Participatory Rural Appraisal in the Southern Gobi

November 12 to 23, 2006

FINAL REPORT

Prepared by:

Roberta Hawkins

Paul Marmer

Korice Moir

York University

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................... 4

Methodology & Techniques ....................................................... 5

Research Methodology ...........................................................................5

Research Techniques.............................................................................6

Recommendations for Improvement .......................................................8

Data & Findings......................................................................... 9

A. Water Resource Mapping...................................................................9

B. Water Use and Priorities Ranking Table...........................................15

C. Vegetable Table Information ............................................................19

D. Influence/Rich Picture Diagram ........................................................21

E. Problem Tree....................................................................................22

A. Community Mapping Exercise ............................................................................... 6

B. Water Use & Priorities Tables ................................................................................ 7

C. Vegetable Information Chart .................................................................................. 7

D. Influence/Rich Picture Diagram ............................................................................. 7

E. Problem Tree ......................................................................................................... 8

Water Quality ........................................................................................................... 10

Open Water Sources – Protected Area .................................................................... 11

Water Collection ....................................................................................................... 12

Water Quantity ......................................................................................................... 22

Water Quality ........................................................................................................... 23

Training Requirements ............................................................................................. 23

Lack of Equipment & Systems ................................................................................. 24

Marketability of Vegetables ...................................................................................... 25

Seed Purchases & Collection ................................................................................... 25

Cooperation.............................................................................................................. 26

Overall Observations on Problem Tree .................................................................... 27

Summary of Discussion .......................................................... 27

The need for water for survival and livelihoods ........................................................ 27

Issues of water scarcity and water quality ................................................................ 27

The need for and importance of cooperation............................................................ 28

The need for training and equipment........................................................................ 28

Water collection and uses ........................................................................................ 28

Vegetation trends ..................................................................................................... 29

Recommendations .................................................................. 29

Acknowledgements ................................................................. 31

References.............................................................................. 32

Appendices ............................................................................. 32

Appendix A: List of PRA Participants & Interviewees ............................32

Appendix B: Water Use & Priority Tables..............................................33

Appendix C: Influence/Rich Picture Diagrams.......................................38

Appendix D: Problem Trees..................................................................39

Part A: Ikh Gobi Community..................................................................................... 33

Part B: Gobi Khishig Community.............................................................................. 35

Part C: Vegetable Farmers Community.................................................................... 37

Ikh Gobi Herder Community..................................................................................... 39

Vegetable Farmer Community ................................................................................. 40

Participatory Rural Appraisals in the Southern Gobi

November 12 to 23, 2006

FINAL REPORT

Introduction

Southern Mongolia, dominated by the Gobi Desert, is a region facing increasingly limited

water resources. Decreasing precipitation, drying up of surface waters, and increasing

frequency of droughts in this region may represent natural environmental changes or may be

driven by anthropogenic activity. The effects of these changes are clear: local inhabitants

(human and non-human) and the ecosystems they inhabit are increasingly water stressed.

Specifically how different communities are affected by this water stress depends largely on

their livelihoods.

People have inhabited the Gobi for millennia, surviving as nomadic herders and taking

advantage of native flora (e.g., saxaul) and fauna (e.g., Bactrian camel) adapted to the

region’s harsh climate where precipitation is naturally low and highly variable, droughts

occur frequently, and temperatures range from +40C in summer to -40C in winter. Changes

in water availability, along with Mongolia’s recent transition from socialism and a command

economy towards democracy and a market economy, present new challenges requiring

innovative solutions.

The present research implemented Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs) to investigate water

related concerns and vegetation dynamics of herder and vegetable farmer communities in the

southern Omnogovi aimag (‘province’) of Mongolia. PRAs have been successfully

implemented to promote conservation and livelihood improvement in this region by the New

Zealand Nature Institute since 1994 (C. Schmedt, pers. comm.) and more recently by the

Steppe Forward Programme (SFP) (Jargal J., pers. comm.). The current research is part of

the efforts of the latter organization which has worked with communities throughout the

Little Gobi Strictly Protected Areas (Sections A and B), Gobi Gurvan Saikhan National Park,

and Nomgon soum (‘district’) since 2004.

Among the notable results of SFP’s involvement in the region is the training of ‘eco-herders’

who now systematically monitor wildlife in Little Gobi Strictly Protected Area Section A and

Gobi Gurvan Saikhan National Park. The livelihood development project through the Steppe

Forward Programme also works to build cooperation, skills and income generating

opportunities within communities. Trainings through this program have included felt craft

training, milk product processing and building fuel efficient stoves to reduce reliance on

scarce and sometimes threatened (e.g., saxaul) fuel sources.

Three PRAs were conducted between November 15th

and 18th

, 2006, including two meetings

with the herder communities, Ikh Gobi and Gobi Khishig, in the Little Gobi Strictly Protected

Area Section A, and a third with two vegetable farmer groups in Nomgon soum. The PRAs

involved a number of tools common in participatory research (e.g., resource mapping,

priority ranking exercises, influence diagrams and problem trees). These activities provided

an overview of issues and enabled community members to visually express their concerns in

systemic models (stressing relationships and interactions between components) that are easily

accessible to all stakeholders. The exercises also generated discussion about livelihood and

resource problems and potential solutions, as well as key factors necessary to solve problems.

The objectives of this PRA research were:

1) To understand the water resources in the area - availability, quality and use by

herders and vegetable farmers;

2) To identify community problems regarding water resources & vegetable farming; and

3) To generate possible solutions to these problems with the community members.

The Little Gobi Strictly Protected Area Section A is located in the area of Bogt and Dersen

bags of Nomgon Soum. It is at the southern tip of Mongolia, close to the Chinese border.

The soum area consists of Nomgon, Khurkh, Bulgan and Khachig mountains of the Altai

mountain chain. At the time the PRAs were conducted, the temperature was just above zero

degrees Celsius and most days were sunny with no precipitation.

During the PRA activities, both herder communities and especially the vegetable farmer

communities (the latter being newly involved with SFP) identified cooperation and

coordination among community members as an essential factor to achieve increased water

security and resulting livelihood improvement and all communities committed to work

towards furthering this common goal. The PRA activities were supplemented with surveys

about water and gender (to be analyzed at a later date), interviews with other stakeholders

(government and non-governmental organizations) in the region, and attendance at and

involvement in the 10th

Anniversary Celebration of Omnigovi’s Park Administration.

The main observations of the PRA to be discussed in this document include:

1) The importance of water for sustaining local livelihoods

2) Issues of water scarcity and water quality

3) The importance of cooperation

4) The need for training and equipment

5) Trends of water collection, use and prioritization

6) Trends of vegetation

Methodology & Techniques

Research Methodology

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) defines a group of approaches and methods that enable

local people to share information on and analyze their knowledge of life and living conditions

in order to plan and act for the future. The benefits to using PRA techniques include the fact

that community members are able to fully participate in research regarding their own lives

and region (as opposed to simply responding to brief survey or interview questions) and they

are able to share their valuable local knowledge with researchers.

PRA can be seen as a mutual learning experience between researchers and community

members, with the community members acting as leaders, analysts and educators (Chambers,

1994a). Along with sharing local knowledge, PRA methods attempt to encourage discussion

between community members on community-wide problems (which are often identified

during the PRA activities and group discussions) and to work together on proposing possible

solutions to these problems.

PRA techniques are beneficial to communities as they give all members a chance to

participate in community planning, including those who may not otherwise be asked for their

opinions on such issues (such as women or poor people who are often not represented at

community meetings). Research, education and action are combined within a PRA in order

to fully acknowledge the capabilities of a community (in terms of directing their own

development) and work towards collective empowerment. It involves people speaking for

themselves, identifying their needs, analyzing and researching their situation, and taking

appropriate action (Hall, 1992).

