Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences (2014) xxx, xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences

journal homepage: www.ejfs.org

Heel–Ball index: An analysis of foot print dimensions

for determination of sex

Tanuj Kanchana,*, Kewal Krishan

b, Disha Prusty

c, Meghna Machado

c

a Department of Forensic Medicine, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore (A Constituent College of Manipal University), Indiab Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Indiac Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore (A Constituent College of Manipal University), India

Received 7 December 2013; revised 14 January 2014; accepted 11 February 2014

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KEYWORDS

Forensic anthropology;

Identification;

Sex determination;

Footprints;

Heel–Ball index

Corresponding author. Ad

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ollege of Manipal University)

91 9448252394.

-mail addresses: tanujkan

anipal.edu (T. Kanchan).

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Abstract Determination of sex from the footprints recovered at crime scenes can help the investi-

gation by narrowing down the pool of possible suspects. The present research studies the dimen-

sions of the heel and the ball in footprints, and derives the Heel–Ball (HB) index from these foot

dimensions with the aim to find out if the foot dimensions and the HB index exhibit sexual dimor-

phism. The study was carried out on 100 individuals (50 males, 50 females) of Indian origin. Foot-

prints were obtained from both feet of the study participants using standard techniques. Thus, a

total of 200 footprints were obtained. The breadth of the footprint at ball (BBAL) and breadth

of footprint at heel (BHEL) were measured on the footprints. The HB index was derived as

(BHEL ‚ BBAL) · 100. The footprint measurements at the ball and heel were significantly larger

in males on both the sides. Likewise, the derived HB index was larger in males in both feet, but

the sex differences were not statistically significant. The study concludes that though footprint

dimensions can be used in the determination of sex, the HB index may not be utilized in sex deter-

mination from footprints.ª 2014 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Forensic Medicine Authority.

epartment of Forensic Medi-

alore 575001 (A Constituent

ax: +91 824 2428183; Mobile:

ahoo.co.in, tanuj.kanchan@

nsic Medicine Authority.

g by Elsevier

ing by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of F

02

an T et al. Heel–Ball index: An analjfs.2014.02.002

1. Introduction

Sex, age, stature, and ancestry are the primary characteristicsdetermined to establish the biological profile of an individual.

Similarly, various prints such as fingerprints, footprints, palm-prints, lip prints, and ear prints etc. are used in forensic iden-tification mostly by comparative analysis. While fingerprintsare the most frequently studied prints for comparative analysis

in forensic identification, the footprints are mostly studiedfor estimating the primary characteristics in forensicexaminations.

Footprints are usually recovered at the crime scenes and theevaluation of footprints can provide valuable informationabout the crime and the criminal. Individualistic characteristics

orensic Medicine Authority.

ysis of foot print dimensions for determination of sex, Egypt J Forensic

Figure. 1 Footprint showing the landmarks and measurements.

2 T. Kanchan et al.

of the footprint can help the investigators in this regard.1–3

Footprints and its parts are largely studied for the determina-tion of stature4–9, while a few studies have studied its utility in

sex determination.10,11 Footprints have also been studied forthe determination of sex from footprint ridge density.12 Deter-mination of sex from the morphometry of the footprints ob-

tained at the crime scenes can help the investigation bynarrowing down the pool of possible suspects. Literature onthe determination of sex from the footprints is limited.10,11

Krishan et al.13 in a recent study, proposed the Heel–Ball(HB) index from the foot measurements, and studied its utilityin sex determination. HB index derived on foot measurementshowever, may not apply on footprint measurements.

The present research is conducted to study the dimensionsof the heel and the ball in footprints, and derive the heel ball(HB) index from these foot dimensions with an aim to find

out if the footprint dimensions and the HB index exhibit sexualdimorphism in Indian population. The sexing ability of the HBindex from footprints is not explored as yet. The present study

is thus, a preliminary investigation on HB index fromfootprints.

2. Material and methods

The present research was carried out on 100 individuals (50males, 50 females) of Indian origin. Healthy individuals with-

out any deformity of the foot were included in the study.Determining the ethnicity of the footprint may not be possibleand hence, study sample in the present study comprised of amixed population. Footprints were obtained from both the feet

of the study participants using standard techniques. Thus, a to-tal of 200 footprints were obtained. The breadth of footprint atball (BBAL) and breadth of footprint at heel (BHEL) were

measured on the footprints. Foot breadth at the ball (BBAL)was measured as the widest part of the foot at the ball whilethe foot breadth at heel (BHEL) was measured as the widest

part of the heel (Fig. 1).The data obtained were computed and analyzed using SPSS

(Statistical Package for Social Sciences) version 11.0 computer

software. The HB Index of footprint was derived as(BHEL ‚ BBAL) · 100. The significance of sex differencesamong male and female footprints was tested using student’st-test. A paired t-test was done to compare the footprint

dimensions on the right and left side. ‘p’ value of less than0.05 was considered as significant.

