Review ArticleA Review of Printable Flexible and Stretchable Tactile Sensors

Kirthika Senthil Kumar ,1 Po-Yen Chen,2 and Hongliang Ren 1

1Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical Mechatronics Laboratory, National University of Singapore, Singapore 1175832Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117585

Correspondence should be addressed to Hongliang Ren; hlren@ieee.org

Received 1 June 2019; Accepted 11 September 2019; Published 11 November 2019

Copyright © 2019 Kirthika Senthil Kumar et al. Exclusive Licensee Science and Technology Review Publishing House. Distributedunder a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0).

Flexible and stretchable tactile sensors that are printable, nonplanar, and dynamically morphing are emerging to enableproprioceptive interactions with the unstructured surrounding environment. Owing to its varied range of applications in thefield of wearable electronics, soft robotics, human-machine interaction, and biomedical devices, it is required of these sensors tobe flexible and stretchable conforming to the arbitrary surfaces of their stiff counterparts. The challenges in maintaining thefundamental features of these sensors, such as flexibility, sensitivity, repeatability, linearity, and durability, are tackled by theprogress in the fabrication techniques and customization of the material properties. This review is aimed at summarizing therecent progress of rapid prototyping of sensors, printable material preparation, required printing properties, flexible andstretchable mechanisms, and promising applications and highlights challenges and opportunities in this research paradigm.

1. Introduction

The advancement in additive manufacturing and develop-ment of material science has kept up with the innovation inrobotics, wearable electronics [1], epidermal electronic sys-tems [2], human-machine interfaces [3], soft robotics [4],other biomedical devices [5, 6], and the related systems [7].In most of these systems, its sensory feedback plays animportant role in contemplating the efficiency and perfor-mance accuracy. Hence, a tactile sensor is required to emu-late the human perception of touch through parametersthat define the contact between the object and the sensorsuch as pressure [8], strain [9], shear [10], force [11, 12],vibration [13], bend, and torsion. Common transductionprinciples explored that have proven to potentially be usedin this type of sensors are piezoresistive, piezocapacitive, pie-zoelectric, and triboelectric. The recent progress in the fieldof tactile sensors is made by improving their mechanical flex-ibility and stretchability. The fact that these flexible andstretchable devices require configurations that conform tothe shape of the object in contact calls for more adaptablefabrication methods that are able to deliver the complexgeometries and precisely scribed architectures. Hence, 3Dprinting or additive manufacturing (AM) which is a layerby layer fabrication process, without the need for machining

or molds [14], have gained overwhelming attention in therealization of complex and multifunctional objects such asrobotic sensing elements [15–19], wearable sensor technolo-gies [20], and flexible sensors in devices [21, 22].

Owing to the advantages this fusion brings to the table,for being time-efficient and easy, attainable complexity,cost-effective manufacturing, and scalability, this combina-tion of rapid prototyping of tactile sensors has invited a lotof attention and interesting applications as shown inFigure 1. Compared to the conventional techniques used tofabricate the tactile sensors, this method is advantageous byfirstly avoiding the usage of tools, dies, and molds, in turn,reducing the wear and tear costs. Secondly, it enables thedesigners to visualize the printed product in a CAD modeland make the necessary modifications on the prototype,which allows only using the required materials to buildthe sensing element which reduces the material wastage.Thirdly, by facilitating the fabrication of intricate designgeometries, which would nearly be impossible by conven-tional fabrication methods, in a single step makes it timeand energy-efficient.

Flexible/stretchable tactile sensors fabricated by thismanufacturing technique are able to maintain their functionalperformance in both the original and the deformed states.They typically consist of active elements and a substrate. The

AAASResearchVolume 2019, Article ID 3018568, 32 pageshttps://doi.org/10.34133/2019/3018568

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6412-5879https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6488-1551https://doi.org/10.34133/2019/3018568

substrate is used as the base, for encapsulation or mixedtogether as composites with active elements. The electri-cally conductive/active materials widely used are metallicnanoparticles, nanowires, liquid metal, and carbonaceouscomponents like carbon nanotubes, graphene, and otherconductive polymers. Throughout this paper, flexibility (F)would refer to the bending and deflection ability of the sen-sor. Stretchability (S) would refer to the elastic capability ofthe sensor to accommodate axial and planar strains andresume its former shape and size as explained in Figure 2.This review thus presents an extensive analysis of recent 3Dprintable flexible/stretchable tactile sensors along with theconcerned components such as the various methods ofrapid prototyping of sensors, printable ink preparation,requirements of the printers, and functionally suitablematerials in terms of properties of the active and substratematerials used. We further discuss the flexibility- andstretchability-enhancing mechanisms through printing, sens-ing mechanisms of sensors, desired features of the sensors,promising applications, performance, and challenges in thisresearch paradigm.

2. Brief Overview of Prototyping Techniques forFlexible/Stretchable Tactile Sensors

Compared to the various fabrication schemes developedto fabricate the tactile sensors, 3D printing has assuredto be a promising technology due to its simplicity in sys-tem, low cost, scalability, and customization. It has nowprogressed to be a versatile technology that allows forthe production of customized parts through noncontactprinting [23–25] while enabling the possibility of flexi-ble/stretchable tactile sensors to be constructed with asignificantly lower fabrication cost barrier and scale up theproduction with desired 3D configurations. There have alsobeen extensive studies on the various 3D printing tech-niques [26] and its diverse applications [20]. Despite theevident progress in recent years, one of the main challengesin establishing additive manufacturing techniques for large-scale applications is the constricted range of suitable mate-rial properties such as mechanical stability, porosity, andanisotropy [27]. These challenges are further explained inthe later sections.

Flexible and stretchable

sensors

Pressure

Strain

Curvature

Elec

trica

l pul

seShear

Flexing ‘Glove’

Interface Device

Soft Artificial Skin

Skin mounted Robot control

Touch SensorWearable Sensor

Plantar Pressure Map

Soft robotics

Gesture Recognition

Figure 1: Rapid prototyping methods, their advantages, and the applications of recently developed tactile sensors. “Flexing ‘Glove’” [217],reproduced with permission. Copyright PLOS, 2012. “Interface Device” [217], reproduced with permission. Copyright PLOS, 2012. “SoftArtificial Skin” [218], reproduced with permission. Copyright IEEE, 2012. “Skin mounted Robot control” [219], reproduced withpermission. Copyright John Wiley and Sons, 2014. “Touch Sensor” [220], reproduced with permission. Copyright American ChemicalSociety, 2015. “Wearable Sensor” [39], reproduced with permission. Copyright John Wiley and Sons, 2015. “Plantar Pressure Map” [109],reproduced with permission. Copyright John Wiley and Sons, 2017. “Soft robotics” [40], reproduced with permission. Copyright JohnWiley and Sons, 2018. “Gesture Recognition” [105], reproduced with permission. Copyright Royal Society of Chemistry, 2016.

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In general, rapid prototyping has been ideally used forbringing virtual concepts to physical models. The fabricationof the flexible/stretchable tactile sensors starts with a practi-cal computer-aided design (CAD) model which is then digi-tally sliced. During the design phase, the alterations thatwould occur during flexing or stretching of sensors shouldbe taken into account. The selection of the right flexible/-stretchable element (FSE) materials and customizing it withthe required properties are basic requirements (the followingsections), after which the strategies to implement flexibility/-stretchability in the sensor devices are to be established. Thefundamental printing mechanism for the fabrication for aflexible/stretchable tactile sensor requires a nozzle to extrudeor jet the right amount of material. For certain materials,additional UV or laser curing is required for solidificationas a postprocessing procedure. All the above-mentionedphases are schematically explained in Figure 3. However,the order is subject to change depending on the type andspecifications of the fabricated sensors. The American Soci-ety for Testing andMaterials (ASTM) has laid out a set of ter-minologies and a structure for grouping the additivemanufacturing techniques [28]. Among those, the fabrica-

tion techniques trending in the field of soft, flexible/stretch-able tactile sensors with the required features are explainedin Table 1 and in the following sections below.

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a filament materialextrusion-based FSE printing technique. Materials with lowmelting temperature processed in the form of filaments arecommonly used. The nozzle heats up and melts the filamentsinto a molten or semimolten form which is then deposited ina computer-controlled layer by layer basis on the printer bed.After each iterative slice in a plane, either the printing plat-form moves down or the printing head moves up. Upon rest-ing on the substrate, the molten material fuses into a solidobject. The dependence on the melting and cooling processesrestricts the printer usage to thermoplastics and limited poly-mer composites. Adhesion of the base layer to the platform isan essential step in this AM process. New conductive mate-rial composites (poly(ionic liquid)/polymethyl methacrylate(PMMA)/MWCNT composite) are being developed andmade into filaments, possessing desired mechanical and elec-trical properties for the FFF printing of tactile sensors [29].The nozzle diameter restricts the resolution of the FFF print-ing. The temperature of the nozzle has been adjusted

(a)

(b)

Bending strain

𝜀 =

Longitudinal strain

Lateral strain

R

Flexing strain

Stretching strain

L

BL + 𝛥L

L − 𝛥B

FSE

FSE

Y

YR

𝜀 = 𝛥LL

𝜀 = 𝛥BB

R

FSE

FSE

FSE

Bending

strain

Longitu

dinal

strain

Longitu

dinal

strainLateral strain

Lateral strain

Figure 2: Schematic illustration of flexible (F) and stretchable (S) printed elements. The dotted lines represent the neutral line. (a) Flexibilitydefined as the bendability and the deflecting ability of the sensor from the plane with a radius of curvature, R. Y represents the deflection of thesensor from the neutral line. (b) The longitudinal strain caused by stretching increases the length of the printed FSE along the direction ofload, while the lateral strain caused by stretching decreases the dimension perpendicular to the direction of load.