In most circumstances, a facilitator is required to initiate constructive dialogue (Kaner et al.,

2000). It is crucial that facilitators remain relaxed, open to learning from community

members, and flexible. One of the main benefits of PRA techniques is that activities and

discussions can be changed, extended or dismissed, based on the needs of the community.

During this current PRA research, various methods were adopted on the spot, the order of

activities was often changed, and discussion lengths on issues varied depending on the

community and their feedback. Maintaining flexibility and a relaxed attitude allows PRA

facilitators to encourage exploration of issues that are important to the community and to

generate possible solutions to those problems identified (Chambers, 1994b).

The PRAs in the current research were facilitated by master’s students from the National

University of Mongolia and York University (Canada) spanning a variety of academic

disciplines (environmental studies, social science, biology, environmental economics,

geography, etc.) to ensure the research benefited from an interdisciplinary approach.

Essential to all facilitated action research, the facilitators promoted learning through dialogue

and remained neutral regarding the content of the ensuing dialogue, while promoting fair and

open processes that provided a space for all (regardless of age, gender, etc.) to participate.

Research Techniques

The PRA exercises conducted with the communities involved mapping water well

information; charting and prioritizing water use; defining community problems, causes,

impacts and possible solutions; drawing influence (rich picture) diagrams; as well as charting

vegetable input and output data. Brief details of the activities are described in turn below.

A. Community Mapping Exercise

The community mapping exercise was designed to gather spatial information on water

availability and water quality in the region. In two separate groups of mixed gender,

community members drew maps noting the following information: ger camp locations; well

location and water quality; number and functionality of wells in the area; water collection

methods and routes; livestock and vegetation levels around the wells; distances between wells

and gers; and details of the surrounding landscape. The two Gobi eco-herder groups were

assigned different tasks: Ikh Gobi mapped winter and summer camp locations, whereas Gobi

Khishig outlined east and west regional maps that included both summer and winter camp

details. Discussions on water quality and water collection ensued from this activity. This

exercise was not carried out with the vegetable farmers.

B. Water Use & Priorities Tables

This activity was selected to encourage information sharing on water uses, amounts and

priorities. Communities were divided by gender into two groups and asked to first

brainstorm all of their activities that require water throughout the year. They were then asked

to estimate how much water each activity required over one week/day or, where relevant, per

time. The water use activities were prioritized, considering times of poor water availability.

The ranking of priorities and amounts were compared, including facilitation of discussion on

gender roles and water needs. For the vegetable farmers, one man and one woman were

selected to complete the water priority table, due to the fact that only one man attended the

meeting.

C. Vegetable Information Chart

This activity required the group of vegetable farmer to list all of the vegetables grown within

their plots, include both familiar and unfamiliar species. This allowed the group to describe

any potentially invasive or alien species, as well as plants that were imported or native to the

region. Participants then estimated, using a scale of zero to three [0 (none), 1 (little), 2

(medium) or 3 (great)], the following information: outputs/benefits/importance in terms of

sustenance and marketability (potential & profitability of sale); knowledge of the

vegetable/plant; amount of required inputs including water and fertilizer; and the yield or

“success of growth” of the vegetable. Notes on the ability to preserve and/or store the

vegetables over the winter were also included. The objectives of this activity were to learn

about the various types of vegetables grown by the farmers and how the choice of vegetables

relates to water availability and fertilizer inputs, market potential, and knowledge. It also

allowed vegetable farmers to identify problems related to particular vegetables as well as lack

of necessary inputs, knowledge or equipment.

D. Influence/Rich Picture Diagram

Influence and rich picture diagrams are participatory research techniques that use visual

representations (simple drawings, symbols & arrows) to identify interrelationships and

“influences” between important elements of a particular issue. The Gobi Khishig herders and

vegetable farmer groups were asked to draw symbols or pictures to represent particular

elements in their community that were intricately connected to water resource management

(e.g. wells, government, livestock) and vegetable farming (planting seeds, weather, soil)

respectively. They were then asked to connect these elements via arrows that indicated

cause/effect relationships and interdependencies, both positive and negative (noted by ‘+’/‘-’

signs above the arrows). Participants were asked to discuss these relationships as a group and

identify any resulting feedback loops between the elements.

E. Problem Tree

To identify and discuss problems related to water management and vegetable farming within

each community, participants were asked to brainstorm water issues within their region using

the shape of a “problem tree” as a guide. For the Ikh Gobi herder community, water related

problems were listed on the trunk of the tree, with causes noted within the roots and

impacts/effects within the branches. Community members were then asked to note and

discuss possible relationships between problem causes and effects as well as potential

solutions and ways to mitigate causes through community cooperation. This technique was

used with Ikh Gobi herder community but not with the Gobi Khishig. In the case of the

vegetable farmers, the problem tree exercise reflected problems and solutions related to

farming vegetables, which included reference to water issues and concerns.

The results from these activities are discussed in the Data & Findings section below.

Recommendations for Improvement

The following are suggested recommendations to improve PRA activity techniques in the

future:

1. It is crucial that facilitators are relaxed and comfortable in the PRA setting

(Chambers, 1994a). The first time facilitating a PRA is a slightly nerve-wracking

experience and to combat this we suggest staying in the community longer before

conducting a PRA (especially the first PRA). For example, it would be helpful to stay

with one family for a few days and ask the family questions about the community in

an informal way, or visit many families to allow facilitators to gain first hand

knowledge about the community in order to be more informed once the PRA is

underway.

2. Since foreign researchers were involved in the PRA activities, translation was a key

part of the project. It was discussed in advance that translation should not interfere

with the flow of the group discussion. However, it was beneficial to have some

simultaneous translation in order to allow foreign researchers to participate and

facilitate where possible. Communication between researchers and the translator

should be continued in the future.

3. In several instances, the older women in the group did not participate in the activities,

despite having many ideas and suggestions when asked for input from their group

members. It is possible that this is due to the fact that the activities are conducted on

the ger floor and these women could not kneel down to help draw or write. They

instead sat behind the group on a stool. It is recommended that a board or small table

be brought to future PRAs in order to encourage participation from the elderly.

4. Experienced PRA facilitators in the group from the Steppe Forward Program did an

excellent job of encouraging participation from all community members. This should

be continued in the future.

5. After each of the PRA sessions with the herder groups a screen and projector were set

up in the ger and a slide show of pictures and video from past community activities

were shown to the communities. This was a great idea and the herders really enjoyed

it. It is recommended that this practice continue in the future. If facilitators come

from other regions or countries, perhaps they could also bring a small slide show of

pictures from their home to show the community.

Data & Findings

The following section describes the results of each technique used within the PRA activities

and the discussions that ensued. Additional information, including original data, tables, etc.

can be found within the appendices. Where applicable, interviews with community members

and officials were inserted to verify and/or confirm information. See Appendix A for a list of

participants and interviewees.

A. Water Resource Mapping

Ikh Gobi and Gobi Khishig herder groups were asked to draw a map of their community

indicating water resources within the area. The quality of the water resources, distance to

water sources from summer

and winter stays, and

methods of water collection

were also discussed by the

group. Both groups

demonstrated an impressive

knowledge of their

surroundings and natural

environment.

The Ikh Gobi community

group worked on two

community maps, one

illustrating summer stay areas

and one with winter stay

areas, noting their relation to

water sources. Water collection activities were discussed in detail as well as issues of water

quality, vegetation and water use by animals. The maps were useful for understanding

relationship between families, animals and water resources on a small scale.

The Gobi Khishig community group worked on two community maps that illustrated all of

the water resources in their region. One map represented the west side of their area and the

other the east. Both maps included all water sources and all winter and summer stay

locations. The maps also included some information on open water sources, vegetation and

topography. These maps were useful for looking at water resources on a large scale.

