Hayfield: Reference Grammar

8/12/2019 Hayfield: Reference Grammar

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Introduction

Hayfield is an experiment in language modality: can the two attested modalities (sign and

speech) be combined in a coherent way? The Hayfield language is fictionally situated in the

context of a culture with a high deaf and hard-of-hearing population; the two modalities are

closely tied together, so that rather than remaining separate from each other, deaf and hearing

members of the community take part in the same activities and cultural events.

The culture of Hayfield speakers centers around community arts. Traditional stories, songs and

dances are passed down in unwritten form. Adherence to traditional forms as well as

improvisation are valued. Though there are professional groups who give performances, the heart

of the communitys experience in the arts is in the festivals, where amateurs participate fully in

narrative, music, dance and theater.

A series of traditional festivals occur throughout the year. The calendar is divided into halves: the

autumn/winter cycle begins on the autumnal equinox (corresponding to 22/23 September), and

the spring cycle begins on the vernal equinox (corresponding to 20 March). The celebration of

the beginning of each cycle is celebrated with an important festival; neither receives precedence

as a new year celebration.

Songs and stories are often associated with a particular time of year. The four seasons are often

referred to; references to the beginning and end of each season (such as early spring or late

summer) are common. Frequently recurring events tend to be scheduled based on the eight-day

week and not on the month.

The name of the language in Hayfield is ![an.] lla"u, literally HAND-mouth. The name

Hayfield has no significance, but is convenient to use in English descriptions of the language.

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Table of abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in glosses and descriptions of the language.

ADJ adjective; can also be used adverbially if used with or following a verb or adjective

ADV (closed-class) adverb; includes aspectual and modal markers

an. animate; refers to the movement loosely associated with animacy

c. common or animate gender (either masculine or feminine)

cir. circular hand movement

CNJ conjunction

D dominant hand

DET determiner

f. feminine

fig. figurative meaning of a word

imper. imperative (also expresses a hortative meaning)

inch. inchoative or inceptive aspect

indef. indefinite or dummy pronoun

intens. intensive mood

lit. literal meaning of a word

m. masculine

N noun

n. neuter or inanimate gender

ND non-dominant hand

pl. plural

pot. potential mood (also expresses deference or hesitation)

PREP preposition

PRON pronoun

rot. rotation of hand, twice

sg. singular

subord. subordinate clause marker

t. hands touch two or three times

V verb

WH wh-word (relative/interrogative pronoun or adverb)

wig. wiggle fingers (hand movement)

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Phonetics

Vowels

There are three pure vowels, typically dispersed.

In the conventional orthography, vowels are generally spelled a i u; a word-final unstressed [i] is

represented by .

Consonants

Below is a chart of the consonant inventory, with IPA in light letters and conventional

orthographic representation in bold letters.

The preponderance of labials stems from their easy visual recognition; the existence of only one(or two) dorsals is similarly motivated. Visual recognition also accounts for the presence of

fronted consonants: linguolabial [l"] appears instead of [l], and [n #] is articulated as dental or

interdental (though [$d] is apical). Fricatives are not phonemically contrastive, as [f] and [%] are

acoustically very similar; on the other hand, affricates appear, as they are visually and

acoustically distinct from the corresponding stops.

labial coronal dorsal

nasal m&(mw) n#(nj)

plosive p'(p) (b (mb) t'(t) $d (nd) k'(k) ~ h (h)

affricate bv (bv) d)(dd)

trill *(#) r (rr)

approximant w (w)

lateral l"(ll)

click (+(") ,-($)

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[k] and [h] are allophones in complementary distribution; this phonetic difference is represented

in the orthography.

When necessary, indicates the absence of a spoken component.

Spoken constituent formation

The basic syllable of a spoken constituent has a CV structure. A native Hayfield word consists of

one, two or three syllables, with most spoken constituents being polysyllabic.

If the last syllable in a word is has the vowel aor u, then stress falls on that last syllable. If the

final vowel is [i], it may be either stressed or unstressed. If stressed, it is written i; if unstressed,

it is written , and the words stress falls on the penultimate syllable.

The click $must be followed by aor u; it cannot be followed by ior .

The velar plosive koccurs word-initially; its allophone, h, occurs in the middle of and at the end

of a words.

A list of example spoken constituents, demonstrating all phonemes and possible syllable patterns,

follows.

mwihatu[m&i.ha..tu] hearing

mwunja[m&u..n#a] moon

nja[n#a] this, that

nja#urru[n#a.*u..ru] south

nju[n#u] [subordinate clause marker]

papih[pa..pi.hi] fairy tale, tall tale

pandi"[pa..ndi.(+i] other, another

mba$at[(ba..,-a.ti] heart (lit.)

katabva[k'a.t'a..bva] religious song

lladd[.l"a.d)i] tongue

lladdu[l"a..d)u] man

lla"u[l"a..(+u] mouth

winjand[wi..n#a.$di] spring$u[,-u] egg

Handshapes

The basic handshapes are as follows. Parenthesized ASL equivalents are given; the bold letter is

used in the conventional orthography.

A closed fist (S or A)

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An open palm (5)

Index finger out (1 or D)

Forming a ring (O or F)

Half-circle (C)

Tense wide claw (wider and tenser than C; spelled !)

Thumb and first two fingers extended, others bent (3)

First two fingers crossed (R)

Thumb between first two fingers (a less tense shape similar to T or K)

Rams horns, or extended index finger and pinky (simultaneous D and I; spelled Y)

When necessary, indicates the absence of a signed component.

Special signs are used for cardinal and ordinal numbers; these are discussed in the section on

numerals.

Position

There are twelve positions, most of which are classified as either close or extended.

Position a: close, at the scalp; extended, about a foot above the head.

Position b: close, at the forehead; extended, arms somewhat extended in front of the face.

Position c: close, at the cheek or temple (normally, that on the dominant side); extended, to

the side of the body at head level.

Position d: close, at the chin; extended, about a foot in front of the face (this looks similar

to the extended-bposition, but the arms are lower and somewhat closer).