3. Results

The measurements at the ball region of the footprints were ob-served to be larger than the heel region. Both of the footprint

breadth measurements were significantly larger in males thanfemales (p< 0.001). Descriptive statistics for the breadth offootprints at the ball and heel are shown in Table 1.

The HB index was 54.5 and 53.9 on the right and left sidesrespectively in males whereas in females, HB index was 53.4 onthe right and 53.1 on the left side. Although the HB index was

observed to be higher in males, the sex differences were notfound to be statistically significant (Table 2).

Bilateral differences in footprint breadth are observed onlyfor the ball region in females (t= 2.845, p = 0.006). Bilateral

differences were not observed for other measurements and HB

Please cite this article in press as: Kanchan T et al. Heel–Ball index: An anaSci (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejfs.2014.02.002

index among males and females. Side (right–left) differences infoot dimensions (cm) and HB index among males and females

are shown in Table 3.

4. Discussion

Importance of sex determination in the identification of humanremains (dismembered or putrefied) and various prints incrime/death scene investigations is well established. Despitebeing an important parameter contributing to the biological

profile of a person, studies on sex estimation from footprintsare scanty in the literature.10–12 Stature and build of humansare well correlated with the body measurements that are fre-

quently utilized in metric studies on sex determination. Statureand build are essential components of personal identificationin forensic casework14 and hence, most of the studies have uti-

lized morphometric measurements of different body parts inthe determination of stature. Researchers in the past have con-ducted studies on the foot with regard to their utility in foren-

sic identification15 by estimating stature16–24 and sex from foot

lysis of foot print dimensions for determination of sex, Egypt J Forensic

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of foot dimensions (cm) in males and females.

Male (n= 50) Female (n= 50) t-Value

Range Mean S.D. Range Mean S.D.

RBBAL 7.8–10.8 9.25 0.55 7.3–9.4 8.39 0.53 7.905*

LBBAL 7.9–10.9 9.32 0.59 7.4–9.8 8.51 0.48 7.540*

RBHEL 4.2–5.8 5.03 0.34 3.6–5.3 4.45 0.36 7.930*

LBHEL 4.0–6.0 5.02 0.36 3.6–5.3 4.51 0.36 6.966*

S.D. – standard deviation, RBBAL – Right footprint breadth at ball, LBBAL – Left footprint breadth at ball, RBHEL – Right footprint

breadth at heel, LBHEL – Left footprint breadth at heel.* p-value < 0.001.

Table 2 Descriptive statistics for stature (cm) and derived indices in males and females.

Male (n = 50) Female (n= 50) t-Value

Range Mean S.D. Range Mean S.D.

RHB index 46.6–62.9 54.5 3.81 45.2–59.2 53.4 3.8 1.521

LHB index 45.0–61.9 53.9 3.32 44.9–60.8 53.1 3.7 1.118

S.D. – standard deviation, RHB – Right heel ball Index, LHB – Left heel ball Index, *p-Value < 0.001.

Table 3 Side (right–left) differences in foot dimensions (cm)

and HB index among males and females.

Right–left Male (n= 50) Female (n= 50)

t-Value p-Value t-Value p-Value

BBAL �1.697 0.096 �2.845 0.006*

BHEL 0.460 0.647 �1.147 0.257

HB Index 1.634 0.109 0.583 0.563

BBAL – Footprint breadth at ball, BHEL – Footprint breadth at

heel, HB index – Heel Ball index.* p-Value < 0.01.

Analysis of foot print dimensions in sex determinationanalysis of foot print dimensions for determination of sex 3

dimensions.25–28 Hand and foot dimensions have also beencorrelated for personal identification in mass disasters.29 Like

the direct measurements on foot, footprint measurementscan also give vital information regarding the identity of anindividual. Besides, the direct implications of foot and foot-

print measurements in sex determination, the information ispertinent for most of the regression models derived for statureestimation from the foot and footprints are sex-specific. Hence,

an accurate determination of sex from foot and footprintdimensions has a direct as well as an indirect effect in the pro-cess on identification.