General conclusions, discussion points and observations generated from this activity follow:

Water Quality

Ikh Gobi:

• All wells in Ikh Gobi community are hand dug and hand operated

• Wells where water quality was deemed “good” or “medium” by community members

were used by families for drinking and household uses

• Wells where water quality was classified as “poor” by community members were for

animal use only

• Wells were classified as “poor” water quality by the community when if they had a

high concentration of salt

• Water quality as well as vegetation trends around water sources have not changed in

the recent memory of the community members

Gobi Khishig:

• Because all wells in the area were drawn by the community, the following

quantitative information was gathered:

Table 1: Gobi Khishig Herder Group - Number of Wells and Water Quality

Well Description Western Map Eastern Map Totals

Deep Russian well 0 1 1

Very good water quality 18 11 29

Good water quality 19 7 26

Medium water quality 3 21 24

Poor water quality 1 4 5

Broken wells Not Recorded 8 N/A

Total working wells 41 44 85

Fig 1: Well Quality in Gobi Khishig Herder Group Area

1%

34%

31%

28%

6%

Deep russian well

Very good waterquality

Good water quality

Middle waterquality

Bad water quality

Additional comments on water quality from the Gobi Khishig community:

• The wells indicated as medium and bad quality are not used for drinking but

sometimes used for animals.

• Water quality is considered poor when salt concentration is high.

• Wells that are shallower are also poorer quality because they may freeze in the winter

and tend to be saltier.

• The community members remarked that salt concentration in many wells has not

varied over time and must therefore be due to geological influences.

• In the summer months all families move to the flat area close to the one Russian well

and use it as their main water source.

• The community remarked that water levels are lower than they were 30 years ago

• Well quality is protected by covering the wells. However, occasionally the cover can

come off and water quality deteriorates for various reasons (such as an animal falling

into the well). If this occurs the well is cleaned and then used again.

Open Water Sources – Protected Area

The Gobi Khishig community also recorded open water resources on their maps with a total

of 29 open water resources existing in the area. In the southern part of their region there are

many open water resources and the community indicated that many wild animals live in this

area. The area is part of the border zone between Mongolia and China. The community

recorded the boundary separating the protected area from the buffer zone on their map but

mentioned that their activities do not change regardless of whether they are living inside or

outside the protected area.

Water Collection

This water resource mapping activity led to a discussion on water collection that was very

informative, exploring the various methods and responsibilities associated with water

collection.

General Trends

• The Gobi Khishig

community indicated that

families do not live more

than 500 m away from a

well, so water is most often

collected by hand. The

farthest distance a family

lives from a well is 900m

and in this case water is

collected by motorbike.

• The Ikh Gobi community,

on the other hand, indicated

during this activity that

wells are often 1 to 2 km

away from their dwellings and that it is common to collect water from these wells by

motorbike and/or camel. One family during the summer months had settled near a

poor quality well that was used for animals (20 m from their ger) while the well they

used for drinking was 1 km away.

• A discussion about water collection with the vegetable farmers is discussed in the

Water Priorities section below and reflects the general trends discussed here.

Observed Trends in the Social Aspects of Water Collection

1. Water collection is not usually the responsibility of one particular member of the

family, as is often the case in other countries where only women or girls are

responsible for water collection. The community members stressed that whoever is

free in the family usually collects water. Children often collect water as they have the

most free-time.

2. The decision to collect more water is usually made by the female head of household

who has more responsibilities related to water use (see Priorities Chart Discussion)

and therefore is more knowledgeable as to when the water within the house will run

out.

3. Water is collected by different methods depending on the distance from the water

source to the ger and on the terrain around the water source.

a. By hand – all members of the household collect water by hand, especially

women and children. This usually occurs when the water source is less than

900 m away. Usually, between 20 and 50 L are collected by hand.

b. By camel – camels were used by one household to collect water in the Ikh

Gobi Herder group from a well 2 km away because the terrain was too rough

for a motorbike. The camel collects 80 L of water during each trip. All

members of the family used camels to collect water.

c. By motorbike – Motorbikes were used for water collection from sources more

than 900 m from the ger. Water collection by motorbike is mostly done by

men and older boys.

Transect Walk on Water Collection

Prior to the start of the PRA activities, a young boy from the Gobi Khishig community group

brought researchers to the family well to explain and demonstrate how he retrieves water.

The well was slightly raised from the ground’s surface and a bucket was used to bring water

up from the well and transfer it to 20 L and 30 L containers. This well, lined with cement,

was used for both animals and drinking water. A nearby well, approximately 50m away, was

only lined with large rocks and was too salty, therefore not used.

Vegetation Trends

Neither herder community identified any notable changes in vegetation (e.g., in cover,

abundance, species diversity) over the past several decades in the region. Herders of both

communities practice a form of rotational grazing that has remained relatively unchanged in

this region for millennia. Herders move between summer and winter camps, settling in lower

and flatter areas in summer months and moving to the protection of mountains and hills for

the winter. Herders identified their repeated use of winter and summer camps between two or

sometimes several years depending on pasture recovery, which they perceived to depend

primarily on climate. Several herders of Ikh Gobi noted that the decision on where to settle

for the winter depends primarily on where good quality pasture is found. The same herders

also noted that, despite some differences in the abundance of vegetation between areas,

grasses and bushes are generally evenly distributed throughout the region. This apparent

discrepancy may represent an observational differentiation in terms of temporal scale by

herders: while they recognize short-term variations in pasture availability and quality, they

also recognize that pasture does not vary significantly over the long-term. This is suggested

by an observation by Gobi Khishig herders who stressed that vegetation always recovers and

that this is a prerequisite of sustainable pasture use.

Herder’s perceptions apparently differed from that of staff at the provincial park

administration. During an informal interview, the park administration’s Director of Research

(Ravjir R.) noted,

according to his personal

observations, a decline in

vegetation abundance and

changes in plant

community composition

toward an increased

proportion of more drought

resistant species in recent

years. He blamed these

trends exclusively on climate change, particularly reduced precipitation and an increased

frequency of droughts within the past decade. Whether the difference in perception between

herders and park staff represents a fundamental difference or simply one of temporal scale

(i.e., the herders long-term observations versus interpretations from relatively short-term

observations of park staff) is difficult to determine. Apart from two surveys to identify plant

species diversity, the provincial park administration, responsible for the management of the

Little Gobi Strictly Protected Area Section A, has no information on the area’s vegetation.

The park administration’s Director of Research highlighted his department’s lack of

ecological data (as well as the lack of capacity to conduct this research) as a serious concern

that inhibits the development of meaningful environmental management plans in the Little

Gobi Strictly Protected Areas (Sections A and B).

The shared perception of both park staff and herders that climate is the primary driver

determining vegetation dynamics coincides with research identifying the Gobi region as

exhibiting non-equilibrium ecosystem dynamics (Fernandez-Gimenez and Allen-Diaz 1999;

Fernandez-Gimenez and Allen-Diaz 2001; Stumpp et al. 2005). These studies found

insignificant impacts of livestock grazing on vegetation dynamics along grazing gradients in

desert and semi-desert steppes in Mongolia. Such systems have loosely coupled vegetation-

herbivore interactions and thus herbivory does not represent a dominant impact on vegetation

dynamics in these systems (Ellis and Swift 1988). The strong influence of climate change on

vegetation dynamics in the region is demonstrated by recent remote sensing analyses (Yu et

al. 2003; Yu et al. 2004) which have found a strong positive correlation between the areal

extent of the Gobi Desert and mean annual temperatures. More research is required to

determine the differential impacts of climate change and anthropogenic activities in the

region.

Herder Movement Based on Pasture or Water

The PRA team and the Steppe Forward Program were interested in investigating whether the

herder group families based their decision on where and when to move during the year on

pasture quality or water availability. This question is very complex and various contradictory

observations were made:

1. Ikh Gobi winter stay map discussion – community members commented that winter

stay follows where pasture is good and that they then dig wells around dry river beds.