Position e: close, at the chest; there is no corresponding extended position.

Positionf: close, at the same shoulder on the same side of the body as the hand in question,

in front of the body; extended, to the same side of the body at about shoulder height.

Positiong: close, at the shoulder on the other side of the body from the hand in question, in

front of the body; extended, to the opposite side of the body at about shoulder height.

The neutral position, located about a foot in front of the body.

In the orthography, a close position is represented by a superscript letter, and its corresponding

extended position with a doubled superscript letter. For example, the !handshape at close-dis

written !%, while the 5handshape at extended-fis written 5&&. The neutral position is not indicated

in the orthography.

The handshapes for the two hands are separated with a slash (/). If no handshape follows the

slash, then the hands mirror each other.

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Movement and orientation

The following are the movement and orientation phonemes, together with their gloss

abbreviations.

Tensing of hand and two small motions in place (associated with animacy) [an.]

Movement up [up]

Movement down [down]

Movement towards the body away from the front [in]

Movement away from body towards front [out]

Movement towards the body away from the side [to]

Movement away from the body towards the side [away]

Movement in a circle, preserving orientation [cir.]

Rotation in place, twice [rot.] Wiggling of fingers [wig.]

Hands touch two or three times [t.]

In the orthography, if [in]or [to]is used in conjunction with a close position, the close position is

the final position; used with an extended position, the position is initial. For example, A&[in]

denotes the Ahandshape moving towards the close-fposition from some neutral farther position,

while Y&&[in]denotes the Yhandshape moving towards a neutral position from a (farther)

extended-fposition. Conversely, if [out]and [away]are used with a close position, the close

position is initial; if the same indicators used with an extended position, the extended position isfinal.

More specific movement between two positions is indicated by repeating the handshape for each

position. For example, the handshape 5moving from the close bto the close cposition is spelled

5'5(. If the handshape changes during the course of movement, a hyphen is used: Y%-C). A

hyphen is also used when the handshape has a distinctly different movement or orientation at the

two positions.

A repeated movement is indicated by a repetition of the movement marker. For example, the sign

for story is R%[out,out]; this indicates the Rhandshape at the close dposition moving outwards

twice, returning to the close dposition before moving out the second time.

The following orientations and non-manual markers, though consistently articulated, do not form

minimal pairs and are not represented in the orthography:

Palm up

Palm down

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Furrowed eyebrows (if)

Raised eyebrows (subordinate clause marker, relative pronouns)

Raised eyes, slightly lowered head (not)

The extent of raised eyebrows is indicated by an underline in the gloss; the extent of furrowed

eyebrows is indicated by round brackets. Phonologically, the raised eyebrows non-manual

marker takes precedence over the furrowed eyebrows marker. (See The Tower of Babel in

Appendix B for examples of subordinate clauses.)

Signed constituent formation

Below is a list of example signed constituents.

!&bone

Y[an.]person

K)[out]road

A([an.]/deaf

R/not

F%%F((cloud

F&-5&&[wig.]fire

5/C[t.,in]come, walk towards

5/3[cir.,cir.,out]swim

5)/-A)/-5)/breathe

Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.]kill

Phonology

Speech

The word-final unstressed vowel is dropped when utterance-final (i.e. at the end of a sentence

or other such prosodic unit).

mbatuhbad [(ba..t'u.hi] > [(ba..tuh]

Such apocope triggers the following phonetic changes to consonants in the word-final position:

w[w] and rr[r] are devoiced.wuwwind, smoke [.wu.wi] > [wu/]

The voiced affricates bv[bv] and dd[d)] become unvoiced fricatives [0] and [%].rruddstory [.ru.d)i] > [ru%]

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The prenasalized stops mb[(b] and nd[$d] become nasals [m] and [n]. kumbundseason [ku..(bu.$di] > [ku..(bun]

Sign

There is little restriction on the signs that may produced within the constraints of the phonemes

listed above. It is not attested for more than three movements to occur in a single sign.

Both the close-aand the extended-apositions are rare in lexical items, and occur only iconically

in a few signs (such as Y'[an.]/-Y**/play). The close aposition, however, is used as the

position of the non-dominant hand in wh-words.

Speech-sign interaction

Normally, a single signed element is articulated together with a single spoken element. Short

spoken function words need not be accompanied by a sign, and pronouns need not be

accompanied by a speech component.

Many words have mandatory components involving both speech and sign; in some cases only

one of these is articulated in a given grammatical construction, as is detailed in the sections

morphosyntax. It is common for the signed component of one word to be articulated together

with the spoken component of another; this takes place under specific syntactical conditions.

The preponderance of open syllables, as well as common diphthongs, serve to aid the continuity

of the spoken stream, as it needs to be synchronized with sign. The extensive use of affricates

allows for distinct consonants (with full closure) to be emphasized and drawn out; this allows for

more seamless synchronization of sign and speech.Some irregular words do not contain either a speech component or a signed component when one

is expected; for example, llillanjsing (speech) contains no signed component, although one

is expected for verbs. Such words are an exception to the general rule of simultaneous sign and

speech, and by nature break the flow of the other modality.

Nominal morphosyntax

Word formation

Nouns consist primarily of both a one-handed signed component in addition to a spoken

component. Plural number is marked on one-handed nouns by mirroring the sign on the non-

dominant hand.

Pronouns

Nouns are classified by their handshapes; the main handshape of a nouns sign is used for its

corresponding third-person pronoun. (The main handshape is the last handshape to have

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movement, or the initial handshape if there is no movement.) As in other sign languages,

pronouns are indexed towards the referent; that is, each referent occupies a spatial position in

the signing area, and the handshape of referent pronouns is pointed at that position.

5&&[in]/ D)$a Y)[an.,out] #u 5&&[in]/ njind Y

HAVE I FISH. HAVE-small IT.

I have a fish. It is small.

The pronominal handshape corresponding to plural nouns is 3:

5&&[in]/ D)$a Y)[an.,out]/ #u 3&&/ 5&&[in]/ njind 3

HAVE I FISH.[pl.] MANY. HAVE-small THEY.