Analysis of footprints is important in countries where peo-

ple walk barefoot owing to socio-economic, religious and cli-matic reasons. The foot bears the weight of the body andwalking produces strain on the pressure areas of the foot i.e.

the heel and the ball. Analysis of these pressure areas is impor-tant because these areas are likely to be appreciated even in thepartial footprints. These dimensions may show bilateral asym-

metry and the same should be analyzed in studies. In the pres-ent investigation, right–left differences in the footprint breadthat Ball (BBAL) and footprint breadth at Heel (BHEL) werenot found to be statistically significant except for the BBAL

in females which was found to be larger on the left side. Inan earlier study from India on foot dimensions, bilateral

Please cite this article in press as: Kanchan T et al. Heel–Ball index: An analSci (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejfs.2014.02.002

asymmetry in BBAL and BHEL dimensions has beenobserved.13 Bilateral asymmetry is a complex phenomenonand variations have been observed in different studies. Bilat-eral asymmetry and its effect on stature determination have

also been studied by Krishan et al.30 The exact cause for asym-metry on a particular side of females in our study however,cannot be explained and is a matter of further investigation.

Earlier studies on direct measurements of foot by Sen et al.27

and Krishan et al.28 have shown that the sex can be determinedfrom the foot dimensions with reasonable accuracy. The study

by Krishan et al.28 indicated that foot breadth had a betteraccuracy in sex determination than foot length. In the presentstudy, direct measurements of the breadth dimensions of foot-

print (BBAL and BHEL) are observed to be significantly largerin males than females. These findings can be utilized in sexingof a footprint. Earlier studies on foot and footprint dimensionshave shown differences in measurements between different

populations owing to the population variations. However, inall these studies the male dimensions were observed to be sig-nificantly larger than females.10,11,13,25,28

Although the foot dimensions exhibit sexual dimorphism,they are likely to be influenced by the stature and build ofan individual. Researchers have thus, attempted to derive indi-

ces that are not/least influenced by the stature and build on anindividual. In this regard, Moudgil et al.26 and Krishan et al.28

derived foot index as a possible parameter to determine sex inforensic examinations. The foot index however, did not pro-

vide reliable results in the determination of sex.28 Krishanet al.13 later derived the HB index and observed that whilethe sex differences in foot measurements are dependent on

the body build of an individual, the HB index was independentof these variables. The mean HB index on the footprints isfound to be larger in males in the present study. The sex differ-

ences however, were not statistically significant and hence, HBindex is not shown to be a good indicator of sex from foot-prints. In the only other study on HB index13, the HB index

from the foot dimensions was found to be significantly largerin females than males.

ysis of foot print dimensions for determination of sex, Egypt J Forensic

Table 4 Comparative analyses of the HB-index derived on footprints in the present study with those derived directly on the foot

measurements.13

Footprint measurements Foot measurements

(Present Study) (Krishan et al.13)

Male (n = 50) Female (n = 50) Male (n = 154) Female (n = 149)

Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

RHB index 54.5 3.81 53.4 3.8 64.3 3.7 65.5 3.0

LHB index 53.9 3.32 53.1 3.7 63.1 3.3 63.7 3.3

S.D. – standard deviation, RHB – Right heel ball, LHB – Left heel ball.

4 T. Kanchan et al.

Statistically significant differences have been shown to oc-cur between the foot and footprint dimensions31,32 which im-

plies that the HB index derived on the foot measurementscannot be applied on the footprint measurements. Table 4shows a comparison of HB index derived on the footprint mea-

surements in the present study with the HB index derived onthe foot measurements.13 The comparison confirms that differ-ences exist between the indices derived on the footprint mea-

surements and foot measurements. The HB index on footmeasurements are higher than those derived on footprint mea-surements. This variation in foot and footprint dimensionsmay be attributed to factors such as the built, weight and gait

of the individual. These variations may also be attributed tothe population differences. Among all, the weight of the bodyis most likely to affect the footprint dimensions. The signifi-

cance of the HB Index in sex determination was observed tobe limited owing to the significant overlapping of the maleand female values.13 This difference in observations between

the two studies may be attributed to the differences in popula-tions and the study material.

5. Conclusion

The footprint measurements at the ball and heel were signifi-cantly larger in males on both the sides. Likewise, the derived

HB Index was larger in males in both feet, but the sex differ-ences were not statistically significant. The study concludesthat though footprint dimensions can be used in the determi-nation of sex, the HB index may not be utilized in sex determi-

nation from footprints. The findings of the present researchmay be applicable not only to complete footprints but alsopartial footprints with the presence of these pressure areas.

Funding

None.

Conflict of interest

None to declare.

Ethical approval

Necessary ethical approval was obtained from the institute

ethics committee to obtain the footprints for a study.

Please cite this article in press as: Kanchan T et al. Heel–Ball index: An anaSci (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejfs.2014.02.002

Acknowledgement

We wish to acknowledge the study participants who voluntar-

ily took part in the study.

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