2. Gobi Khishig western map group – noted that they relocate based on wells not on

pasture – since it is such a big area in which they live they suggested that they want to

stay near wells so they relocate because of them.

3. Gobi Khishig eastern map group – in the summer all families live near the one

Russian deep well. They stay there until pasture is bad and then relocate based on

pasture because wells are everywhere. They leave pasture to recover which it does

every year.

4. Gobi Khishig group discussion – the community noted that pasture quality depends on

climate and not animal use – water levels may decrease in a well but the wells will not

run completely dry – at the same time as water level decreases, the pasture quality is

deteriorating, so families move because pasture is bad not because the well has dried

up.

Overall, these contradictory comments and discussion points lead researchers to believe that

the connection between pasture quality and well water level is very complex and that the two

are intricately related. Perhaps, so intricately related that it is difficult for community

members to note which occurs first, pasture quality deterioration or decreasing water

availability. Future research in this area is necessary to learn more about these processes and

how they affect herder movement.

General Observations on Resource Mapping

The water resource mapping activity was a good introduction to the PRA meetings with both

herder groups. It allowed community members to highlight their knowledge of their

surroundings to researchers and made the group feel comfortable. It also allowed researchers

to gain a general understanding of the area and enquire into different issues based on

questions related to the map. Having one community focus on small-scale mapping and

water collection, and one focus on large-scale maps of water resources was particularly

informative in the short amount of time available. Had more time been available, or in future

PRAs, perhaps both scales of map could be drawn by both communities. As well, in future, it

would be interesting to have all community groups include broken well locations on resource

maps in order to get a sense of how many broken wells are in the area. Perhaps some of the

broken wells will be particularly useful if fixed by the community due to their locations.

B. Water Use and Priorities Ranking Table

This activity was done in all three PRA sessions and was chosen with the intent to learn more

about the different uses for water that herders and vegetable farmers have. For full water

priority lists see Appendix B. How much water (approximately) each of these water uses

requires and which water uses the community members found most important were also

included in these tables. To be able to compare water use and priorities by gender, the

activities were completed in gender-segregated groups.

Because there was only one man present at the vegetable farmer PRA meeting, he was chosen

along with one woman to participate in this activity. The pair worked individually on their

water use and priorities lists and mentioned that it was difficult to determine water uses and

amounts without other community members with which to discuss issues. In the future more

male members of the vegetable farmer community groups should be encouraged to attend

meetings by the community organizer.

Water Uses

The instructions to listing water uses were given broadly and community members were

asked to list as many ways as possible that their family used water. Due to these broad

directions, the results between groups varied widely and different levels of detail were

included by different groups.

Overall in all three PRA sessions women produced longer water use lists than men (see

Figure 2). These lists did not necessarily have any new activities but often divided general

water use activities into more detail. For example, in all communities women listed at least

twice as many water uses related to cleaning as men. While the men’s group often wrote

cleaning responsibilities such as washing home or dishes, women often expanded these water

uses into more detailed uses such as: washing clothes; washing wooden parts of ger; washing

big cooking pot; and washing carpets. During a discussion with the Gobi Khishig group, it

was mentioned that women had more activities listed because they had more responsibilities

for the family that related to water.

Fig 2: Number of Water Use Items Listed by Group and Gender

Ikh

Go

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- M

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Ikh

Go

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- W

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Veg

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- M

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Veg

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- W

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Groups - Community and Gender

Nu

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Other small discrepancies between the lists made by women and men include: a division

between the types of activities involving vehicles and water by the Ikh Gobi men’s group; the

mention of playing with water to cool off by the men’s groups in both herder communities;

and the mention of two activities involving felt-making by the women of Gobi Khishig group

who make felt crafts for income generation. Table 2 lists the number of different activities

listed by type (such as relating to animals, building or cleaning) and displays the various

discrepancies between gender groups as well as between community groups.

Table 2: Number of Water Use Items Listed by Type by Community Group and Gender

Water Use Type

Ikh Gobi

Men

Ikh Gobi

Women

Gobi

Khishig

Men

Gobi

Khishig

Women

Veg

Farmer

Man

Veg

Farmer

Woman

Animals 2 4 4 4 1 2

Food 7 7 2 3 2 2

Felt 1 1 - 2 - -

Building - 2 1 2 - -

Watering Vegetable - 1 1 1 1 1

Watering trees and flowers - - 1 2 - 1

Cleaning 3 6 3 6 1 3

Sanitation (Personal Hygiene) 3 2 2 3 2 1

Vehicle 3 1 1 1 1 -

Playing with water to cool off 1 - 1 - - -

Total 20 24 16 24 8 10

Water Quantity per Use

Community members attempted to estimate the amount of water they used for various

activities involving water. These amounts are difficult to compare because some of the

activities (such as washing the herd or making felt) only occur once or a few times a year,

while other activities (such as washing dishes) occur daily. The water use amounts also

varied seasonally depending on the work that must be done at that time of year and the

climate. Because of the different methods used by groups to estimate water amounts, and the

different classification of water uses, it is difficult to fully compare one water amount list to

another.

The research team was interested however to gain a general idea of how much water herder

and vegetable families used over a given period of time. The fact that the families collect

water and do not have it piped into their homes, as many urban dwellers do, does lead

researchers to believe that the families have a reasonably accurate view of the amount of

water used.

To illustrate the amounts of water used by one community, the information provided by the

Ikh Gobi women’s group was divided into water amount by “type” of water use (see Figure

3). To do this, some assumptions had to be made. The information of water use related to

“building” was added even though cement and brick-making do not occur every week.

Washing vehicles and making felt were also added to the graph despite the fact that these

activities also do not occur on a weekly basis. Amounts recorded by the women in L/per year

(because these activities - such as washing livestock only occur annually) were divided by 52

in order to get an average amount of water used for these activities per week.

Despite these assumptions, data collected from the women can be used to gain a general

understanding of the percentages of water used for each activity per week by the herder

families in Ikh Gobi. Figure 3 strikingly demonstrates the importance of water for herding

and therefore the herder’s livelihoods. The effect that decreased water availability would

have on the families can be interpreted as severe, in terms of herd morality and reduced

family income.

One general trend noted by the researchers and community was that most of water uses listed

were either for direct family survival (such as food and drink) or for family survival through

income generation (such as herding, felt making and vegetable farming). This PRA activity

illustrated the important role that water plays in the lives of herders and vegetable farmers

and the severity of problems that could occur from insufficient water quantity or quality.

Fig. 3: Percentage of Water Used per Week for Activities - Estimated by Ikh

Gobi Women's Group

73%

5%

12%

5%

1%

1%

2%

1%

Animals

Food

Vegetables

Cleaning

Personal Sanitation

Felt Making

Building

Vehicle

Water Use Prioritization

In all three PRA sessions the community members listed similar water uses as top priorities

in times of decreased water availability. All groups from all communities listed water for

herds, food and tea in their “top five water uses”. As well, women in Ikh Gobi, women and

men in both Gobi Khishig, and both members in the vegetable farmer groups listed watering

vegetables as a top priority. See Table 3.

Table 3: Top Five Water Uses Listed by each Community and Gender Group* Ikh Gobi

men*

Ikh Gobi

women

Gobi Khishig

men

Gobi Khishig

women

Veg Farmers

man

Veg Farmers

woman

Watering

herds

Watering

herds

Cooking

food

Tea and food Making tea Watering

vegetables

Washing

clothes

Washing

dishes

Watering

herds

Watering

herds

Making food Making tea

Cleaning the

home

Making

food & tea

Washing

dishes

Planting

vegetables

Watering

vegetables

Cooking food

Washing

floor

Making

dough –

noodles

Wash cat

and dog

Washing

clothes

Watering herd Watering herd

Making tea Washing

face &

hands

Watering

vegetables

Having bath Washing

clothes

Watering

trees

* Note: The men from the Ikh Gobi community included more than 5 “number one” priorities

and also included: making food, making tea with rice, making vodka, boiling meat, cleaning

animal meat, washing face and hands, having bath, washing children and coolant for radiator.