Selection andpreparation of material

Design and slicingof 3D CAD file

Flexible/stretchabledevice mechanism

Printing processof sliced model

Postprocessing(if required)

Selection andpreparation of material

Design and slicingof 3D CAD file

Flexible/stretchabledevice mechanism

Printing processof sliced model

Postprocessing(if required)

Figure 3: The different phases in the fabrication of printable flexible/stretchable tactile sensors.

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according to the melting point of the filament material toavoid clogging or to prevent creating voids in the sensors.

Aerosol jet technology is a versatile system that has theability to handle inks with a wide range of viscosities rangingfrom 1 to 2500 cP [30]. The FSE printing process aerodynam-

ically focusses the aerosolized microdroplets of material onboth planar and nonplanar surfaces by a sheath gas. Theaerosolization of the FSE liquid particles (diameter of20 nm to 5 μm) is done with the help of an atomizer in thesystem. They are capable of producing a highly focussed

Table 1: Features of the additive manufacturing techniques frequently used for the fabrication of flexible/stretchable tactile sensors.

Fused filament fabrication(FFF) [18, 233]

Aerosol jet printing Inkjet printing [33] Direct ink writing (DIW)Electrohydrodynamicprinting (E-jet)[44, 234, 235]

Heated printhead

Filament

Substrate

Sheath gas

SubstrateSubstrate

Dispenser

Compressed air

Substrate

Taylor cone

Jetzone

V+

–

Substrate

Technology

Heated nozzle by thermalenergy

Aerodynamic focussing Thermal or piezoelectricPneumatic or syringenozzle

Driven by electric field

Flexibility of printed element

★★★☆☆ ★★★★☆ ★★★★☆ ★★★★★ ★★★★★

Stretchability of printed element

★★☆☆☆ ★★★★☆ ★★★☆☆ ★★★★★ ★★★★★

Flexible/stretchable element (FSE) material

Thermoplastic, compositesmade into filaments

Conductive inks,dielectrics of viscosity(1–1000 cP)

Any low viscosityinks (1–20 cP)

Any type offlowable ink

Polymer, nanoparticleinks

Dimensional accuracy

50–500 μm 10–250 μm 20-100 μm 250 nm–100 μm Few hundred nm-μm

Advantages

(i) Inexpensive machineand materials

(ii) Possibility ofmultimaterial printing

(iii) Adjustable temperatureof nozzle and buildplatform

(iv) Mild usage andmaintenance

(i) Printability complexnonplanar surfaces

(ii) High resolution(iii) Clog-resistant nozzle(iv) Continuous stream(v) Highly focussed(vi) Low processing

temperature

(i) Cost-effective(ii) High throughput(iii) Wide range of

materials(iv) Low material wastage(v) Drop-wise material

deposition

(i) Highly versatile(ii) Wide range of

materials(iii) Possibility of

multimaterialprinting

(i) Noncontactprinting

(ii) High resolution(iii) Broad range of

materials(iv) Multimode printing(v) Ability to control jet

emission

Disadvantages

(i) Nozzle too close to thesubstrate

(ii) Heating effect maydamage the printedtrace

(iii) Rough surface finish ofprinted pattern

(iv) Unable to build sharpfeatures

(v) Limited dimensionalaccuracy

(vi) Materials need to bemade into filaments

(i) Droplet carrier createsa cloud of powder atthe printed spot

(ii) Sheath gas inhibits thelocal bonding ofprintedtrace by solidifying orcrystallizing it locally

(i) Nozzle clogging(ii) Slow speed compared

to the rest(iii) High contact angle

produces bulging ofprinted traces

(iv) Potential coffee-ringeffect due to unequaldistribution

(v) Random directionalityof drops

(i) Nozzle too close tothe substrate

(ii) Might requirepostprocessing forsome materials

(iii) Challenge to maintainmechanical integrityand shape duringprinting

(i) High electricalforces duringejection causeprinted feature to bemuch smaller thannozzle diameter

(ii) Insulating materialsaffect the intensityof the electric field

(iii) Lowmaximumheight < 5mm

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and fine beam which could go up to a tenth of the size of itsnozzle. They have a printing speed up to 200mm/s. As thehigh-resolution patterns could go below 20 μm, a controlon the overspray needs to be established [31].

The inkjet printing technique propels the FSE functionalink droplets onto the substrate via a nozzle, producing a fastand accurately patterned film through a thermal resistor orpiezoelectric transducer mechanism [32]. The solvent in thedeposited FSE fluidic ink droplets evaporates, or the ink com-ponents polymerize resulting in a solid. This noncontact typeof printing method delivers discrete liquid droplets andreduces material wastage, minimizing contamination anddamage to various layers. It caters to the low viscosity FSEinks ranging from 1 to 20 cP, for piezoelectric printheads(5-20 cP) and thermal printheads (1-5 cP) [33]. The typicalsurface energy of the fluids is kept below 0.1 J/m2 [34]. Theprinted FSE trace is greatly affected by the printing speedof the nozzle. A bimodal sensor that has the ability to deter-mine the bending strain and pressure stimulus was fabri-cated by inkjet printing. The smallest line spacing andwidth of the printed features were reported to be 66 and155 μm, respectively [35]. Due to its high resolution, it

has a potential application in the deposition of etchingfluids, to selectively etch and produce the desired patternwith a manageable process [36].

Direct ink writing is considered as the versatile extrusion-based technique and is preferred for FSE materials with awide range of viscosities up to 106MPa s. Solidification ofthe printed FSE material wholly depends on the rheologicalproperties of the functional ink. The ink/paste is extrudedfrom the pneumatic or syringe nozzle with the help of com-pressed air. Thus, it reduces the possibility of nozzle clogging.It is a common type of technology where custom-builtprinters are developed with aided properties for printingsuch as Weissenberg effect, which favors the sensing perfor-mance of the sensors [37]. Coaxial direct printing of activematerial along with the nonconductive elastomeric encapsu-lant with the core-shell configuration has attracted attentionover the years [38]. This produced a concentrically alignedmulticore-shell fiber stretchable strain sensor that gave a sta-ble output for strains up to 250%. The four-layered configu-ration has an overall filament thickness of 1.5mm, with itsinner core diameter as 336 μm, as shown in Figure 4 [39].Recently, the embedded 3D printing (EMB3D) method

(a)

(b)

SiliconeElastomer

Inner Conductor

Dielectric Layers

Outer Conductor

Encapsulation Layer

C3S Fiber

IonicallyConductive

Fluid

FSE as Substrate andActive Component

OuterLayer

Inner Layers

500 𝜇m

(f)(e)

(c)

(d)

Figure 4: (a) Schematic illustration of the multicore-shell fiber printing process of capacitive strain sensors in a four-layer configuration. (b, c)The conductive and elastomeric inks are loaded into separate reservoirs. (d) Illustrations of the outlet region where the printingsimultaneously forms the multicore-shell. (e) Magnified optical image of the printed multicore-shell segmented view. (f) Two fully printedcapacitive strain sensors [39]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright John Wiley and Sons, 2015.

5Research

gained popularity due to its ability to print multimodal, mul-timaterial sensors (Figure 5) [40, 41]. Though the directprinting technique is more versatile compared to the othermanufacturing processes, there is still room for the develop-ment of ink that is able to stabilize itself in the same printedstructure. Minimization of fluid flow after printing and rapidsolidification of the soft materials is essential.

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) jet printing technique usesthe help of the electric field to polarize the FSE mobile ionsin the solution, causing Coulomb repulsion. These ions getaccumulated near the surface, deforming the meniscus to aconical shape (Taylor cone). When the electric field buildsup to the critical limit, it leads the electric stress to overcomethe surface tension, hence emitting a droplet. The resultingfeature resolution of the printed FSE trace range is about240nm to 5 μm [42]. The critical parameters to considerfor this type of printing would be the distance between thenozzle, mobility of ions, and applied voltage [43]. Materialjetting refers to the propelling of small droplets of functionalink onto various substrates, such as paper, plastic, and poly-mers by using a narrow printhead like a nozzle. The film pro-duced using this technique is accurate, uniform, andreproducible. These droplets solidify in response to heat orlight. The liquid ink is heated up within the reservoir forminga bubble upon the application of heat. This forces the inkdroplet out of the nozzle in the “pull” action [44].

In addition to the above-mentioned techniques, LaserDirect Writing (LDW) is another technique that couldpotentially be used to pattern the FSE substrate or the other

sensor components [45]. This laser-induced deposition useslaser pulses to regulate the structure and properties of thematerials. Its resolution ranges from nanometer scaling upto millimeters. However, this method is expensive andrequires sophisticated equipment. This process does notallow deposition of FS organic substrates, which omits mostof the materials used for the fabrication of flexible/stretchabletactile sensors [46]. It is limited to deposit materials on flatsubstrates [47].

Due to their assuring qualities of these printing tech-niques, they aid in the fabrication of the tactile sensors. Thesefabrication methods are utilized separately or even as a com-bination [48]. A hybrid 3D printing process for a stretchabletactile sensor device utilized projection stereolithography tobuild the compliant substrate and the direct printing technol-ogy to print the sensing element [49]. A 3D printing processwas proposed to activate polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)polymer as a piezoresponsive material by integrating it withthe corona poling process. In this technique, the poling elec-tric field that promotes the alignment of the dipole momentswas created by using the nozzle of the printer as the anodeand the heating bed as the cathode [50].