I have many fish. They are small.

A handshape different from that of the corresponding noun may be used in exceptional

circumstances. For example, in The North Wind and the Sun (Appendix B), the Yhandshape is

used to refer to both characters in the story (rather than 5for the North Wind and Afor the Sun);

the effect is to personify the referents of the two pronouns.

Pronouns have an optional spoken component $a, which may be used in several situations:

When the speaker wishes to place emphasis on the referent

When the pronoun is occupying the canonical position of a topicalized noun phrase (see the

section on sentence structure)

When the preceding word has no spoken component, to avoid disrupting the flow of speech

In addition to referential personal pronouns, there are two indefinite, or dummy, pronouns,indicating an absent or unspecified referent. These pronouns can be used analogously to the

passive voice in English.

Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.] $ati Y Y((Y'

KILL [indef.].[c.] birdThe bird was killed (by someone).

Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.] $ati A Y((Y'

KILL [indef.].[n.] birdThe bird got killed.

Prepositions

Prepositions consist of only a spoken component, with the signed component being null. If its

object is a pronoun (which has a null signed component), the two words are articulated

simultaneously; otherwise, the object follows the preposition.

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Possession is indicated by a preposition corresponding to of.

Y[an.,up] mwuddamb D)ndu

FRIEND of-ME

my friend

ddapi F''[out,in] $udda

TO MOUNTAIN

to the mountain

Adjectives

Most adjectives have only a spoken component, with the signed component being null. An

adjective follows the noun it modifies; the sign of the modified noun is repeated during the

spoken component of the adjective. An adjective with a signed component may assimilate the

handshape of the preceding noun (which it modifies). In the example below, the basic signed

component of big is 5&&/, but the word assimilates the handshape of cloud.

F%%F((rrudd F&&/ padda

CLOUD CLOUD-big

big cloud

Once an adjective-noun phrase has been introduced, the spoken component of the noun may be

omitted and the two words assimilated. In the example above, once big cloud has been

introduced into the discourse, F&&/ paddais sufficient for the entire noun phrase; the spoken

component of cloud does not need to be expressed again.

Such blending of noun and adjective can also be used to create productive compounds that can

exist without the full noun phrase ever being expressed in the discourse:

5'[wig.] tihallFUR-sheep

wool

5%%5((tumwabv

WIND-northNorth Wind

Adjectives may reduplicate the initial syllable to mark diminution or qualification; they

reduplicate the final syllable to indicate intensification.

mba-mbanjiddu

rather well-known

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mbanjiddu-ddu

very well-known

There is no special form of the adjective that must be used in comparisons; the preposition "ahu

from precedes the object of comparison. Reduplication may be used in comparison expressions,

but is not mandatory.

5&&[in]/ kapa$u D "ahu D pandi"

HAVE-strong HE FROM OTHER

He is stronger than the other.

5&&[in]/ kapa$u-$u D {3} "ahu

HAVE-strong-very HE from-3

He is the strongest of the three.

Vocative expressions

Nouns of direct address either precede or follow an entire clause; they tend not to interrupt a

clause.

C(/-C&&/ $a Y Y%[an.]-C)tihall

LISTEN-[imper.] YOU, SHEEP. Sheep, listen!

Y%[an.]-C)tihall C(/-C&&/ $a Y

SHEEP, LISTEN-[imper.] YOU. Listen, sheep!

Conjunction of nouns

Nouns are conjoined simply by articulating them in succession.

D)$a F([an.,out] ndallu D)ndu

I SISTER of-ME

my sister and I

Note that such expressions are ambiguous with zero-copula sentences and appositive

expressions. The syntactic context is usually sufficient to disambiguate the former, while

discursive context helps to disambiguate the latter.

Determiners and numerals

All determiners, including numerals, may be used in either the noun or the adjective position.

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5&&[in]/ D)$a Y)[an.] bvaddi 3&&/

HAVE I CHILD.[pl.] MANY.

I have many children.

5&&[in]/ D)$a 3&&/ HAVE I MANY.

I have many.

Numerals are signed using a base-four system that lies outside the ordinary phonology:

0 is represented by an open hand

1 is represented by the thumb touching the third (ring) finger

2 is represented by the thumb touching the second (middle) finger

3 is represented by the thumb touching the first (index) finger

Two-digit numbers may be represented with the more significant digit on the non-dominant

hand. Higher numbers are spelled out, most significant digit first, on one hand.

In the orthography, numbers are written in base-four, most significant digit first, in curly

brackets:

{100} 16sixteen

Ordinal numbers

As in signed languages such as ASL, Hayfield makes more extensive use of ordinal-like signs

when referring to individuals of a group. A number of fingers equal to the total number in the

group are extended on the non-dominant hand; the dominant hand assumes the handshape of the

noun being represented and points to the corresponding finger on the non-dominant hand,

beginning at the thumb. (See Schleichers Fable in Appendix B for an example of idiomatic

usage of ordinal numbers.)

Smaller ordinals are indicated using the indexing system described above. Higher ordinals are

expressed by signing the corresponding cardinal number followed by the ordinal [2/2].

Expressing dates

Months are numbered according to the two independent cycles in the year. A specific month is

indicated by speaking the generic word for a month in the cycle (llanjuwor panjah) while

signing a cardinal number on two hands (one of {00}, {01}, {02}, {03}, {10}, {11}).

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Days of the eight-day week are expressed by speaking the word week (#adda) while signing a

cardinal number on two hands (one of {00}, {01}, {02}, {03}, {10}, {11}, {12}, {13}.

Both digits are always signed when expressing a specific day or month, even if the digit on the

non-dominant hand is {0}.

Verbal morphosyntax

Word formation

Most verbs consist of a two-handed signed component. In addition, most verbs have a default

spoken component, which effectively divides verbs into semantic classes. If a verb is articulated

together with a modifier, this spoken component is replaced.