A lengthy discussion on gender and water use priorities was undertaken with the Gobi

Khishig herder group in which community members commented that most of the top

priorities of water use were essential for the survival of the entire family and were therefore

not divided by gender.

The top water use priorities for all communities include activities with water that are usually

done by women (such as cooking and cleaning) and those usually done by men (such as

herding). This could illustrate that both women and men are highly aware of the other’s work

within the household and that the importance of all work is acknowledged by all family

members. As well, the ability of both women and men to identify similar water uses as

important could illustrate that the gendered division of labour is not as strict within these

communities as it is in other countries around the world. Further research in this area would

be necessary to draw any major conclusions.

Water Collection

The priorities list by the vegetable farmers led to a discussion (with one man and one woman)

on who within the family is responsible for collecting water. Both farmers indicated that all

members of the family collect water. The woman collects water from 5 m away from her ger

(from the same well that is used for irrigation by the farmers) and the man collects water

from a neighbour’s well 300 m away. All members of his household collect water, however;

if it is particularly late, he mentioned that he does it. His family collects water in two 20L

buckets. These trends are comparable to water collection trends indicated by the herder

communities which are discussed above in the Resource Mapping section.

Overall Observations on Water Priorities Chart

Overall this activity was very useful to researcher and community members as detailed lists

of water use were mentioned and water collection, amounts and priorities were discussed. It

was also a useful activity to be able to discuss gender issues with the community. In the

future, within this type of activity, community members should be encouraged to specify how

much water is used per activity each time and how many times this is done per year in order

to be able to compare the charts to one another more easily. Additionally, more information

from participants such as the number of herds they are estimating water for or the amount of

land devoted to vegetable planting that they are watering, would help to put the water amount

estimations in context. As well, if the priorities ranking section of the activity involves

ranking all water uses from first to last (a very time consuming activity) then some statistical

information may be able to be gathered from the results.

C. Vegetable Table Information

Farmers identified successful growth of virtually all vegetables grown (see Table 4) despite a

lack of knowledge of several. Farmers noted that the seeds of crops for which they lack

knowledge come from donations mainly through Agropark and the Gobi Initiative. Farmers

stressed that Canadian seeds, representing a proportion of these donations, were particularly

high quality seeds that are well adapted to the local environment. This may explain their high

success rate despite a lack of specific knowledge about how to grow these plants (a concern

discussed during the activity).

Table 4. Vegetation table of farmers’ perceptions about average outputs (benefits),

knowledge, inputs, and yields of all crops grown in the buffer zone of Little Gobi

Section A Strictly Protected Area. Crops are ranked between 0 (none) and 3

(much/many).

Outputs (benefits) Inputs

Vegetable grown Food

(Sustenance)

For Sale

(profit)

Knowledge

of Plants Water Fertilizer

Yield

(success of

growth)

1 Potatoes ** 3 3 3 2 2 3

2 Onions ** 3 3 3 2 2 3

3 Carrots ** 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 Turnips ** 2 3 3 3 3 3

5 Cabbage ** 3 3 3 3 3 2

6 Watermelons 3 3 3 3 3 3

7 Melons 3 3 3 3 3 3

8 Red peppers (hot) 3 3 2 3 3 1

9 Cucumbers 3 3 3 3 2 3

10 Tomatoes 3 3 3 3 3 3

11 Brown beets * 3 3 1 2 2 3

12 Garlic 3 3 3 2 2 3

13 Gourds/squash * 2 0 1 3 2 3

14 Cumin/caraway * 2 0 2 3 3 3

15 Leafed cabbage * 1 0 1 2 2 3

16 Maize/corn * 0 0 1 3 2 3

17 Pattypan squash 0 0 0 2 - 3

18 Flower cabbage 1 0 0 2 2 3

* preserved, ** preserved and overwinters well

Farmers also noted their lack

of knowledge about how to

prepare and consume such

crops, which is apparent by

the correlation between

farmers’ knowledge and

benefits of specific crops

(Table 4).

The farmers identified having

little knowledge on some

crops (such as maize) and

thus also identified little or

no market or sustenance

benefits from these crops.

This activity indicated that while farmers have made use, in terms of sustenance, of some

crops for which they lack knowledge, none of these crops has any market value for them.

Farmers identified all plants grown as requiring large quantities of inputs (water and

fertilizer). Given the region’s low availability of fresh water, the susceptibility of local soils

to salinisation, and farmers lack of automated irrigation systems, among other factors, it is

not surprising that the farmers were very interested in high efficiency low-cost drip irrigation

systems described by the visiting student researchers.

D. Influence/Rich Picture Diagram

Influence diagrams taking the form of rich pictures were conducted with the Gobi Khishig

herder group and vegetable farmers. These activities generated lively discussions about the

relationships and interactions among systemic components (natural, social, economic,

political) revolving around herding and vegetable farming livelihoods, respectively. The

diagrams drawn by each community are included in Appendix C.

Both herders and vegetable farmers identified

water as a key component in their livelihoods,

indicated by the numerous relationships

between water and other components

depicted. The groups identified water as

benefiting people directly in addition to

livestock, vegetables, natural vegetation, soil,

wildlife, and the production of felt crafts, most

of which were interlinked with one another

either directly or indirectly. The herder group

also identified a problem with saline water for

people and livestock. Only droughts were

identified by both groups as having a negative

impact on water availability and, by the

herders, on water quality by increasing

salinity.

Interesting feedbacks among components

were also identified. For example, the Gobi

Khishig herder group recognized the

reinforcing linkage between themselves, their

livestock, natural vegetation, precipitation,

and government taxes: herders pay taxes, part

of which are used by the government to plant

trees; the trees increase precipitation through increased evapotranspiration; increased

precipitation leads to more vegetation and thus more pasture to feed their livestock; more

feed means more and healthier livestock, for which they pay more taxes, leading to the

government planting more trees, and so on. Key findings identified in the influence diagram

were reiterated in the problem tree analyses and are thus discussed in the proceeding section.

E. Problem Tree

The following section describes the main trends discussed by the Ikh Gobi and vegetable

farmer groups during this exercise, including issues related to water quantity, water quality,

training requirements, lack of equipment and irrigation systems, marketability of vegetables,

seed purchases and collection, and cooperative efforts. Specific details recorded during the

problem tree activities can be found in Appendix D.

Water Quantity

The Ikh Gobi community herder group identified lack of water as their first water-related

problem. Within an informal discussion prior to the start of the PRA activities, community

members asked the student researchers if they would be able to help them find water in their

region of the Gobi. This vital resource is obviously a limiting factor in their day to day living

as well as to their livelihoods dependent upon animal husbandry.

During the exercise, the Ikh Gobi group noted a reduction of rain from previous years, more

extreme drought conditions, and extended hours of sunlight as the main causes of reduced

water availability. There was no mention of anthropocentric (human induced) overuse of

water for livelihoods or human needs. Cloud seeding, creation of an artificial basin or lake,

and drilling deeper wells were options discussed as solutions during times when water is

scarce. Perhaps because water use conservation is part of survival, demand management

(involving strategies used to encourage the reduction of water use) as a form of increasing

water supply was not mentioned by the community as an additional solution.

Water quantity issues were also discussed by the vegetable herder groups in Nomgon, noting

a lack of wells and reduced water levels resulting in lower crop yields. Interviews with

Nomgon’s community organizer (former governor) and environmental inspector indicated

water availability was both a significant problem, in terms of groundwater level reductions,

as well as a nominal problem in that almost everyone in the community now had their own

well, so “water availability is good”. This conflicting information suggests differences

between the availability of well water in the rural and urban areas and lack of scientific

knowledge of actual water quantities. More investigation into apparent urban-rural

discrepancies would need to be conducted to make any concrete comparisons.