Besides the printing of the sensor materials such as thesensing element, sensor body, or sensing electrode, which iswell documented in Table 2, these methods are also used tofabricate sensor molds [51, 52]. Further details on the mate-rials and sensor properties are listed in Table 3 in the futuresections. A highly sensitive flexible capacitive sensor wasfabricated by creating a 3D printed mold. This mold was

(a)

(b) (c)

Bladder spacersFEA bladdernetwork

Dorsal matrix

Actuator matrix

Sensor leadsCurvature sensor

Inflation sensorContact sensor

Anterior matrix

Printingof FSE #1

Printingof FSE #2

Printingof FSE #3

(i)

EMB3D printthe curvature sensor

EMB3D print theFEA, inflation sensor

EMB3D printthe contact sensor

(ii) (iii)

Figure 5: The fabrication steps of the embedded 3D printing of actuators innervated with sensors [40]. Reproduced with permission.Copyright John Wiley and Sons, 2018.

6 Research

microstructure patterned in order to improve the sensor’ssensitivity [53]. Silicone and hydrogel layers were createdusing these 3D printed molds for a stretchable tactile inter-face for display application [54].

3. Requirements of Rapid Prototyping

3.1. Printable Ink Preparation. With the advent of additivemanufacturing in the 21st century, a demand exists to estab-lish novel inks or materials that are printable and functional.As most of the flexible/stretchable tactile sensor technologyhas adopted the drop-on-demand printing mechanism, it isnecessary to fabricate the materials accordingly. This methodrelies on localized and controlled dispensing of materials onthe substrate. The main challenge to tackle here is the idealparameters that are required of the FSE ink [55]. It includesphysical properties that could be controlled by density, parti-cle size, viscosity, colloidal dispersion, and surface tension of

the ink [56]. The optimum range of these parameters andhow each property affects the print quality have been previ-ously reported [57]. New materials comprising of metals,polymers, and composites are tuned to facilitate the FSEprinting processes.

In general, a typical FSE printable ink consists of 4 maincomponents, filler, solvent, binder, and additive, as describedin Figure 6. The filler determines the characteristic feature ofthe ink depending on the application. It could be made ofmetallic [58, 59], polymeric [60], and carbon-based material[61–64] or a combination of these. The flowability of theink is determined by the solvent in which it is dispersed. Sol-vents dilute the other ink components, and water is a com-monly used solvent [65]. It is important to examine thepurity of the solvent so as to limit contaminants. Hence, itis responsible for the viscosity, surface tension, and dryingrate of the ink. The viscosity of the ink can be adjusted bythe addition of a polymeric thickening agent such as PVA

Table 2: Various types of printing methods used for the fabrication of flexible/stretchable tactile sensors.

Year Fabrication technique Printer used Minimum detail Printed component Transduction principle Ref.

2019Fused filamentfabrication (FFF)

Customized FFF printer — Sensing element Piezoresistive [236]

2019Fused filamentfabrication (FFF)

MakerBot 2X replicator 200 μmSensing element,sensor body

Piezoresistive [237]

2019Fused filamentfabrication (FFF)

Customized LulzBot — Sensing element Capacitive [181]

2019 Aerosol jet printing Self-built printer ~10 μm Sensing element Piezoresistive [238]2019 Direct ink writing Self-built printer — Sensing element Piezoresistive [239]

2018Fused filamentfabrication (FFF)

Standard FFF printer —Sensor body,

sensing elementPiezoresistive [130]

2018 Inkjet printing Enjet Corp., Korea 60 μm Sensor electrode Piezoresistive [240]

2018 Inkjet printing Canon IP100 — Sensing element Capacitive [213]

2018 Direct ink writing Self-built printer 60 μm Sensing element Piezoresistive [149]

2018 Direct ink writing Glass micropipette — Sensor electrodes Capacitive [82]

2018 Direct ink writingHome-built 3D printer,

Cura Ultimaker400 μm Sensing element Capacitive [191]

2018 Direct ink writing Custom-built printer — Whole sensor Piezoresistive [212]

2018 Direct ink writing Self-built printer 300 μm Sensing element Piezoresistive [241]

2018 Direct ink writing Home-built 3D printer 400 μm Sensing element Capacitive [242]

2017Fused filamentfabrication (FFF)

MakerBot 2X replicator 100-300 μmSensor body,

sensing elementPiezoresistive [243]

2017Fused filamentfabrication (FFF)

MakerGear M2 50 μm–0.25mm Sensing element Piezoresistive [244]

2017 Inkjet printing ProJet 5500X ~30 μm Sensor body Piezoresistive [9]2017 Inkjet printing — — Sensor electrode Piezoresistive [245]

2017 Inkjet printing MicroFab jetlab II — Dielectric layer Capacitive [198]

2017 Inkjet printing jetlab4, MicroFab 170 nm Sensor element Piezoelectric [246]

2017 Direct ink writing Custom-built 3D printer —Sensor body,

sensing elementPiezoresistive [231]

2017 Direct ink writing Self-built — Sensing element Piezoresistive [247]

2017 Direct ink writing Self-built printer Trace width—100 μmSensing elementand electrodes

Capacitive [109]

2017Electrohydrodynamic

(EHD)Self-built printer 15 μm Sensing element Capacitive [235]

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Table3:3D

printing

oftactile

sensorswiththeirfabricated

materialsandsensor

features.

Year

Transdu

ction

principle

Feature

Measured

constrain

Activematerial

Substratematerial

Electrode/

intercon

nects

material

Sensitivity

Gauge

factor

Measured

range

Cyclic

stability

Ref.

2019

Piezoresistive

Flexible

Strain

TPU/graph

ene

——

—80

Upto

200%

6000

strain

cycles

[236]

2019

Piezoresistive

Bidirection

alStrain

TPU/M

WCNT

TPU

——

1.5-3

Upto

50%

20cycles

[237]

2019

Piezoresistive

Stretchable

Strain

AgN

P/M

WCNT

Ecoflex

0030

Agcond

uctive

paste

—58.7

Max

strain

limit74%

1000

strain

cycles

[238]

2019

Piezoresistive

Fastrespon

se171ms,

thickn

ess

650μm

Pressure

Graph

enenano

platelets/

MWCNT/polyethylene

oxide(PEO)

PDMS

Agcond

uctive

paste

6.56

MPa-1

for

Table3:Con

tinu

ed.

Year

Transdu

ction

principle

Feature

Measured

constrain

Activematerial

Substratematerial

Electrode/

intercon

nects

material

Sensitivity

Gauge

factor

Measured

range

Cyclic

stability

Ref.

2018

Capacitive

Stretchable

Pressure

CNT/PDMS

PDMS

—547.9kP

a−1

—0–110Pa

500

pressure

cycles

[242]

2018

Triboelectric

Flexible

Com

pressive

load

Acrylon

itrilebu

tadiene

styrene(A

BS)

—Ionichydrogel,

copp

erwire

——

—3000

working

cycle

[202]

2017

Piezoresistive

Bendable

Strain

Agnano

particleink

VisiJetcompo

site

photop

olym

er—

—50

0-10%

strain

—[9]

2017

Piezoresistive

Flexible

multiaxialforce

detection

Force

CNT/therm

oplastic

polyurethane

nano

compo

sitefilament

Therm

oplastic

polyurethane

filament(TPU)

Agpaste

——

0-5N

1000

bend

ing

cycles

[243]

2017

Piezoresistive

Flexible

bimod

alPressure

PEDOT:PSS/polyurethane

dispersion

(PUD)

PDMS

Agnano

particle

3Pa

—3Pato

5kP

a

100000

pressure

cycles

[245]

2017

Piezoresistive

Stretchable

Pressure

Ag/silicon

eSilicon

eink,Dragon

Skin

10Ag/silicon

e—

~180

—100

pressing

cycles

[231]

2017

Piezoresistive

Stretchable

Strain

NH

2-MWCNT/G

O/SIS

Polystyrene-

polyisop

rene-

polystyrene(SIS)

Cuwires,A

gepoxy

—>7

0—

—[247]

2017

Piezoresistive

Stretchable

Strain

Agnano

particles

Poly(styrene-b-

butadiene-b-styrene)

SBS

——

——

300

stretching

cycles

[248]

2017

Capacitive

Hybrid3D

printing

Strain,

pressure

Agflakes

PureTPU

Agflakes

inthermop

lastic

polyurethane

(TPU)ink

—≈1

3.3

0–3MPa

1000

[109]

2017

Capacitive

Flexible

Tou

chforce

Agnano

particleink

Glass,P

ETfilm

——

——

—[235]

2017

Capacitive

Veryhigh

sensitivity

Pressure

n-Butylacetatediluted

PDMS

ITO-coatedglass

—10.4kP

a-1

—0-70

Pa

—[198]

2017

Piezoelectric

Energy

generation

Pressure

P(V

DF–

TrFE)

Polyethylene

Naphthalate

Silver

nano

particle

——

——

[246]

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[66]. In cases of multimaterial printing, it is important tochoose different solvents and binder combination for the var-ious layers as it can dissolve and damage the other layers incontact. The other important property all flexible/stretchableinks shall possess is the potency to maintain structuralintegrity on continuous flexing or stretching cycles. In thecases of stretchable inks especially, where higher amountsof strains are induced on the sensor device, the mechanicalmismatch can cause cracks and delamination. This forcesthe conductive filler particles to distance, causing a higherresistance of the film. Increasing the concentration of theconductive filler material will lead to increased stiffnessand reduced stretchability [67].