The progressive aspect is indicated by repeating the verb. If there are no other verbal modifiers,

the default spoken component of the verb is also repeated.

If there is more than one modifier to a verb, the default marker comes first, followed by modal

marker; aspect markers come last. Signed verbal modifiers are articulated after the verb.

Some verbs have an idiomatic meaning with a particular modal or aspect marker, while others

must occur with a specific marker.

D)[an.]/ bvitu$u

THINK-[intens.]to believe

!&&/-F&&/ piddFIND-[inch.]

to find

Grammatical voice does not exist in Hayfield. Topicalization and indefinite subjects are used

analogously to the passive voice in English.

Participles

A verb may become participial by following the noun it modifies. Such a participle may itself be

modified by the spoken component of a noun, which is interpreted as its object. If the object is

modified, the signed component of the object occurs after the participle and is articulatedsimultaneously with the adjective.

D[an.] lladdu 5/K-K/5 #anju MAN DWELL-citya man dwelling in a city

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D[an.] lladdu 5/K-K/5 #anju K&[up,down] padda

MAN DWELL-city CITY-large a man dwelling in a large city

Stative verbs

Adjectives may be class-shifted into stative verbs by the use of the signed component 5&&5+

(have), which then functions as a copula.

5&&5+kapa$u D

HAVE-strong HE.

He is strong.

No copula is used with nouns; the two nouns are simply articulated in succession. The second

may be topicalized as usual.

F$a Y[an.,up] mwuddamb Y[an.,up] ndaw

SHE FRIEND FRIEND-good.

She is a good friend.

Y[an.,up] mwuddamb Y[an.,up] ndaw F $a

FRIEND FRIEND-good SHE.

She is a good friend.

Sentence structure

Simple sentences

The basic word order is V-S-O.

5/5-5/5 karr D) K[down] parrinjBUILD I HOUSE.

I built a house.

The subject or object may be topicalized by placing it before the verb (resulting in Top-V-S-O

order). The noun phrases canonical position is replaced with the corresponding pronoun; the

spoken component $amust then be articulated.

K[down] parrinj 5/5-5/5 karr D)

K$

a

HOUSE BUILD I IT.

A house is what I built.

Adverbs and prepositional phrases that modify the entire clause (such as expressions of time or

place) canonically occur at the end of the sentence; they can also occur, topicalized, in the

sentence-initial position.

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F'/-5(([wig.]/ $ati 3 "ahu 5/C bvuBE.SCATTERED THEY FROM THERE They were scattered from there.

"ahu 5/C bvu F'/-5(([wig.]/ $ati 3

FROM THERE BE.SCATTERED THEYFrom there they were scattered.

(Note that closed-class adverbs, which are marked in the lexicon with ADV, as well as adjectives

that double as adverbs, are verbal modifiers; immediately follow the verb.)

Coordinate conjunction

Simple conjunction of clauses (corresponding to and) is not articulated in Hayfield.

Alternatives are indicated by a body-shift, as in ASL. Opposition (but) is indicated with the

sentence-initial particle pa.

Subordinate clauses

Embedded clauses are indicated with njubefore the clause, with eyebrows raised throughout

the clause.

nju llillanj llillanj R([up,up]/ bvitu$u[subord.] SING SING BE.HAPPY-[intens.]

The more I sing, the happier I am.

Purpose and result clauses are not introduced with special conjunctions; they use the generic

embedded clause marker njutogether with an adverb. The embedded clause may either followor precede the matrix clause; if it precedes, the clause is considered topicalized.

R([up,up]/ ndah nju A&[out]/ $ati 5/3 ndah

BE.HAPPY [subord.] SUCCEED [REASON]

He was happy because he succeeded.

nju A&[out]/ $ati 5/3 ndah R([up,up]/ ndah

[subord.] SUCCEED [REASON] BE.HAPPY

Because he succeeded, he was happy.

Such an adverb may stand as the entire clause to mean therefore.

nju 5/K nduw R,R&[an.] $a 5%%5((tumwabv

[subord.] [result] AGREE-[imper.] WIND-northAs a result, the North Wind was obliged to agree.

Conditions are syntactically similar to other embedded clauses, but make use of furrowed

eyebrows and the spoken component tu.

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tu A[up,down]/ pidd 3 5)/A nja

IF (DO-[inch.] THEY THIS,)

If they have begun to do this

Questions

Wh-questions are formed using the wh-words in their canonical positions, with the raised

eyebrows of the subordinate clause marker being used. (The speech component of the

subordinate clause marker, nju, is not used.)

5/C[t.,in] karr 5*/Y mwa[subord.] COME WHO?

Who came?

Yes/no questions are formed similarly; the wh-word used for yes/no questions is "uwhether.

"

u R&&[in]/ ddabvit F 5/R[t.] ndimw

[subord.] whether WANT-[potential] YOU DANCE? Would you like to dance?

Negation

Negation is indicated by raising the eyes and slightly lowering the head. Both the spoken

component ($u) and the signed component (R/) are optional, and are expressed when it aids the

signed or spoken stream.

Negation of a complete sentence acts syntactically like a modal particle, being articulated with

the verb.

Negation of a particular element is articulated simultaneously with that element. An adjective

may need to be separated from its noun if the adjective is to be negated; in this case, the signed

component is necessary.

F)[an.] kiw R/ ndall GIRL NOT-short

the girl who was not short

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Appendix A: Lexicon

The following is a partial list of Hayfield words.

Pronouns

Determiners

Translation Speech Sign Notes

I (m.) (-a) D1 Speech component indicates emphasis.

I (f.) (-a) F1 Speech component indicates emphasis.

he/you (sg. m.) (-a) DSign is indexed. Speech component

indicates emphasis.

she/you (sg. f.) (-a) FSign is indexed. Speech component

indicates emphasis.

it (-a) XSign is indexed. X represents thehandshape of the corresponding noun;

the generic handshape is A. Speech

component indicates emphasis.

we (-a) 31 Speech component indicates emphasis.

they/you (pl.) (-a) 3Sign is indexed. Speech component

indicates emphasis.