In 2003, during the former governor’s period in office, a special fund was created to build

new hand wells (3-5m deep) in the community of Nomgon, supported by a Japanese

sponsored project that supplied pumping equipment for each family. Nomgon’s

environmental inspector was of the opinion that groundwater levels in Nomgon have been

declining in recent years due to the increased concentration of water wells, with drought and

climate change considered to influence open surface water levels. Despite this observation,

both community groups and the above interviewees did not mention an immediate threat or

need for the government to promote water use conservation, but that these influences could

result in increased scarcity concerns and possibly require additional conservation efforts in

the future.

In an interview with the aimag government official

responsible for environmental policy in the region, it

was mentioned that conservation initiatives were

underway within the aimag centre (Dalanzadgad).

The aimag government uses water meters to charge

for water and repairs water infrastructure with this

revenue. This metered approach to water payment

may also encourage people to use less water.

Conversely, the community organizer mentioned that

in Nomgon soum centre residents do not pay for water

because each family has their own well. This could

lead to a lack of water conservation in this area and

possible water availability issues in the future.

Water Quality

The salinity of the water was the main water quality

issue raised by Ikh Gobi and the two vegetable

farming communities during this exercise. Salinity issues were also raised within the

resource mapping and influence diagram activities. The communities mentioned that the

high salt content of the water has contributed to human health problems such as liver and

kidney illnesses as well as poor animal health (lack of nutritious vegetation and clean

drinking water result in lean animals). The Gobi region’s geological structure was blamed

for the high salinity levels. Purification of water for human use, with the help of special

equipment, and tree planting were solutions raised to improve water quality for consumption

and enhance soil conditions and vegetation.

Nomgon’s environmental inspector mentioned in her interview that information on water

quality issues, and observations of decreasing water levels, were reported on a regular basis

by rangers within the Little Gobi Strictly Protected Area Section A and, in some cases,

information was provided by volunteer environmental rangers in the soum.

The community organizer suggested a need for external researchers to measure and report to

the community which wells have poor water quality and confirm whether there is increased

safety in drinking from communal pumped wells instead of personal hand-dug wells. The

aimag government official interviewed is quoted as saying the government supplies water

purification equipment to soum centres but not to herders at this time.

Training Requirements

The vegetable farmer groups expressed an interest in training sessions to develop vegetable

farming skills and knowledge including new techniques on how to plant, grow, harvest,

prepare, and preserve vegetables. To improve profitability of sales, increase access to

funding, and sell produce to more markets, training workshops on the basics of finance,

marketing and sales would also be of great benefit.

One problem noted by the community was that agricultural professionals and students are

choosing to live and work in northern Mongolian where salaries and wages are higher. The

vegetable herder groups expressed the need for government policies and financial incentives

that would encourage and attract specialists, including professionals and agricultural students,

to work in the area and train the community members on best farming methods and practices,

seed collection and storage, soil development, and food preservation techniques.

Professional language training was also suggested as another requirement in order for the

farmers to read seed packages donated in foreign languages. Another option of course would

be to provide Mongolian translation of this information prior to donation, as this would help

the community members learn about the new plants, how the seeds should be planted and

grown, and how the vegetable produce can be consumed and/or marketed.

To assist with measuring the quality of water in remote areas, training and equipment could

be provided to avoid health problems and improve water quality data collected by the

volunteer environmental rangers.

During an interview with Nomgon’s School Director, he mentioned the need to create

employment opportunities in the winter months when vegetable farmers are no longer tending

to their gardens and crops. A tour of the school’s bakery, recently built with the help of the

children, suggested a new demand for training related to basic baking skills as an example,

with other employment training possibilities in felt handicraft, wool making, or carpentry

work in the off season.

Lack of Equipment & Systems

The benefit of a tractor for earlier seed planting was discussed at length by the vegetable

farmer participants. By the time the tractor arrives from working in northern Mongolia, the

ideal planting period has passed. The cost of a tractor requires a huge capital investment with

high interest rates attached to loans from the bank. The idea of pooling resources through the

creation of a farming foundation was raised as a possible way to successfully apply for

funding (such as grants) and reduce interest charges. Cooperation of this nature is also

discussed in a section below.

According to Nomgon’s school director, the two main irrigation systems (east and west) in

the area were built during the socialist period, so the soum government claims it is not

responsible for managing or repairing these systems or wells. These artificial basins are

replenished by springs, where water collects all year long and is used for irrigation purposes.

Unfortunately, the clay lining of the east basin has been washed away from rain and they do

not have sufficient money to pay for the repairs.

Irrigation is an important part of growing vegetables and trees in the Gobi. The vegetable

farmers mentioned their gardens and crops require between 300 L to 10 tonnes of water per

day, depending on the size and selection of vegetables. They currently dig channels in the

soil to irrigate, which was identified as an inefficient use of water, so they asked about new

methods of irrigation. Drip irrigation was suggested as a more efficient system, at a

relatively affordable cost, that can provide plants with a controlled amount of water directly

to their roots.

The school itself requires 2 -3 tonnes of water per day (during the summer), from one of two

nearby wells, to water the trees in its courtyard. The Director hopes to extend the pipe

connection to a larger drilled well and also

implement a drip irrigation system. Advice on drip

irrigation was requested.

Community members identified non-governmental

organizations as possible sources of training or

systems suppliers, this could be largely due to the

fact that the soum and aimag governments have not

aided in water provision in the past.

Marketability of Vegetables

For the vegetable farmer communities, additional

markets beyond Nomgon are a considerable

distance away: 100km to the nearest soum centre,

110km to Dalanzadgad, and 730km to Ulaanbaatar.

They also commented that the vegetable market is

small in general due to the financial conditions of

families in the community. Potential new markets

were suggested by the participants, including sale

to soums currently without enough vegetables or without enough water to successfully grow

crops. The vegetable farmers also mentioned possible markets and small business

opportunities resulting from future mining operations in the area, to ensure they receive local

benefits from this activity.

Contributing toward a foundation or community fund was another viable solution raised to

collect money for transportation of produce and equipment purchases. Investing as a group

would also hopefully improve credit worthiness for loan applications. Working together as a

cooperative or farming community would also allow the farmers to pool their vegetables and

sell to buyers interested in larger quantities of produce. Establishing underground storage

and better preservation could potentially increase the market value of vegetables, presumably

in the winter and spring when vegetables are scarce.

Seed Purchases & Collection

Without access to a tractor at the beginning of the season, seeds are collected by hand from

vegetables that are not needed for subsistence or sale. Unfortunately the farmers cannot

devote large portions of their crops for seed collection, as they mentioned it was more

important to eat the vegetables or sell them for their livelihood. Purchasing seed has

therefore become a necessity.

The vegetable farmers expressed concerns about the high cost and poor quality of seeds.

Seeds were apparently purchased from China and other countries, including Canada and the

United States, via northern Mongolia resulting in higher costs for transportation. The group

mentioned they believed the seeds they received from Canada were of high quality, but those

from China were poor.

Somewhat conflicting to the above group comments on seed purchases, the School Director

mentioned that vegetable farmers mostly use their own seeds, and do note use many imported

seeds. He commented that yields in the first year are often good but the second and future

years do not fair as well, perhaps due to climate or collecting seeds and not planting the

originals.

The vegetable farmers came up with several possible solutions regarding seed collection

including creating a seed bank of their own seeds and participating in training to improve

knowledge on the best ways to collect and plant vegetable seeds. Planting trees to protect

vegetation seedlings from the wind and/or applying black plastic over the soil were additional

ideas noted to ensure successful yields.

Cooperation

The vegetable farmers

discussed establishing two

community groups that

would help facilitate the

creation of their own

community fund and

foundation and encourage

creative new ideas. Most of

the solutions brainstormed

by the community involved

increasing group

cooperation and working

together to pool resources

or knowledge in order to

improve livelihoods.