The third component of the ink addresses this issue byhelping in binding the printed trace on the substrate materialand supports in flexibility and stretchability of the sensordevice [68, 69]. This binder further aids in homogenous dis-persion of the filler material into the ink [70]. For instance,carboxylation of the CNTs favors effective dispersion in thesolvent, which increases its potential to be used as a printableink [71]. Binders help in cross-linking by mild drying orsolidification by solvent evaporation. In some cases, anneal-ing or exposure to radiation may be required for curing. Tofurther characterize the ink, additives such as surfactants[72], adhesion promoters [73], and stabilizers are addedaccording to the required rheological, stretchability, and wet-ting properties. The surfactant’s role is to lower the surfacetension of the resultant ink [74]. In certain cases, thesesurfactants uniformly distribute the ink nanoparticles byforming a protective layer on them and reducing the pos-sibility of delamination of the printed trace [75]. The fol-lowing chapters further explain the various componentsof the printable ink.

One of the main criteria for a 3D printing method is thedroplet formation [33]. It is a complex process governed by afew dimensionless numbers. Reynolds number (Re), Webernumber (We), and Ohnesorge number (Oh) help character-ize this process. The inverse of the Ohnesorge number is Z

number, which assists in determining the stability of thedroplet. The formulas are described in Figure 7(a). For lowerZ values, droplet ejection is prevented due to viscous dissipa-tion of the ink. For Z > 10, formation of a secondary (satel-lite) droplet following the primary drop is evitable [57].Hence, after considering the various studies conducted overthe years, 1 < Z < 10 is said to be the optimal printable rangeof Z for a stable drop formation [34, 57]. It is advisable for thesize of particle exiting the nozzle to be 1/50 of its diameter, inorder to prevent nozzle clogging [76]. The shear rate experi-enced by the ink through the nozzle can be estimated by

_γW =3 + b4

� � 4QπR3

, ð1Þ

where b is the inverse of the shear-thinning power-law rela-tionship, Q is the volumetric flow rate, and R is the radiusof the printing head [77]. A minimum droplet ejection veloc-ity is further needed to overcome the surface tension barrierat the fluid-air interface of the nozzle, which is expressedthrough the equation as

vmin =ffiffiffiffiffiffi4γρd

s: ð2Þ

The required minimum ejection velocity in terms of theWeber number is maintained >4 for a minimal printing value[34]. A minimum standoff distance (h0) of the nozzle print-head from the substrate is necessary to produce a stableprinted trace. It is desired for the normalized standoff dis-tance given as a ratio of standoff distance to the inner diam-eter (Di) to lie in the region 0 < h0/Di < 0:21 [78]. The printedink morphology is determined by the spreading and dryingof the ink, influenced by the wetting properties as expressedby Young’s equation in Section 4.1 [2]. Poor wetting leadsto discontinuous feature formation as the ink would be inca-pable of maintaining contact with the surface. It is desirable

Filler: carbon-based,metallic, polymeric,composites

Binder: acrylic, silicone,styrene, fluoroelastomer,urethane

Solvent: water based,oxygenated, oil-based,hydrocarbon-based.

Additives: surfactants,humectants, adhesion promoters,stabilizers, penetration enhancers.

PrintableInk

SS

R

Characteristic feature of F/S sensor

Flowability of FSE ink

Enhance flexibility/stretchability of the ink

Promote printability of FSE

HO

OH OH

OO

n H

NH

CO

O

O H

R

O

R′R O

O

OH

H 3CH 3C

CH 3

Figure 6: Typical components required for the formulation of a printable ink and the significance of their role [221].

10 Research

to have a distinctive cross-section shape of the printed mate-rial. For the active element and electrodes especially, it is idealfor the conductive trace to have a rectangular cross-sectionalprofile, as shown in Figure 7(b), to possess certain electronicproperties [79, 80].

3.2. Printer Requirements. The choice of a suitable 3D print-ing method before venturing into the research project ormanufacturing is crucial. The compatibility between theink, the substrate, and the printer plays a major role. Theeffect of concentration of filler material, the composition ofthe solvent, and hydrophobicity of the substrate surface havebeen discussed in the previous sections. However, to producea well-defined and uniform printed feature, several otherparameters need to be considered and optimized carefully.The feed rate and density of inks should be maintained at aconstant. Printing accuracy and resolution of the printingare important as most of the sensor designs might requirethe features to be restricted to a particular dimension. In suchcases, multilayer printing accuracy plays an important role.The high speeds of the printer should be able to maintainhigh-quality printing for several hundred cycles. This willensure large-scale production at a reasonable cost.

The final shape of the FSE printed pattern is affected bythe contact angle of the drop on the substrate. This is influ-enced by the printing speed and droplet ejection. In typicalcases, we require the droplets to overlap with adjacent dropswhile printing, to form a continuous feature [81]. Unstabledrops occur if the droplet spacing is too small and the tra-verse velocities are low. The effect of varying drop spacingon the printed profile is shown in Figure 8 [66]. When thedroplet spacing is greater than twice the drop’s radius, iso-lated droplets are formed with a discontinuous printed fea-ture. Likewise, the increase in the time delay between eachdroplet also varies the printing profile. As we decrease thedroplet spacing, individual droplets start forming. Afterwhich, the droplets merge while retaining their individualrounded contact lines resulting in a scalloped line. Furtherdecrease in the spacing will produce the uniform idealprinted pattern with the narrowest lines.

The final step in the printing process is the solidificationof the deposited material on the substrate. In most cases, toaccommodate to the needs of the printer, dilute solutionswith a low concentration of particle suspensions are adopted.Hence, the solidification would be due to solute evaporation,where the quality of printing is influenced by the temperature

(a) (b)

Re = =

We = =

Oh = =

Z = =

Inertia force

Inertia force

Weber numberReynolds number

Ohnesorge number

FSE

1

Surface tension

v – Average velocity of fluidvd𝜌

𝜂

d𝜌𝛾

𝜂𝜂 – Dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)

d𝜌𝛾𝜂

v2d𝜌𝛾

𝛾 – Surface tension of ink (N/m)

Viscous forced – Diameter of printing nozzle (m)𝜌 – Density of printing ink (kg/m3) Rectangular

Semicircular

Coffee ring

Flexible/st

retchable e

lement (FSE

)

Figure 7: Important printability properties required for appropriate FSE printed trace. (a) Performance parameters of the droplet formationprocess. Reynolds number (Re), Weber number (We), and Ohnesorge number (Oh) together help to characterize Z, which helps determinethe suitability of fluid for printing 1 < Z < 10, considered to be the optimal range of stable droplet formation [57]. (b) Various cross-sectionprofiles of the printed trace depending on the viscosity of the inks.

Individual drops

Scalloped

Uniform

Bulging

Stacked coins

150 𝜇

m15

0 𝜇

m15

0 𝜇

m 100 𝜇

m

(a)

(b)

(d)

(e)(c)

Figure 8: Different morphologies of the printed pattern with varied droplet spacing [66].

11Research

of the substrate or the surrounding temperature it is exposedto. The solvent evaporates slowly at low temperatures leavingfew active materials behind. At high temperatures, the sol-vent evaporates too quickly leaving aggregates of active mate-rial resulting in stacked coin formation as shown in Figure 8.This is when the time taken for single drop evaporation is lessthan the drop jetting period. Hence, it is important to exper-iment and find a suitable temperature for each printing mate-rial and modify the jetting frequency accordingly. The sizeand diameter of the nozzle (μm) affect the morphology ofthe printed feature. A smaller nozzle diameter produces finerfeatures with sharp edges. Likewise, a higher moving speed ofthe nozzle causes lesser particle deposition. However, if theprinting speed is too low, particles get aggregates at the noz-zle end. It is necessary to consider this trade-off and choosethe optimum printing speed [82].

3.3. Flexible Device Mechanisms. A common strategy to fol-low to make the sensor flexible is to make its printed layerssufficiently thin that it is able to be flexible and bendable[83, 84]. The strain induced on the surface of the bent sen-sor can be explained by the equation as illustrated inFigure 9, which is affected by the thickness (t) and theradius of curvature (r) [85]. Here, ts and tp refer to thethicknesses of the substrate and the printed trace on it. Byreducing the thickness (t) of the sensor, the strain (ε)induced is lowered. Now considering materials with differentelastic moduli (Y), where inmany cases it is preferable for thesubstrate (Y s) to have lower modulus than the active layer(Yp), the strain on the top surface is reduced significantlyfollowing this equation:

ε =ts + tp2r

� � 1 + 2η + χη21 + ηð Þ 1 + χηð Þ , ð3Þ

where η = tp/ts and χ = Yp/Y s [86]. Thus, having substrateand encapsulation layers with a low elastic modulus andreduced thickness will promote the bendability and flexibil-ity of the sensor devices [87]. In the printing methods, thelayer thickness can be conveniently controlled by adjusting

the printing speed and nozzle diameter and by stable drop-let formation.

Typically, a flexible element printable ink shall be able tomaintain structural stability upon flexing. From the thermo-dynamic standpoint, the amount of work done W needed todelaminate the two surfaces depends on their specific surfaceenergies and the interfacial energy between them [87]. Thisinterfacial energy region between them is formed duringthe process of printing. An abrupt interface is formed whenthe film interaction is low, and it gives rise to high-stress gra-dients causing easier interfacial fractures. Hence, the bindercomponent of the ink should be able to distribute the straingenerated upon flexion without affecting the filler compo-nent [88, 89]. Researchers introduced nonconductive bindersto impart flexibility in the inks, although they affected theconductive performance of the ink. To combat these issues,researchers started adopting conductive binders whichenhanced the conductivity of the printable ink. Similarly,the adhesion promoters enhance the attachment betweenthe printed ink and the substrate and mitigate the shear stressdeveloped due to mechanical deformation [60, 90]. Thesepromoters further enable chemical interaction and create acompound interface in which the adhesion is better forthin-layered films and poorer for thicker layers. This flexibil-ity can be exploited to attain stretchability in the sensordevices which is discussed in the next section.

