007:46).

[18][18] Hollander (2007:47).

[19] Hollander (2007:2021).

[20][20] Hollander (2007:638).

[21][21] Scudder (2001:159).

[22][22] Fisher (1999:I 75).

[23][23] Davidson (1999:II 356); Grimm (2004:314).

[24][24] Pesch (2002:67).

[25][25] Simek (2007:44); Pesch (2002:70); Bonnetain (2006:327).

[26][26] Bell (1983:263).

[27][27] Bell (1983:265).

[28][28] Grimm (1882:315).

[29][29] Grimm (1882:314).

[30][30] Grimm (1882:397).

[31][31] Ellis (1968:84).[32][32] Davidson (1998:178) quoting 'the recipient ...' from Kinsley (1989:116).

[33][33] Davidson (1998:179).

[34][34] Lindow (1997:172).

[35][35] Simek (2007:138).

[36][36] Simek (2007:44).

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