[indefinite] (c.) Y

[indefinite] (n.) A

each other (-a) X/X2[up,down]X and X2represent handshape pronouns

of the verbs argument.

no one -u YSigned with raised eyes and slightly

lowered head.

nothing -u ASigned with raised eyes and slightly

lowered head.


this nja 51/X

X represents the handshape of the

corresponding noun; the generic

handshape is A.

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Prepositions

Nouns

that nja 5/X



handshape is A.

all (-a) 533/ Speech component indicates emphasis.

many (-a) 333/ Speech component indicates emphasis.

some (plural) (-a) 33/ Speech component indicates emphasis.

some (paucal) (-a) C3/ Speech component indicates emphasis.

few (-a) C/ Speech component indicates emphasis.

none (-a) A/ Speech component indicates emphasis.

other, another pandi+ X


corresponding noun.



of ndu

in, at, on kall

to, towards ddapi

for tu+a

with *a

around lla*i

from, out of, than +ahu

instead of pawat


thing llipu A Generic noun.

person parr Y[an.]

man lladdu D[an.]

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husband lladdumb D[an.]

woman wanji F[an.]

wife wanjimb F[an.]

father +imba D[an.,in]

mother +imba F[an.,in]

parent +imba Y[an.,in]

brother ndallu D4[an.,in]

sister ndallu F4[an.,out]

sibling ndallu Y4[an.,out]

boy kiw D1[an.] Same sign as son.

girl kiw F1[an.] Same sign as daughter.

child (young

person)kiw Y1[an.]

son bvaddi D1[an.] Same sign as boy.

daughter bvaddi F1[an.] Same sign as girl.

child (descendant) bvaddi Y1[an.]

lord, master mbanda* 55[an.] Palm down.

friend mwuddamb Y[an.,up]

animal bvi Y6[an.]

bird wimwa Y44Y5[an.]

fish *u Y1[an.,out]

snake bvulla Y33[an.,in] Same sign as worm.

worm ddilla Y33[an.,in] Same sign as snake.

dog mbati Y6[an.]-C1 Same sign for mammals generally.

sheep tihall Y6[an.]-C1 Same sign for mammals generally.

horse rramwi Y6[an.]-C1 Same sign for mammals generally.


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feather wahanju Y5

horn kata-a Y5[up]

claw nduddi-a 71[in]

tail witaw D33[cir.]

night llahi 58[out]

day tubvi A3[in]

year pa*u A[cir.]

sky, heaven ddall 566544 Same sign as wind.

cloud rrudd F66F44

earth pamba A[an.]

sun llanju A[an.,cir.]

moon mwunja A[an.,cir.]

star tidd K[an.]

grass ddamb C33[an.] Palm up.

tree/wood taddu D33[an.]Palm up. Same sign used for tree/

wood, stick, bark.

stick kumwi D33[an.]Palm up. Same sign used for tree/

wood, stick, bark.

bark pahadd D33[an.]Palm up. Same sign used for tree/

wood, stick, bark.

leaf winj 533[an.] Palm up.

flower walla K 33[an.] Palm up.

fruit +abv F33[an.] Palm up.

stone paddu F[cir.]

place (mwaddi) 5/5[out,in] Palms up.

mountain -udda F55[out,in]

plain ddaha*u 58533 Palm down.


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wind wuw 566544Same speech as smoke; same sign as

sky.

smoke wuw F66-544 Same speech as wind.

fire njimba F3-533[wig.]

ashes mwapu R 33[an.]

water waddu 533[wig.]

ice ddira 555[wig.,in] Same sign used for ice, snow, rain.

snow *awa 555[wig.,in] Same sign used for ice, snow, rain.

rain llupi 555[wig.,in] Same sign used for ice, snow, rain.

sea ndamwi 533[wig.,away]Same sign used for sea, lake and

river.

lake njallu 533[wig.,away]Same sign used for sea, lake and

river.

river *all 533[wig.,away]Same sign used for sea, lake and

river.

seed llu A/D[an.]

egg -u A/F[an.]

salt ddarra D6[in] May be signed with the mouth open.

rope, string llunj D66D44

heart (fig.) C1[an.]

name +arri 56[an.]

face warraw Y4

language lla+u 7[an.]

Same sign as hand; same speech as

mouth. Also name for Hayfield

specifically.

garment, cloak bvanji 58[in,wig.]

city *anju K 3[up,down]

house parrinj K[down] Same speech for house and vehicle.


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tower llilla 73[up]The size of the tower may be hinted at

by slowness and length of movement.

brick katibvu A[away]

mortar mwallirr R[away]

drawn or powered

vehicle (e.g.

wagon)

parrinj C33C3

Same speech for house and vehicle;

similar sign for pull and drawn

vehicle.

load (for carrying) llipu A33-A4Same speech as thing; same sign as

carry on one hand.

road bvandu K 1[out]week (eight days) *adda

month of spring/

summer cyclellanjuw

month of autumn/

winter cyclepanjah

season kumbund R 55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.

spring winjand R 55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.

summer kapabv R 55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.

autumn mwarru R 55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.

winter lla-amw R 55[cir.] Same sign used for all seasons.

traditional festival warraddu A3/-5[t.]/

improvisational

arts festivalwarraddu A/5[rot.]

(new-cycle

festival) rritambi K 3/-5[t.]/

local festival warraddu A/5[in,t.]


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special

(irregularly

scheduled)community arts or

culture event

warraddu A/5[rot.]

community

storytelling

festival

rruddi A3/-5[t.]/ Incorporates speech for story.

structured

community

singing event

(spoken)

llillanj A3/-5[t.]/Incorporates speech for singing

(speech).

structured

community dance

event

+alla A3/-5[t.]/ Palm up (ND).

story [1] R 6[out,out]

story [2] rrudd

music/poetry

performance +andawi A5[an.]-599

dance

performance +andawi 5/R[t.]