3.4. Stretchable Device Mechanisms. In general, the stretch-able device mechanisms happen in two complementary wayswhere one is focussed on attaining new structural designs forhigh-performance conventional materials and the otherrelies on a new material approach or the usage of intrinsicallystretchable materials for conventional layouts [83, 91]. Thesetwo forms could be implemented separately or as a combina-tion of both. Stretchability not only is limited to the elasticityof the material but also relies on the adhesive strengthbetween the various printed layers, the durability of the inter-connects, and the thickness of every printed layer. The strat-egies discussed below equip the printed sensor with thecounterbalance restoring force on applying tensile strain.

Yp

Ys

tp

ts

Printed trace

Printed trace

Flexible substrate

Flexible substrater

2r 2r𝜀 =

t=

(ts+tp)

Figure 9: Mechanics of a flexible substrate and strain induced on its surface.

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For one-dimensional (1D) stretchability, the wavy/buck-ling/wrinkle layout is preferred. To introduce this configura-tion, two types of mechanisms prevail: one is with prestretchand the other without prestretch. The first mechanism fol-lows the prestretch-print-release strategy, where FSE is tobe printed on a uniaxially prestretched elastomeric substrate.When released, the active element buckles and forms awavy/wrinkled configuration orthogonal to the compresseddirection [92, 93]. For the second mechanism, the wavy con-figuration is directly printed on the substrate. However, aprint-stretch-release strategy was recently followed by usingthe helix electrohydrodynamic printer to fabricate secondaryself-similar patterns of piezoelectric PVDF nano-/microfi-bers [94]. These formed structures bend and unbend uponstretching. For small strains, the relationship between thewavelength of the buckled configuration (λ), Young’s modu-lus of the substrate (Y s) and printed layer (Yp), and the thick-ness of the printed layer (tp) is described by the equation as

Yp = 3Y s1 − ν2p1 − ν2s

!λ

2πtp

!3, ð4Þ

where νs and νp refer to the Poisson ratio of the substrate andthe printed layer [95]. Notably, the wavelength of the buckledconfiguration is independent of the prestrain; however, toavoid delamination of the printed trace, large prestrains areto be avoided [96]. Similar to the uniaxial prestrain, biaxialprestrains induce herringbone geometry [97]. Anothermethod is to induce cracks in the printed material by apply-ing intentionally calculated strain and releasing them. Thiswould align the cracks orthogonal to the stretching direction.It is important to note the design modifications that occurbefore and after the straining [98]. An alternative is to struc-ture the substrate in a wavy/buckled configuration prior tothe printing of the active layer. Silver nanoparticle ink wasinkjet printed onto a wavy PDMS substrate which was cre-ated by a mold, to develop a stretchable conductor [99]. Sim-ilarly, 3D printing of the wavy-patterned substrate which was

designed accordingly to accommodate the stretching andreleasing cyclic deformation has been reported [100].

As we can understand that the wavy design configurationcan provide stretchability up to 100% in one dimension, it islimited to ~10% when it comes to multiple directions [97,101]. Hence, for omnidimensional device configuration, con-voluted patterned geometry is preferred. In order to reducedelamination and increase stretchability, we have to localizethe strains in the sensors by introducing optimized designpatterns. Several inplane structures like horseshoe geometrieshave been fabricated and transferred to another stretchablesubstrate [102]. To avoid all the transferring and to reducethe fabrication steps, they could be directly printed usingthe widely available rapid prototyping methods. Nanoscaleprecise omnidirectional printing of silver microelectrodesusing the direct ink writing showcased extreme stretchabilityand flexibility. Three-dimensional structures were obtainedby printing in a layerwise sequence and could withstand upto 200 straining cycles without breaking [103].

In the case of stiffer functional materials with a higher elas-tic modulus, they are to be print patterned on an elastomericsubstrate with lower elastic modulus. Design configurationssuch as mesh/serpentine/horseshoe/coiled/helical-spring/zig-zag are adopted to increase the stretchability of the printedsensors. Multiple iterations of the above-mentioned patternsfurther promote the stretching ability [104]. A graphene oxideaerogel-based sensor which was printed through microextru-sion has been reported to yield more prominent mechanicalproperties with its serpentine patterns, compared to a typicalstraight-line patterning. The patterning of this aerogel sensorhas led to a change in its compressibility and stagger resis-tance [105]. Similarly, fractal designs to yield space-fillinggeometries are adopted to accommodate the strains alongvarious dimensions [106]. A comparison in the stretchabilityof the straight-line printing and sinewave track printing wascarried out using conductive silver and PEDOT:PSS ink byprinting on flexible and stretchable substrates. As expected,the printed sinewave patterns remained conductive for thelower radius of curvature than the straight-line pattern as itwas more prone to cracks upon stretching [107].

10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 250% 1000%200%150%100% 500%

Graphene 6% PDMS 160% Ecoflex 00–30900%

EGaIn upto 700%

Zig–zag 80%Horseshoe 30% Serpentine 90% Self–similar serpentine 300%

Out of plane buckling 200%Helical 50% Crack induced 100%

Silver nanostructure composite 50–400%

CNT composite 140–190% Composites

3-dimensionalstructures

Inplane structures

Stretchablematerials

Figure 10: Various strategies to make the sensor stretchable placed according to their maximum elongations. Composites: CNT based [98]and silver nanostructures based [115]. 3-dimensional structures: helical [222], crack induced [223], and out of plane buckling [224]. Inplanestructures: horseshoe [225], zig-zag [226], serpentine [227], and self-similar serpentine [94]. Stretchable materials: graphene [228], PDMS[229], EGaIn [230], and Ecoflex 00-30 [229].

13Research

The widely adopted island-bridge configuration is pos-sible through the 3D printing technology as the printedcircuitries connect the rigid island consisting of the requiredmicroelectronics to the stretchable interconnects. An ultra-thin stretchable e-skin was developed by printing the con-necting circuit on a tattoo transfer paper which was thentransferred to various substrates depending on the applica-tion [108]. To avoid the transfer of printed components, ahybrid 3D printing technology which combined the directink writing with vacuum nozzle pick and place was pre-sented. Functional and stretchable devices were developedusing this method [109]. Typically, these configurationspossess general stretchability but not local stretchability.Applying local strain at a point in the structure might leadto an unequivocal break. Hence, a number of such hierarchi-cal structures are needed to be printed. Further structuralpatterns from 2D to 3D configurations that enhance thestretchability of the sensor design are reviewed in a recentpublication, taking into account the theoretical and experi-mental research [110].

The above-mentioned strategy involves a multistep print-ing procedure to achieve stretchability in the sensor devices,whereas a single step printing fabrication is possible withthe next approach discussed below [111]. Moreover, it is wellstudied that elastomer-supported devices rupture or inter-connects fracture at larger strains beyond a specific range[112]. Hence, the second strategy achieves stretchability byusing elastic conductive material composites that are intrinsi-cally stretchable where all of its components deform simulta-neously and possess the conductive ability [113]. Some ofthese composites adopt the high-performance componentof the functional material, which does not possess any intrin-sic stretchability and embed them into an elastomeric matrix[114, 115]. The substrate material interactions explained inthe previous sections apply here. The printable stretchablecomposites can be designed in different methods such asimplanting, filling, infiltrating, blending, and synthesizingthe fillers into the elastomers [116]. Stretchability can beimparted in the conductive materials by electrically anchor-ing the conductive fillers. Here, a printable elastic ink witha conductivity of 8331 S/cm is prepared with various silverconductive fillers of different sizes and structures and eutecticgallium-indium (EGaIn) particles as their electrical anchors.A stretching ability to withstand up to 700% strain wasachieved by increasing the bonding strength between the fillerparticles and host polymer [117]. While one-dimensional ortwo-dimensional geometry-based configurations can generatea response to mechanical deformation, higher dimensionalgeometries are required to respond to multidimensionalsensing. Figure 10 sorts the design strategies to impartstretchability into the sensors and their maximum elonga-tions as per the published literature.

4. Printing of FSE of Sensor andMaterial Requirements

Additive manufacturing technology presents a new era oftactile sensors due to its cost-effectiveness, scalability, andcustomizability. It is further essential for shape-conforming

sensors to be flexible/stretchable without incurring anyphysical damage. Most of the conventional inorganic mate-rials used in fabricating sensors are not adequate to satisfythe mechanical compliance due to their rigid features. Forthem to suit the 3D printing methods especially, newapproaches in material designs and development of newfunctional materials are needed. Generally, a tactile sensorcomprises of two distinct facets, the substrate base layerand the active functional layer. The substrate acts as thebase and encapsulation layer and the active element, whichis responsible for the transduced signal. Hence, the follow-ing section is dedicated to the commonly used materials inthe fabrication of 3D printed flexible/stretchable tactilesensors.

4.1. Substrate. The substrate plays an essential role in anysensor technology as it determines the printability, flexibility,stretchability, and long-term durability of the sensor [118].Owing to the nature of the flexible/stretchable substratesand other materials used to fabricate the soft, flexible/-stretchable sensors, there are limiting factors for the pro-cessing conditions, especially for the printing methods.The determination of device fabrication methods depends oncertain material properties such as allowable temperature,thermal stability, surface quality such as surface roughnessand cleanliness, adhesion, radius of curvature, thickness,and transparency in some cases [83]. Processing tempera-tures are to be taken into consideration as the flexible/stretchable substrates have a much lower glass transitiontemperature than that of their rigid counterparts. Thecoefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and the glass tran-sition (Tg) temperature are important factors to considerwhen selecting the polymer material to evaluate their ther-mal stability [119]. At those mentioned temperatures, thechains of polymers relieve the energy stored during theoperation [118].