The importance of cooperation was also highlighted to researchers during a presentation by

C. Shmedt of the New Zealand Nature Institute. During the last ten years, cooperation has

successfully resulted in the establishment of 83 conservation-oriented communities working

to improve the livelihoods of local herders in the area. In some of these communities a large

fund has been created, including both money and livestock, allowing herders to obtain micro-

credit. This initiative has not only resulting in increased cooperation but has improved

conservation and education levels, increased capacity, and improved income levels and social

skills. Many communities also feel that they have better pasture management due to

community discussions, experience sharing between communities, and frequent movement

between their stays based on trust that community members will work together rather than

take winter stays from others.

The School Director in Nomgon provided another example of direct cooperation between the

school and two vegetable farmers located 30 km east of Nomgon. The school’s students

provide these two farmers with labour in the summer, helping with planting, picking and

preserving vegetables. The School Director supplies the vegetable farmers with seeds,

management skills, and market opportunities by purchasing produce for the school children

and also arranging sales in the aimag centre of Dalanzadgad. In the latter, the Director sells

the produce, gives 25% of revenue as profit to the farmers, and uses the rest of the revenue to

buy necessities such as textbooks, winter coats and other supplies for children. He also

mentioned two other advantages of farming collectives: cooperation can keep the price of

vegetables consistent, to prevent loss of profit when some choose to sell low, and it can also

secure a market through the coordination of transportation of bulk produce.

In the researchers’ opinion, increased cooperation for both vegetable farmer and herder

groups could result in improved livelihood development and increased capacity building for

communities. Herder groups should be encouraged to continue cooperation and share their

experiences with other less established groups. Vegetable farmer groups should be

encouraged to increase their cooperation and form official community groups.

Overall Observations on Problem Tree

This activity was particularly useful in allowing the groups to identify potential problems

within the community and to discuss issues related to or causing these problems. In the

vegetable farmer group, the problem tree was done early and returned to at the end of the

session as a concluding activity. The farmers had thought of many solutions to problems and

a discussion on how to reach these solutions followed. In the herder group however, the

problem tree was done at the end of the session and not many solutions were generated from

this discussion. This could be because the herder groups have been cooperating for a longer

time and so have less immediate concerns as a community or it could be because water

resources (which the problem tree focused on) are often technical issues with technical

solutions as opposed to livelihood improvement of the vegetable farmers. One issue with the

problem tree as an activity is that it involves a great deal of facilitation from researchers in

order to lead community members to identify links between causes, problems and effects. An

activity that enables community members to work more independently may be more

beneficial in the future.

Summary of Discussion

Throughout all PRA activities and sessions, the following general trends were noted by the

researchers:

The need for water for survival and livelihoods

The necessity of water availability was evident throughout the PRA activities, not only in the

sense of water for survival (such as food and drink) but also as water as a means to

livelihoods. Both herders and vegetable farmers used the majority of the water they

consumed to sustain their livelihoods. This reliance on water highlighted the severe impact

that a lack of water or poor water quality in the area could have on the communities.

Issues of water scarcity and water quality

Salty wells were identified by all community groups and salt concentration was the major

determinate of water quality. As well, reduction of the water level within wells was

identified as a problem. Overall, the reliance on water coupled with a general lack of water

in the environment was highlighted by all groups, emphasizing that water is a limiting factor

for the environment and therefore also for human wellbeing and livelihoods.

The need for and importance of cooperation

The importance of and successes of cooperation were noted by researchers with visits to

herder communities. The productiveness of discussing problems as a community and

identifying water resources trends is crucial to community development and addressing

community issues. As well, the need for increased cooperation within the vegetable farming

communities was apparent in the PRA activities. Many of the solutions to increase the

productivity of vegetable growing that were proposed by community involved increased

communication, collaboration and community cooperation. The benefits to this cooperation

will most likely empower individuals but also the vegetable growing communities as a whole.

The need for training and equipment

The success of the training sessions thus far with the herder groups (such as felt training and

fuel-efficient stove creation) was noted. Training in the future, addressing issues like well

construction, and determining future well location, may be of benefit to the herders. A

general lack of water and the question of where to find more water, or suggested technical

solutions (such as an artificial basin creation and cloud seeding), should be discussed with the

herders by a professional hydrologist or hydrogeologist.

The vegetable farmers highlighted many areas in which training and technical assistance

would greatly improve their livelihoods, including: vegetable planting, seed packet

translation, preserving vegetables, marketing and business and community development. As

well, vegetable farmers identified a serious lack of equipment (mainly a tractor and irrigation

system) that prohibits them from planting seeds early in the season and reduces harvest and

seed collecting abilities.

Water collection and uses

In all communities general trends of water collection were identified and discussed.

Depending on distance to wells and terrain, water was collected by hand, camel or

motorcycle. The herders and vegetable farmers mentioned that water collection was

performed by all members of the family, depending on who had free time. The largest

amount of water used by families was for livestock or vegetables and thus was used to sustain

livelihoods. As well, in terms of water priorities, women and men mainly listed similar top

water use priorities that were necessary for survival and livelihood, possibly indicating an in-

depth understanding of the necessity of all water uses for family well-being.

Vegetation trends

Trends in vegetation were discussed with herder communities and within some of the

interviews. In this discussion, neither herder community identified any notable changes in

vegetation (e.g., in cover, abundance, species diversity) over the past several decades in the

region. Herders of both communities practice a form of rotational grazing that has remained

relatively unchanged in this region for millennia. Park Administration staff, on the other

hand, had noted a reduction of vegetation abundance and changes in the plant community in

the region, which was said to be due to influences of climate change. More research and the

collection of vegetation data in the area is necessary to further investigate this matter.

Recommendations

The Steppe Forward Programme should work with community members to encourage the

following:

1. Experience sharing between experienced community leaders (or members) and the

vegetable farmers. The benefits to working in a group should be discussed with

particular attention paid to official membership and the possibility of a community

fund. This fund could be used to increase equipment capabilities of the farmers or to

invest in micro-credit schemes.

2. Steppe Forward Programme representatives should coordinate with herders and

vegetable farmers along with NUM experts to offer training sessions on the following:

a. Water resources � including where to dig wells and possible technical

solutions to lack of water availability for the Herder groups. This training

could also be offered to vegetable farmers to allow them to learn more about

water quality and the effect that poor water quality could have on their crops,

personal health and animals.

b. Vegetables � types of plants and how to plant them, including growing

season, soil necessities, water requirements and how to prepare vegetables to

eat. This could also include translation of the seed packets at the beginning of

the year before the planting season begins.

c. Seed collection and vegetable preservation � this will help to reduce input

costs for farmers and increase profits if vegetables are sold for higher prices in

the winter and spring months.

d. Equipment � advice and information on drip irrigation should be provided to

the vegetable farmer community by the researchers and the Steppe Forward

Program

e. Marketing and business � a training session on business and marketing as

well as some follow up participatory activities would allow the vegetable

farmers to create and implement new ideas on how to improve their

livelihoods.

f. Other income generation � training on small-business skills (such as bakery,

construction etc.) would be useful to vegetable farmers who need to improve

their livelihoods during the winter when vegetable farming is not possible.

Note: All of these training sessions should be coordinated with local government and

agricultural experts from other regions in the hopes of attracting experts to the region.

3. Future research should be encouraged on:

a. Water resources � more information on water resources in the area, including

their location, depth and water quality would be useful to herders and

vegetable farmers in planning for the future of their communities. Research of

this type should include community members, training them on the technical

side of water monitoring and water quality analysis.

b. Gender and water � further investigation of the unique situation identified so

far with regards to gender and water collection and the lack of gender

differences in “top five” water priorities.

c. Vegetation studies � ecological research on vegetation (species diversity,

abundances, distributions, seedbanks, etc.) is required to monitor trends and

identify whether changes are occurring and, if so, what the primary drivers

are; this data will be beneficial to the development of meaningful management

plans that reflect ecosystem dynamics in the area.

d. Pasture and water resources relationship � the contradictory information

received during the PRAs about whether families move based on pasture or on

water indicate a need to further investigate this intricate connection between

the two in order to completely understand the matter.