Palm up (ND). Incorporates sign for

dance.

theatre

performance +andawi 5/F[t.] Palm up (ND).

group, family +alli C[t.]/

amateur group of

people

participating in

arts or culture

njambilla C[t.]/

performing group widdirra C[t.]/

love song +arrandi A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.

religious song katabva A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.

mournful song bvumbu A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.


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Adjectives

call-and-response

songmbata-mbati A5[an.]-599 Incorporates sign for song.

adventure story,

balladddamwu R 6[out,out] Incorporates sign for story.

fairy tale, tall tale papih R 6[out,out] Incorporates sign for story.

(a kind of slow

dance)mwuddu 5/R[t.]

Palm up (ND). Incorporates speech for

heavy; incorporates sign for dance.

(a kind of lively

community

dance)

ddarra 5/R[t.]Palm up (ND). Incorporates speech for

salt; incorporates sign for dance.

irony kanjund 5/55-5/5 Palm up (ND).

metaphor warrand 5[t.]/-5/533

repetition

(literary)katind 5/F[t.]

reputation mbabvut 5554

conflict waha-u 7[t.]/

life wibvi A1[an.]-Y1

death rrallap Y88A1

pain -uhamba 76[an.]



whole, entire pabva

light, bright lliwidda

dark ndambawu

black kapu

white waddi

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red nja*a

yellow lluwi

green, blue rrubvu

good ndaw

bad mbatuh

old rallu

young/new +idd

cold *uwu

warm/hot tahall

wet warrihu

dry kapah

big, large, thick padda (533/)

small, thin njind (D/)

long, tall tamwuh Miming hand movement may

accompany the spoken component.

short ndall Miming hand movement may

accompany the spoken component.

sharp tilli

dull +awuh

light(weight) wanja


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heavy mwuddu

rotten mwudda

fresh pa*i

deaf A4[an.]/

hearing mwihatu

well-known,

traditionalmbanjiddu

thoughtful,

meditative(people, work of

art)

ddahaw

happy mbatidd

sad ndumbu

hateful wata-a

loving +arrandi

living wibvi

dead rrallap

quick killinja One may point in the direction of the

movement.

slow llawu

east bvarrind west ddahaw

south nja*urru

north tumwabv

strong kapa-u


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Adverbs

weak llandimb

confused *arrit

early (season) +u- Same speech as whether.

late (season) rri-

impossible *ahudd



one time

(existential

marker for events)

llapa

[inchoative] pidd

[intensive] bvitu-u

quickly kallip

finally tabvu

not (-u) (R/)Signed with raised eyes and slightly

lowered head.

[imperative,

hortative] -a

Same speech for emphasis marker on

pronouns and quantifiers.

[potential] (can be

used to express

deference or

hesitation)

ddabvit

[hypothetical] rri+

in this way rra 51/R

here bvu 51/C

there bvu 5/C

now mbi 51/5

then mbi 5/5

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Verbs

why nduw 59/K

[result] nduw 5/K Used as an adverb modifying the verb of

the reason clause.

with what effect ndah 59/3

[purpose, reason] ndah 5/3Used as an adverb modifying the verb of

the reason clause.



do [karr] A[up,down]/ Generic verb.

have 533[in]/May be signed with only one hand; used(especially one-handed) to turn modifiers

into verbs.

use [karr] K[t.]/

think [mbaw] D1[an.]/ Means believe, consider with intensive

know [mbaw] 31[an.]/

see [mbaw] D4[in]/

smell [mbaw] F4[in]/

hear [mbaw] 54[in]/

say [mbaw] R 4[out]/

give [njup] 78733 /

receive [njup] 73378/

live [ndah] A1[an.]/-Y1/

die [ndah] Y33/-A1/

eat [njup] 76[to]/ May be signed with the mouth open

drink [njup] C6[to] May be signed with the mouth open

breathe [njup] 51/-A1/-51/

laugh [njup] 54[wig.]/

blow wuw 51/F6[out]

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sing (sign), poetry A5[an.]/-59/

sing (speech) llillanj

work [ndimw] A[t.]/

play [ndimw] Y5[an.]/-Y99/

dance [ndimw] 5/R[t.] Palm up (ND).

cook [ndimw] 5/A[rot.] Palm up (ND).

sew [ndimw] D/D[cir.,cir.] Palm up (ND).

swim [ndimw]5/3[cir.,cir.,out

]Palm up (ND).

come, walktowards, reach

[karr] 5/C[t.,in] Palm up (ND).

go, leave, walk

away from[karr] 5/C[t.,out] Palm up (ND).

go up, ascend [karr] 5/C[t.,up] Palm up (ND).

go down, descend [karr] 5/C[t.,down] Palm up (ND).

fall [ndimw] 5/C-5/5 Palm up (ND) throughout.

sit [ndimw] 5/R Palm up (ND).

stand [ndimw] 5/C Palm up (ND).

sleep +arr May be signed with eyes closed.

push, drive [karr] 533[out]/

pull [karr] C33[in]/Similar sign for pull and drawn

vehicle.

dig [ndimw] C[rot.]/

cut [ndimw] R/-3/

throw [karr] F3533

scratch [-ati] 755766

bite [-ati] A/7

kill [-ati] Y/D[t.]-5/D[t.]