Flexible/stretchable substrates tend to possess a highercoefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than most inorganicmaterials. The resolution of the printed patterns is highlyaffected by the variation in the processing temperatures bycausing overlay and alignment issues. Surface roughness isan essential factor to be considered, as the polymer substrateshave uneven surfaces in general. Applying processes on themwould increase their surface roughness, which is favorable incase of deposition of active material layers. Another factoraffecting this interaction is the adhesion forces between thesubstrate layer and the active deposits which show their abil-ity to remain bonded. Surfaces of some substrates are hydro-phobic in nature, which repels the adhesion forces of thedepositing printable inks. Hence, the surface energies of thesematerials play a crucial role. This property governed byYoung’s equation is given as γs = γs1 + γ1 cos θ, where γs1 isthe interfacial free energy, θ is the angle between the con-tacted surfaces, γs and γ1 are the surface energy of the sub-strate and the ink droplet, respectively. The condition tomaintain good adhesion between both is when γs≫γ1, asdepicted in Figure 11. θ < 90° indicates good wetting, andθ > 90° suggests poor wetting [56]. The addition of adhesionpromoters which had been previously discussed in the ink

14 Research

formation section also improves the adhesion by changingthe chemistry of the ink, which reacts with the surface toform strong interfacial bonds.

There are two widely used approaches in improving theadhesion of the inks, especially metal nanoparticle ink. Onemodifies the ink by stabilizing it with surfactants or addi-tives, which uniformly distributes the nanoparticles byforming a protective layer on them. But this hinders the fullpotential conductivity of the deposited structures. The otheris to condition the surface of the substrate by increasing thesurface energy. Physical-chemical modifications can bemade by exposing the substrates to ultraviolet, ozone[120], plasma treatments [121], flame treatment, and othersimilar techniques. Chemical modification attempts havebeen made using self-assembled layers [122]. The surfacetension of the substrates, which affect the wetting condi-tions, can be modified by electrical means with the appliedelectrical field. This applies to conditions only when therecould be a potential difference between the substrate andthe deposited active material droplet, separated by aninsulator [123]. Recently, a direct printing method assistedby electrowetting employed voltages between the nozzleand the substrate material. By varying the electric fieldstrength, they were able to print traces of width from 50to 720 μm [124]. This is important in the printing processas it increases the ink adhesion by improving the interfa-cial interaction between the substrate layer and the activelayer.

Therefore, the typical requirements of the substratematerial to fabricate the flexible/stretchable tactile sensorsby the printing methods include low processing tempera-tures, high surface roughness, and low coefficients of thermalexpansion (CTE). In the case of stretchable sensors, the mainrequirement is to make them elastically and electrically func-tional while pushing them to their stretching limits. Thiscurbs the choice of possible materials. The widely used

organics exhibit low electronic performance to the exten-sively used metals and other semiconductors, restricting theirscope of application.

The commonly used FSE substrate materials are catego-rized into silicone elastomers, polymers, and others. Amongthe silicon-based organic polymers, polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS) has received an overwhelming response due to itspromising features such as intrinsic stretchability (low elasticmodulus of 1.84MPa), transparent appearance, nontoxicnature, high thermal stability, chemical resistance, hydro-phobicity, commercial availability, and easy processability.Due to the siloxane (Si-O) linkages of the cross-linked molec-ular chain of PDMS, the divalent oxygen atoms help in chainextension between the Si atoms. This makes it recoverableafter the mechanical deformation and allows it to exhibitstretchability up to 1000% and elastic regimes up to γ ≈ 700% strain. In addition to these properties, the variable viscosityof the polymer along with its cross-linking ability makes iteasily patternable into pyramids or grooves or into any othermodifications in the surface microstructures leading to bettersensor performances [125].

Ecoflex™ rubber is an off-the-shelf silicone that is widelyused in these applications. It is highly stretchable and avail-able at different levels of viscosity and tensile strength. It isa skin-safe biodegradable silicone [126] with a low elasticmodulus of 0.07MPa. Dragon Skin is one such stretchablesilicone elastomer. Polyimide (PI) exhibits high thermal,chemical, and creep resistance. Due to this property, it hasgained popularity as a flexible substrate in the field of flexibleelectronics. However, its intrinsic orange color has inhibitedits scope in transparent devices. Nevertheless, attempts hadbeen made in developing transparent versions of theorange-tinted polymer. An additive manufactured thin andflexible microsensor was developed to measure shear stressand pressure, utilizing polyimide as a substrate layer [127].Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is often used as a substrate

θγ1

γs1 γ

s

θ = 0°Low surface tension

θ < 90°Medium surface tension

Good wetting

θ > 90°High surface tension

Poor wetting

θθ

Strong adhesion to substrate

Poor adhesion to substrate

FSE

(a)

(b)

Figure 11: The wetting behavior of the ink droplet on the substrate. (a) θ is the contact angle between the printed drop and thesubstrate. (b) For higher θ values, the surface tension on the droplet dominates the engaging forces on the surface and it is moredifficult to bond to the substrate.

15Research

film for flexible tactile sensors. Due to its high modulus, asshown in Table 4, it cannot be stretched but has other bene-fits such as transparency up to 90%, high creep resistance,and suitable surface energy that allows printability of con-ductive inks. An inkjet-printed soft tactile sensor on PETsubstrate material was coated with hydrogel and mountedon surgical tools [128]. Other conventional polymer sub-strates would include polyesters such as PolyethyleneNaphthalate (PEN) which possess hydrophilicity, thermo-plastic polylactic acid (PLA) [129], polyurethane (PU)[130], and poly(styrene-b-butadiene-b-styrene) (SBS) [131].

Another material such as silk which is biocompatible,biodegradable, and can endure irregular deformation hasbeen used in bioelectronics [132]. Silk-based inks have beenformulated for other applications, but they are yet to enterthe spectrum of fabricating flexible tactile sensors throughadditive manufacturing technologies [133, 134]. Similarly,the paper is an inexpensive, porous, flexible, lightweight,and renewable resource that has shown the potential to be asuitable substrate for flexible tactile sensors [135–137]. Paperwas used as one of the electrodes in the fabrication of aninkjet-printed bimodal strain and a pressure sensor. Thispaper was soaked in glycerinum to enhance its substrateproperties so that the printed ink layer would adhere to it.It was further tested under 900 bending cycles to confirmits mechanical stability and conductive degradation [35].Other types of flexible substrates include metallic foils andthin inorganic glasses. Metal foils sustain high temperatures,possess good chemical resistance, and cater to the depositionof inorganic materials [138]. However, the surface roughnessand high costs associated with it curb its usage in flexible sen-sor fabrication.

4.2. Active Elements. The active FSEs in some cases are func-tional inks which include CNTs/graphene solution, nanopar-ticle/wire/flake inks of conductive metals, several conductivepolymer-based inks, dielectric materials, and other compos-ites. The important constraints with these materials are itsparticle size, solubility, colloidal dispersion, viscosity, flow-ability, surface tension, and density of the solution [56].There are studies on the printable elastic inks with variousconductive fillers in different polymer matrices. Important

parameters required for selecting the appropriate active ele-ment of the printable ink are listed in Table 5.

4.2.1. Metallic Ink. Silver-based inks with fillers such as silverflakes, nanoparticles, and nanowires prove to be the desiredchoice for printed electronics as it provides attractive andnecessary features such as resistance to oxidation and highelectrical conductivity [58, 139]. Silver’s conductivity depen-dency on the different printed substrates was studied andcharacterized in a recent study [140]. Highly stretchableand printable inks are being developed using silver nanopar-ticles [103, 141]. Copper-based inks limit its application dueto the oxidation that takes place after printing. To overcomethis problem [142, 143], a research group has used hydrazinetreatment and reported a well-sintered microstructure withlow resistivity [144]. A major disadvantage with the metalnanoparticle inks is its precipitation and agglomeration ofparticles, which causes nozzle clogging. To avoid this, themetal colloids can be stabilized by adding dispersants alongwith its formulation. Another problem is the adhesion ofNP inks with the polymer layers; it is relatively weak as com-pared to the carbon-based materials.

The other commonly used type of metallic ink is a liquidmetal such as the eutectic gallium-indium (EGaIn) liquidmetal alloy which maintains its liquid state at room temper-ature [117, 145]. It does not possess any elasticity, but it iscompatible with stretchable systems. To make this liquidmetal printable, various rheological modifications have beenimplemented such as promoting oxide build-up throughcontinuous stirring for a long period of time. This increasesthe surface wettability of the liquid metal which enhancesthe adherence on the substrate [146]. It has gained popularityin stretchable electronics due to its strong adhesion onsubstrates and its excellent electrical conductivity [78].Printing of EGaIn further leads to oxidation of the metalalloy and accumulation of it at the nozzle tips. To combatthis problem, an oxygen-free environment was chosen toprint liquid GaIn alloy, for which the pendant dropmethod was used to characterize the alloy extruded in anitrogen-filled glovebox. Electrowetting assisting selectiveprinting of EGaIn alloy by the direct-write printing methodwas recently reported [124].

Table 4: Properties of a few commonly used substrate materials [118, 138, 148, 249–251]. ∗Subject to change with fabrication.

MaterialThickness(μm)

Density(g/cm3)

Transparency(%)

Tg (°C)Max.

allowabletemp (°C)

Thermalcoeff.