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teach mwinda R 1[out]

learn +allu R 1[in]

improvise [njup] A33[rot.]/-533/

have shared

interests[ndah] Y[t.]/

look forward to [mbaw] C[rot.]/ May be signed with mouth open.

be happy [ndah] R4[up,up]/

be sad [ndah] A4[down]/

hate [ndah] K 33[up,down]/

love, like [ndah] 51[an.]

be anxious [ndah] 533[rot.]/

be guilty [ndah] 74/-A/

feel shame [ndah] A44-74[an.]

be shamed [ndah] 344-74[an.]

have a good

reputation[ndah] R 5R4/

argue, dispute [-ati] 73[up,down]/

rescue [karr] Y33/-A3/

befriend [karr] X/Y[t.]X represents the handshape of the patient

of the verb.

marry [karr] R[t.]/

shine [ndah] F/-533/

hide, be dark [ndah] F3354/

find pidd 733/-F33/

Palms down (first element); palms up

(second element). Always used with

inchoative aspect.

gather [karr] 53358/

dwell, inhabit [njup] 5/K-K/5Palm up (ND, first element); palm up (D,

second element)


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Wh-words

make, build [karr] 5/5-5/5Palm down (D, first element); palm up

(D, second element).

carry (lit.); bear

(fig.) [ndimw] A33/-A4/

listen [ndah] C4/-C33/The first element may be signed at the

ear itself.

understand [ndah] C33/-C1[an.]/

give up [ndah] 53/-533/ Palm down.

be scattered,

thrown in disorder[-ati] F5/-544[wig.]/

be on a journey [karr] 5/C[cir.,cir.] Palm up (ND). Similar to go, come,walk.

bake [ndah] F1/-5[wig.]/

succeed [-ati] A3[out]/

cause [ndah] A[an.]/

cease, stop (intr.) pidd 58[an.]/ Always used with inchoative aspect.

want [ndah] R 33[in]/

agree [ndah] R 8R3[an.] Means admit with imperative marker.

take off [karr] F3/-533/

try [karr] 51/-A33/



what, which (sg.) nja 59/X



handshape is A. Signed with raisedeyebrows when used as a relative.

who (sg.) mwa 59/X



handshape is Y. Signed with raised

eyebrows when used as a relative.

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Conjunctions

who, what (pl.) mwa 59/3Signed with raised eyebrows when used

as a relative.

how rra 59/RSigned with raised eyebrows when used

as a relative.

where bvu 59/CSigned with raised eyebrows when used

as a relative.

when mbi 59/5Signed with raised eyebrows when used

as a relative.

whether +u (59/7) Same speech as early (season).



but pa

if tu Signed with furrowed eyebrows.

[subordinate

clause marker](nju) Signed with raised eyebrows.

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Appendix B: Sample Passages

The North Wind and the Sun

!&[up,down]/ $ati !&[up,down]/ llapa 5%%5((tumwabv A[an.,cir.] llanju

DISPUTE DISPUTE-one.time WIND-north SUN

The North Wind and the Sun were disputing

5*/D mwa 5&&[in] kapa$u D $a

WHO-[masc.] HAVE-strong HE, which was the stronger,

5/C[t.,in] pidd D[an.] lladdu 5/C[cir.,cir.] karr 5&&5,/ bvanji 5,[in,wig.] tahallCOME-[inch.] MAN BE.ON.JOURNEY GATHER-garment GARMENT-warm. when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.

R,R&[an.] ndah 3 5)/A nja

AGREE THEY THIS:

They agreed

nju A&[out]/ pidd D

[subord.] SUCCEED-[inch.] HE that the one who first succeeded

A[an.]/ F&/-5&&/ ndah D[an.] lladdu 5,[in,wig.] bvanji

CAUSE TAKE.OFF MAN GARMENT,

in making the traveler take his cloak off

D)[an.]/ bvitu$u Y 5&&[in] kapa$u-$u D "ahu D pandi"

THINK-[intens.] [indef.].[c.] HAVE-strong-very HE FROM OTHER.should be considered stronger than the other.

5)/F%[out] wuw 5)/F%[out] bvitu$u 5/5 mbi 5%%5((tumwabv

BLOW BLOW-[intens.] THEN WIND-north.

Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could,

pa 5)/F%[out] wuw 5)/F%[out] kapa$u-$u

BUT [subord.] BLOW BLOW-strong-very,but the more he blew

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5&&5,/ karr 5&&5,/ bvitu$u D[an.] lladdu 5/C[cir.,cir.] karr GATHER GATHER-[intens.] MAN BE.ON.JOURNEY

the more closely did the traveler fold

5,[in,wig.] bvanji D lla#i

GARMENT around-HIM.

his cloak around him;

5&/-5&&/ tabvu 5%%5((tumwabv

GIVE.UP-finally WIND-north.and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt.

5)/-A&&/ karr 5)/5 mbi A[an.,cir.] llanju F/-5&&/ ndah F/-5&&/ tahall A[an.,cir.] llanju TRY NOW SUN. SHINE SHINE-warm SUN,

Then the Sun shined out warmly,

F&/-5&&/ kallip D[an.] lladdu 5/C[cir.,cir.] karr 5,[in,wig.] bvanjiTAKE.OFF-quickly MAN BE.ON.JOURNEY GARMENT.

and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.

nju 5/K nduw R,R&[an.] $a 5%%5((tumwabv

[subord.] [result] AGREE-[imper.] WIND-northAnd so the North Wind was obliged to confess

5&&

[in] kapa$

u A[an.,cir.] llanju 3"

ahuHAVE-strong SUN from-THEM.

that the Sun was the stronger of the two.

The Tower of Babel

A[an.] pamba A[an.] pabva 5&&[in] llapa A $a

EARTH EARTH-whole HAVE-one.time IT Now the whole world had one language and a common speech.

![an.] kumbu {1} 5%[an.,out] lladd {1}

HAND 1 TONGUE 1.

one language and a common speech.

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nju 5/C[t.,out] karr 5/C[t.,out] karr Y ddapi 5/5[out,in] bvarrind

[subord.] GO GO [indef.] TO LAND-east,

As men moved eastward,

!&&/-F&&/ pidd 3 5,5&&ddaha#u kall 5/5[out,in] kinjall FIND-[inch.] THEY PLAIN IN PLACE-[SHINAR]

they found a plain in Shinar

5/K-K/5 pidd 3 5/C bvuDWELL-[inch.] THEY THERE. and settled there.

R([out]/ mbaw 3/3[up,down] 5)/A nja

SAY EACH.OTHER THIS:

They said to each other,

5/C[t.,in] $a 3) 5/5-5/5 $a 3) A[away]/ COME-[imper.] WE MAKE-[imper.] WE BRICK-[pl.], Come, lets make bricks

F)/-5[wig.]/ $a F)/-5[wig.]/ bvitu$u 3) 3 $aBAKE-[imper.] BAKE-[intens.] WE THEM.and bake them thoroughly.