(ppm/°C)

Young’smodulus(GPa)

Tensilestrength(MPa)

Solventresistance

Surfaceenergy

(dyn/cm)

PET 16-100 1.39 90 70-110 150 15-33 2-4.1 55-250 Good 35-50

PEN 12-250 1.36 87 120-155 260 20 0.1-0.5 280-550 Good 20–35

PI 12-125 1.36–1.43 35-60 155-270 Up to 400 8-20 2.5-3 85-300 Good 40

TPU — 1.18 90 80 130 153 7MPa 28-54 Good

Paper(transparentnanofiber)

20-200 1.53 80 200 150 — 13 223 Poor 50-60

Ecoflex ∗ 1.07 70-90 — 232 2840.05–

0.10MPa0.83–2.41 Poor 35

PDMS ∗ 0.965 90 -125 200 270-310 1.84MPa 2.24 Poor 10-20

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4.2.2. Carbon-Based Ink. Owing to its superior electrical andmechanical properties, carbon-based materials like graphene[64, 147, 148] and CNT [61, 149] have been prominentlyused as an FSE. CNT films exhibit piezoresistive property.A single CNT shows high sensitivity to strain with a gaugefactor > 1000, but it gets more complicated to construct iton a large scale. It is resilient to deformation showing hightensile strength in the order of a hundred GPa [150] andhas high mobilities enabling them to operate at the low oper-ating voltage [151]. Having an outstanding electroconduct-ibility, inplane stretchability up to 25%, high modulus,thermal conductivity, and optical transmittance > 97%, gra-phene has secured its place in this field [152]. Printable gra-phene inks are prepared through the mixing of anelastomeric solution with graphene powder dispersed in asolvent, which could produce features as small as 100 μmand up to a few hundred layers [80, 153]. Electrical conduc-tivity of inkjet-printed reduced graphene oxide (RGO) on apolyimide substrate can be significantly improved by anneal-ing it through the laser radiation technique [154]. Appar-ently, the giant graphene oxide (GGO) sheets show typicalshear-thinning behavior which makes it suitable forextrusion-based printing techniques. GGO direct printedthrough a 200 μm nozzle exhibited self-assembly behaviorinto close-packed lines through the π‐π conjugation effectand hydrogen bonding [19].

4.2.3. Polymer Ink.Having mechanical similarity with the FSEsubstrate polymers, the polymer-based inks have been widelystudied. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-based polymersexhibit high thermal stability, good optical transmittance, sol-ubility in various solvents, and tunable conductivity. The com-monly used poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrenesulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) is a universally available commercial-ized polymer [60]. However, due to its intrinsic hardness, oncedried, the film becomes brittle. To overcome this, small mole-cules such as xylitol or sorbitol or capstone [60, 120] could beadded to increase the plasticity of the polymer or could use aporous substrate to promote adhesion.

A widely used FSE material for piezoelectric sensors ispolyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and its copolymer, polyviny-lidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene (PVDF-TrFE), due to itshigh dimensional stability and piezoelectric coefficient. Thedisadvantage is with its indistinguishable pyroelectric effect,which calls for protection from thermal interference. Ionicliquid (IL) has recently gained popularity due to its low vis-cosity, low volatility, good chemical, thermal stability, highcontrast wettability control, solubility in various organic sol-vents, and high ionic conductivity [72]. 1-Ethyl-3-methyli-midazolium tricyanomethanide is an imidazolium-basedionic liquid that exhibits a conductivity of 18mS cm-1 and alow viscosity of 18 Pa s [155]. Polypyrrole (PPy) is a pseudo-capacitive, biocompatible conducting polymer having chem-ical stability with alkalines. However, due to its insolubility insolvents, its applications and processing techniques havebeen limited. Hence, colloidal solutions of PPy nanotubes/-nanorods are prepared as a promising FSE [156]. Its potentialas a supercapacitor electrode has been published as PPynanowire-based material exhibited large specific capacitanceand cyclic stability [157, 158].

Ionically, conductive and printable hydrogels are bio-compatible and stretchable [159, 160]. They conduct throughions, and they show a change in resistance or capacitanceupon the application of mechanical stimuli [161, 162] Dueto the presence of reversible hydrogen bonding, they exhibitself-healing properties [163]. A self-healing, stretchable, andprintable hydrogel revealed that the printing parameter suchas applied pressure, nozzle diameter, temperature, and mov-ing speed was controlled accordingly to produce the appro-priate printing hydrogel trace [41, 164]. This hydrogel wasprinted on a gelatin membrane, used as a sacrificial layer, asit was found that the surface properties of common sub-strates like PDMS/glass could not accommodate it. A 3Dprinted, multifunctional thermal, and pressure-responsivedouble-network hydrogel shows potential application as anartificially intelligent skin. The heating of the hydrogel aboveits volume phase transition temperature (around 30°C)lowers its viscosity exhibiting a shear-thinning characteristic

Table 5: Properties of a few commonly used active materials [79, 252, 253].

MaterialsElectrical

conductivityThickness(nm)

Length(μm)

Transparency(%)

Young’s modulus(GPa)

Sheet resistance(Ω/sq)

AgNanoparticle 6:2 × 105 S/cm 20-150

(nanowire)1-50

(nanowire)85–95 83 10–70

Nanowire 1:6 × 10‐6 Ω cm

CuNanoparticle 5:9 × 105 S/cm 5-120

(nanowire)10-50

(nanowire)85–95 130 10–70

Nanowire 1:740 × 10‐6 Ω cm

NiNanoparticle 1:4 × 105 S/cm 10-200

(nanowire)1-5000

(nanowire)85–95 — 10–70

Nanowire 30 – 50 × 10−6 Ω cm

CNT

SWCNT ~104 S/cm0.4-50 1-1000000 70–90

~100060–485DWCNT ~104 S/cm —

MWCNT ~104 S/cm 300–1000PEDOT:PSS film ~103 S/cm — — Up to 97 0.9–2.8 145-1000ITO 103-104 S/cm — — Up to 80 116 30-820

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that aids its printability [165]. In addition, the conductivelayers were microstructured to make it responsive to smallstimuli. Other potential polymers are Polyaniline (PANI)[166], polyphenylene vinylene (PPV) [167], thermoplasticpolyurethanes (TPU) [46], etc.

4.2.4. Composites. The poor processability issues of compos-ite materials encountered with the traditional techniquescould be circumvented by implementing the additivemanufacturing processes [129]. The electronic properties ofthe printable composite (σ—electrical conductivity) mate-rials are largely dependent on the volume fraction of thedoped conductive filler materials, σ = σoðV f −VcÞs, whereσo refers to the scaling factor, V f is the volume fraction ofthe conductive filler, Vc is the percolation threshold, and sis the conductivity exponent [168]. The fillers can be chosenfrom carbon-based materials, metallic filler materials, orother conductive organics [114]. The morphology, distribu-tion, geometry, and adhesion of the filler particle in the com-posite matrix play a role in determining the performance ofthe printed conductive composite [169]. For effective and ahomogeneous mixture, magnetic or ultrasonic stirring canbe utilized. Improved stretchability and cyclic stability areattained through strong bonding between the two materials[170]. A highly stretchable and printable composite impreg-nated with silver flakes and MWCNTs as filler materialexhibited high conductivity of 5710 S/cm at 0% strain [171].

It is recommended to maintain the concentration of thefiller material around the percolation threshold (PH) to obtaina high gauge factor in strain sensors [172]. Lower concentra-tions than PH will lead to dimensional separation betweenthe particles leading to an exponential increase in tunnelingresistance. Higher concentrations than PH will decrease thetunneling effect and hence a significant decrease in the gaugefactor [173, 174]. The ionic transport properties of a 3D print-able polymer/ionic liquid composite were discussed in a studyrecently. It was found that the extent of cross-linking andpolymerization of the composite greatly affected the sensitiv-ity of the printed sensors [72]. In the mechanical aspect, largeconcentrations of filler material lead to augmented stiffnessand bare lower strain at break. There is a rise in the 3D print-able carbon-based composites due to their high conductivity,flexibility, and high anisotropic property [175]. When theCNT network is dispersed in an elastic substrate, it exhibitstwo types of resistance. One is its own intrinsic resistance,and the other is the dominating innertube resistance; bothof these give rise to the strain sensing phenomenon [176].In another case, dichloromethane was adopted as a dispers-ing medium for the preparation of intrinsically conductivePLA/CNT composite which was direct 3D printed via liquiddeposition modeling [177]. The purpose of composite mate-rials is to combine the desired properties to two materials anddeveloping a matrix favorable to the application. Recently,3D printable hydrogel-PEDOT:PSS composite was devel-oped by freeze-drying the PEDOT:PSS solution and mixingit with PEGDA, a photocurable base [178].

Both organic and inorganic materials required to main-tain high capacitance by acting as an insulating layer in

low-voltage applications are explored [179]. While theorganic ones have already been established in the printingprocesses, the inorganic ones are yet to make their way.There are plenty of commercially available dielectric inkswith varied dielectric strengths and optical transmittance.Materials such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) dielectric[125], polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), Polyaniline (PANI) [166],poly(4-vinylphenol), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA),[180] barium titanate (BaTiO3) [181], polystyrene, tere-phthalate, and polyimide (PI) [182] are commonly used foradditive manufacturing of dielectrics. Ionogels with intrinsicstretchability exhibit a high capacitance of ~10μF/cm2 andare used in several applications [183]. It is further studiedthat patterned dielectric surfaces result in better pressuresensitivity [184].