K[t.]/ karr 3 A[away] katibvu pawat F[cir.] padduUSE THEY BRICK INSTEAD.OF STONE,

They used brick instead of stone,

K[t.]/ karr 3 A kimwarr pawat R[away] mwallirrUSE THEY THING-[CHEMAR] INSTEAD.OF MORTAR.

and bitumen for mortar.

R([out]/ mbaw 5)/5 mbi 3 5)/A nja 5/C[t.,in] $a 3)

SAY NOW THEY THIS: COME-[imper.] WE,

Then they said, Come,

5/5-5/5 $a 3) K&[up,down] #anju 3)tu"a

BUILD-[imper.] WE CITY for-US, let us build ourselves a city,

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K&[up,down] #anju 5&&[in] rri" K $a !&[up] llilla 5/C[t.,up] ddall

CITY HAVE-[hypoth.] IT TOWER ASCEND-heavens. with a tower that reaches to the heavens,

5&&[in] mbanjiddu 5/K nduw 3)

HAVE-well.known [result] WE, so that we may make a name for ourselves

F'/-5(([wig.]/ $u 5/K nduw 3) lla#i A[an.] pabva BE.SCATTERED-not [result] WE AROUND EARTH-whole.and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth.

pa 5/C[t.,down] karr 5'[an.] mbanda# 5*/K nduw

BUT DESCEND LORD WHY?

But the Lord came down to see the city

D([in]/ mbaw 5/3 ndah 5 K&[up,down] #anju

SEE [purpose] HE CITY

to see the city

D([in]/ mbaw 5/3 ndah 5 !&[up] llilla 5*/!nja 5/5-5/5 karr 3 !$aSEE [purpose] HE TOWER WHICH BUILD THEY ITand the tower that the men were building.

R(

[out]/ mbaw 5'

[an.] mbanda#

5)

/A njaSAY LORD THIS:

The Lord said,

tu nju 5&&[in] 3 $a ![an.] kumbu {1} 5%[an.,out] lladd {1}

IF ([sub.] HAVE THEY HAND 1 TONGUE 1

If as one people speaking the same language

A[up,down]/ pidd 3 5)/A nja

DO-[inch.] THEY THIS)

they have begun to do this,

5&&[in] #ahudd A $u 5*/A nja 5)/-A&&/ karr 3 A $aHAVE-impossible NOTHING WHICH TRY THEY IT.then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.

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lla#i A[an.] pabvaAROUND EARTH-whole.

over the face of the whole earth.

Schleichers Fable

D([in]/ llapa Y%[an.]-C)tihall 5&&[in] llinju Y%[an.]/-C)/ rramwiSEE-one.time SHEEP HAVE-fur-not HORSE.[pl.]. A sheep that had no wool saw horses,

Y[1/3] rramwi C&&[in]/ karr C&&[in]/ karr Y $a C&&C&parrinj C&&C&mwudduhorse-[1/3] PULL PULL IT WAGON WAGON-heavy,

one of them pulling a heavy wagon,

Y[2/3] rramwi A&&/-A(/ ndimw A&&/-A(/ ndimw Y $a A&&-A(llipu 5&&/ padda

horse-[2/3] CARRY CARRY IT LOAD BIG,

one carrying a big load,

Y[3/3] rramwi A&&/-A(/ ndimw A&&/-A(/ kallip Y $a D[an.] lladdu horse-[3/3] CARRY CARRY-quickly IT MAN.

and one carrying a man quickly.

R([out]/ mbaw Y%[an.]-C)tihall 5)/A nja tu"a Y%[an.]/-C)/ rramwi

SAY SHEEP THIS FOR HORSE.[pl.]:The sheep said to the horses:

!%[an.] $uhamba 5&&[in]/ C)[an.] Y)ndu C $a

PAIN HAVE HEART(fig.) of-ME IT,

My heart pains me,

nju D([in]/ mbaw 3) D[an.] lladdu 5&&[out]/ rramwi

[subord.] SEE WE MAN DRIVE-horse.seeing a man driving horses.

Y%[an.]/-C)/ rramwi R([out]/ mbaw 3 $a 5)/A nja

HORSE.[pl.] SAY THEY THIS:

The horses said:

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Y%[an.]-C)tihall C(/-C&&/ $a Y

SHEEP, LISTEN-[imper.] YOU, Listen, sheep,

3)ndu 5&&[in]/ !%[an.] $uhamba C)[an.]

of-US HAVE HEART PAIN,

our hearts pain us

nju D([in]/ mbaw 3) 5)/A nja

[subord.] SEE WE THIS:when we see this:

D[an.] lladdu 5'[an.] mbanda# 5/5-5/5 karr 5/5-5/5 karr D $a 5'[wig.] tihallMAN LORD MAKE MAKE HE FUR-sheep

a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep

5,[in,wig.] bvanji 5,[in,wig.] tahall D tu"a

GARMENT GARMENT-warm for-HIM.

into a warm garment for himself.

Y%[an.]-C)tihall 5&&[in]/ $u Y $a 5'[wig.] llinju SHEEP HAVE-not IT/YOU FUR.

And the sheep has no wool.

nju 5(

[in]/ pidd Y%

[an.]-C)

tihall 5)

/A nja[subord.] HEAR-[inch.] SHEEP THIS,Having heard this,

5/C[t.,out] kallip Y "ahu 5,5&&ddaha#u

GO-quickly IT FROM PLAIN.

the sheep fled into the plain.

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Figure 1: The syllabary.

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Figure 2: Handshapes.

Figure 3: Positions.

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Figure 4: Movements.

The movements below are illustrated with the handshape A. The final diacritic indicates mirroring on the non-dominant hand.

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Figure 5: Cardinal numerals.

Numbers with more than one digit are written with the most significant digit first.

Figure 6: Ordinal numerals.

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Figure 7: The North Wind and the Sun.

Documents

Hayfield: Reference Grammar