5. Printability of Flexible/StretchableTactile Sensors

Among the various essential functions and properties of ourhuman skin, the sense of touch plays a major role. The abilityof our skin to distinguish a minute pressure as low as 5 Paand further withstand a high mechanical force poses chal-lenges to engineering it. Attempts have been made to developa fully functional electronic skin and an epidermal electronicsystem using additive manufacturing techniques. Thesesystems have multiple substantial applications in the fieldof biomedical engineering and health monitoring [185].Tactile sensors equip us with the information on themechanical interaction of the sensor with the objectthrough physical contact. Upon detecting and measuringthis given property, the signal is transduced to an electricaloutput. To further understand the tactile sensors, its phys-ical principles, sensor attributes, materials required for fab-rication, design layouts, and promising applications arediscussed in the chapters below.

5.1. Printable Pressure Sensors. Early developments of tactilepressure sensors focussed on the various transduction princi-ples. For the printable flexible/stretchable tactile sensors, themechanical stimulations like pressure, force, and vibrationare converted through 4 main mechanisms such as piezore-sistivity for strain gauges, the capacitance for structures sen-sitive to compression, piezoelectricity for voltage variationsdue to mechanical deformation, and triboelectricity forvibration-induced potential difference [186]. We also havethe field-effect transistor- (FET-) based tactile sensors thatuse an electric field to control the flow of current. However,most of these high sensitivity devices are rigid in nature. Toovercome this problem, organic FET utilizing stretchablepolymers have been utilized [187], whereas this being fabri-cated through printing technology is still a challenge [188].

5.1.1. Piezoresistive. The principle of piezoresistive-basedpressure sensors is based on the piezoresistive effect. Piezore-sistive material transduces the mechanical variations intodetectable resistive or conductive changes, measured by anexternal electrical circuit. It is the common transductionprinciple, due to its high sensitivity, uncomplicated structure,

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low cost, wide range of detection, low energy consumption,and manageable readout mechanism. The relative change ofresistance is written as shown in Figure 12(a), where R isresistance, ρ is resistivity, L denotes the length, A refers tothe cross-sectional area of the conductor, ν is Poisson’s ratio,ε is applied strain, and G is gauge factor (GF). Hence, it canbe inferred that the resistance is dependent on the geometryand resistivity of the sensing material.

This piezoresistivity is caused by the stress that modifiesthe band-gap which in turn alters the mobility of the chargecarriers. This is implemented either by modifying the con-tract state of the conductive materials or through tunnelingeffect [149]. The former is observed in silicon, CNT, andgraphene-based piezoresistive sensors. The latter is observedin conductive composite materials based on conductivenanoparticles, nanowires, nanotubes, and flakes as currenttunneling through nanogaps [82]. The disadvantages associ-ated with these types of tactile sensors are their dependenceon temperature, stability issues, and hysteresis effect. Ahighly elastic strain sensor performing under the piezoresis-tive mechanism was 3D printed by the fused filament fabrica-tion (FFF) technique. The thermoplastic polyurethane andmultiwalled carbon nanotube composite were extruded into

filaments to make it compatible with this printing technique.The sensor possessed high gauge factor of 176 under 100%strain [189].

5.1.2. Piezoelectric. Piezoelectric sensors respond to mechan-ical stimuli by electric polarization and production of voltage.This transduction phenomenon is called piezoelectricity.Dipole moments are observed from the deformation of theoriented crystalline structures. Piezoelectric materials havea property of electromechanical coupling with the generationof electric charge under mechanical deformation. The energyconversion efficiency of piezoelectric materials is evaluatedby the piezoelectric coefficient (d33), which is the ratio ofopen circuit charge density to the applied stress (C/N) units[190]. This type of sensors shows rapid response, high sensi-tivity, low power consumption, and self-powering/energyharvesting characteristics. Conventional piezoelectric mate-rials such as inorganic ceramics, single crystals, and lead zir-conate titanate (PZT) possess high d33 but are too brittle forthe flexible/stretchable tactile sensors. Contrarily, piezoelec-tric polymers such as poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethy-lene) (PVDF-TrFE) have mechanical flexibility, chemicalstability, uncomplicated processing, biocompatibility, and

=

OC

OOOC CH2CH2N

HNH

n

DCM

Graphene

Polyurethane Silver nanoparticles

3D Printing

FSE Printable Ink

Tensile Strain

Compression

Top ElectrodeSupporting Layer

Sensor or Layer

Isolating LayerBottom ElectrodeBase Layer

I: Base LayerII: BottomElectrode

III: Sensor Layer IV: Isolating Layer

V: SupportingLayer

VII: SupportingLayer removal

VIII: DriedTactile Sensor

V: TopElectrode

F

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 12: Printed flexible/stretchable piezoresistive pressure sensor. (a) Schematic illustration of the piezoresistive transduction principle.(b) Printed stretchable tactile sensor with the multimaterial fabrication: (A) schematic of different layers of a tactile sensor; (B) 8sequential steps of the 3D printing process [231]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright John Wiley and Sons, 2017. (c) Direct printingof nanocomposite printable inks for piezoresistive sensor applications [232]. Reproduced with permission. Copyright John Wiley andSons, 2018.

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low cost. The drift of sensor output over time and its suscep-tibility to temperature are the major disadvantages in thistype of sensors. Recently, PVDF piezoelectric films wereprinted and activated using an FFF printer integrated withcorona poling process. These sensors were tested on adynamic load range from 5 to 45N for 50 cycles [50]. Aself-powered pressure sensor was fabricated with piezoelec-tric fibers. The near-field electrospinning process was usedto deposit the PVDF fibers on the 3D printed substrate asshown in Figure 13(b) [100].

5.1.3. Piezocapacitive. As for capacitive sensing, it relies onthe charge storage and the capacitance change upon defor-mation. The capacitance, C, of a parallel plate capacitor isas shown in Figure 14(a), neglecting the fringe effect. Weuse ε to represent the permittivity of the dielectric material,d being the distance between the two plates and A the over-lapped area of the two plates. The gauge factor of a capacitivestrain is given by ðΔC/C0Þ/ε or ðΔC/C0Þ/P, and here, ε repre-sents the strain and P the intensity of pressure. Mechanicaldeformation brings the electrodes closer and induces changesin d and A, resulting in changes in the capacitance of thedielectric medium. Apart from the traditional parallel plateconfiguration, an interdigital configuration is widely incor-porated in capacitive sensors [191]. An aerosol jet printedinterdigitated capacitive sensor, with a sensor thickness of0.5 μm, was fabricated for touch sensing applications [192].The capacitance-based sensors are advantageous in variousaspects such as high strain sensitivity, temperature indepen-dence, low power consumption, and low signal to noise ratio.Sensitivities of these types of sensors can be improved byaddressing the compressibility of the materials by using lowmodulus materials. Likewise, altering the surface of the elec-trode or dielectric layer with patterns and microstructureslike dome-shaped [193], pyramidal [194], or interconnectedhollow-spheres [195] shows improved sensitivity [196, 197].N-Butyl acetate diluted PDMS was fabricated as a micro-structured dielectric layer by inkjet printing on an indiumtin oxide- (ITO-) coated glass substrate as shown inFigure 14(b). It exhibited a high-pressure sensitivity of10.4 kPa-1 and showed the feasibility to be printed on a

flexible PET film [198]. High susceptibility to electromag-netic interference can modify the fringe fields of thecapacitor [199]. Cross-talk between the taxels and complexcircuity is the disadvantageous characteristics of capacitance-based sensors.

5.1.4. Triboelectric. Triboelectric sensors function on thebasis of the coupling effect of contact electrification and elec-trostatic induction [186]. While this mechanism is still underinvestigation, it is understood that when two different mate-rials are rubbed with each other, electrical charges areinduced on their surface. The polarities between the twomaterials affect the amount of electrical charge generated.Upon a mechanical deformation, when the two surfacescome in contact, opposite charges are induced on their sur-face. Once the deformation is released, the two surfaces auto-matically separate. Owing to the air gap between them, theopposite charges on surfaces create a potential difference.These are mechanical energy harvesting devices; in otherwords, it enables to monitor touch action without thenecessity of external power supply [200]. Triboelectric gen-erators demonstrate excellent compatibility with the print-ing fabrication techniques as its fundamental structuralcomponents are printable without compromising on thedevice performance. A fully printed triboelectric nanogen-erator was fabricated and used to analyze the various vibra-tion types. It explains the advantages and the possibility ofprinted triboelectric sensors [180]. A 3D tribo-nanoprintingtechnology provides a cost-effective way to produce 3D tri-boelectric architecture [201]. Figure 15(b) shows that anultraflexible triboelectric nanogenerator was 3D printed. Itdemonstrated a decent output of 10.98W/m3. It was embed-ded into a shoe sole and developed into a self-powered LEDlighting shoe [202].

5.2. Printable Strain Sensors. Strain sensing is performedthrough two mechanisms: changes in resistance or capaci-tance occur by geometric alteration or by changes in internalconductivity. The conventional strain sensors produced byfilm transfer or solution casting are restricted to a basic geo-metrical shape such as a rectangle and a limited strain

F

High Voltage

TPE Substrate

Cu

Random Dipoles

Aligned dipoles

PVDFPDMS

CuTPE

V+

V‒

(a) (b)

Figure 13: Printed flexible/stretchable piezoelectric pressure sensor. (a) Schematic illustration of the piezoelectric transduction principle. (b)Step by step fabrication of PVDF fibers deposited on the 3D printed wavy substrates to produce the self-powered pressure sensor [100].Reproduced with permission. Copyright Springer Nature, 2017.

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sensitivity in one direction [203]. Hence, studies on addi-tively manufactured stretchable strain sensors are aimed ataccommod