4. Continue PRA work in the future with all communities. In general the community

members appeared to enjoy contributing to the PRA activities and socializing.

Overall, this cooperation during activities works to build group dynamics which leads

to stronger groups and individuals and communities that are active and empowered.

Acknowledgements

This project was funded by a Canada Corps University Partnership Program grant designed to

facilitate research collaboration on water governance between York University and the

National University of Mongolia. The participatory rural appraisal (PRA) activities were

arranged and supported by the Steppe Forward Programme, a conservation-oriented nonprofit

organization funded by the Zoological Society of London and its Darwin Initiative.

We would like to extend our appreciation to the participants from the eco-herder

communities and vegetable farming groups within the Omnigovi aimag for their willingness

to share information during the PRA activities. Thank you also to the community members

and officials who agreed to be interviewed to improve knowledge about water and vegetation

related concerns in the area.

Special thanks to the main facilitators, G. Batbayar (Bagii), a NUM Faculty of Biology

graduate student and intern working with the Steppe Forward Programme, and Oyunmunkh

(Oyunaa), a Faculty of Biology graduate student, who contributed as both project translator

and facilitator. Kind appreciation is owed to Baatar for his guidance to and from the region

and ensuring our wellbeing.

J. Jargal, Director of the Steppe Forward Programme, is commended for her organization of

trip and role in forming the eco-herder communities, as was Byambatseren, community

organizer for the vegetable farmer groups, who coordinated efforts in Nomgon. It is hoped

these community groups will successfully continue to reach their goals for community

development and cooperation.

References

Chambers, Robert (1994a). The Origins and Practices of Participatory Rural Appraisal World

Development 22(7) p 1953-69.

Chambers, Robert (1994b). Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Analysis of Experience.

World Development 22(9) p 1253-68

C. Shmedt (Nov 21, 2006). New Zealand Nature Institute – Park Administration Celebration

Presentation

Ellis, J.E. and D.M. Swift (1988). "Stability of African pastoral ecosystems: alternate

paradigms and implications for development." Range Management 41: 450-459.

Fernandez-Gimenez, M. and B. Allen-Diaz (1999). "Testing a non-equilibrium model of

rangeland vegetation dynamics in Mongolia." Journal of Applied Ecology 36: 871-

885.

Fernandez-Gimenez, M. and B. Allen-Diaz (2001). "Vegetation change along gradients from

water sources in three grazed Mongolian ecosystems." Plant Ecology 157: 101-118.

Stumpp, M., K. Wesche, V. Retzer and G. Miehe (2005). "Impact of grazing livestock and

distance from water source on soil fertility in southern Mongolia." Mountain Research

and Development 25(3): 244-251.

Yu, F., K.P. Price, J. Ellis, J.J. Feddema, and P. Shi. 2004. Interannual variations of the

grassland boundaries bordering the eastern edges of the Gobi Desert in central Asia.

Int. J. Remote Sensing, 25(2): 327-346.

Appendices

Appendix A: List of PRA Participants & Interviewees

PRA Participants

Ikh Gobi Community:

- Baigal A.

- Batchuluun B

- Tsendenbal Ts

- Tuyamaa

- Bayar

- Avirmed

Gobi Khishig Community:

- Byamba

- Bold

- Naraantuya

- Dorjsemne

- Tsolmon

- Ganbaatat

- Natsag

- Ontom

- Baatsom

- Namsra

Vegetable Farmer Groups:

Unfortunately there is no record of a list of participants for the vegetable farmer PRA

sessions. 14 vegetable farmers participated in the PRA (13 were female and one was male).

7 vegetable farmers represented from the eastern community and 7 from the western

community. Both Bayamatseren (community organizer) and Munkhtuya (environmental

inspector) attended this meeting.

Interviewees

1. Byambatseren – Nomgon Community Organizer for the Steppe Forward Programme

Former Governor, Secretary of the Sustainable Livelihood Project, Nov 18, 2006

2. Battogtokh – Nomgon School Director, Nov 19, 2006

3. Munkhtuya – Nomgon, Environmental Inspector, Nov 19, 2006

4. Ravjir R. – Director of Research, Protected Area Administration, Nov 21, 2006

5. Otgonbayor – Aimag Government Official, Responsible for Land, Tourism and

Environmental Policy, Nov 21, 2006

Appendix B: Water Use & Priority Tables

Part A: Ikh Gobi Community

Ikh Gobi - Men - Water Priorities List Ikh Gobi - Women - Water Priorities List

Wa

ter

Use

Ty

pe

Am

ou

nt

/wee

k

Pri

ori

ty

Wa

ter

Use

Ty

pe

Am

ou

nt/

wee

k

Pri

ori

ty

water for

herds

animals many

tons

1

Watering

herds

animals 4200

L/week

(200

goats) (1

1

goat =

3L/day)

Washing

clothes

cleaning 120 L 1

Washing

dishes

cleaning 21 L 1

Cleaning

the home

cleaning 20 L/ 1

making

food & tea

food 280 L 1

Washing

floor

cleaning 42 L 1

making

dough –

noodles

food 1.5 L 1

making

tea

food 70 L 1

Washing

face &

hands

sanitation 42 L 1

making

food

food 42 L 1

Washing

clothes

cleaning 140 L 2

making

tea with

rice

food 35 L 1

Washing

vegetables

for cooking

food 14 L 2

making

vodka

food 70 L 1

having a

bath

sanitation 10 L 2

boiling

(steaming)

meat

food 14 L 1

Watering

vegetables

vegetatio

n

700

L/week

in

season

3

Cleaning

animal

meat

food 10 L 1

Washing

herds

animals 3000

L/year

4

Washing

face &

hands

sanitation 23 L 1

Cleaning

the fence of

the

livestock

cleaning 2000

L/year

4

Bathing sanitation 35 L 1

rinsing

(foreign

ready-

made)

noodles

food 10

L/time

4

Washing

children

sanitation 21 L 1

making felt felt 80

L/time

per year

5

coolant for

radiator

(engine)

vehicle 10

L/time

1

Washing

hides

(skins)

animals no

amount

provided

5

Washing

livestock

animals 5 L 2

Washing

camel hides

animals 40

L/time

5

making

felt

felt 20

L/time

2

making

clay for

fence

building 60

L/time

5

making

juice with

powder

(lemonade

)

food 5 L 3

Washing

floor &

wooden

walls

cleaning 20 L 5

using

water to

cool

themselve

s (in the

summer)

other no

amount

provided

3

Washing

carpets

cleaning 35 L 5

making

water

vapor

(purifying

water for

the car)

vehicle no

amount

provided

3

Washing

curtains &

other

cottons

cleaning 30 L 5

Washing/c

leaning

car

alternator

vehicle 10

L/time

3

making

vodka

food 30 L 5

making

dough -

cookies

food 3 L 5

Notes:

everything

uses

water;

water is a

treasure

making

lemonade

food 2 L 5

Outside

herding,

use an

estimated

total of:

Total

est: 602

L/week

making

cement

building 60

L/time

5

Washing

vehicles

vehicle 30

L/time

5

Part B: Gobi Khishig Community

Gobi Khishig - Men - Water Priorities Gobi Khishig - Women - Water Priorities

Wa

ter

Use

Ty

pe

Am

ou

nt/

da

y

Pri

ori

ty

Wa

ter

use

Ty

pe

Am

ou

nt/

da

y

Pri

ori

ty

Food food 20 1

Tea (1) food 10-20

L

1

Watering

herds

animals 2-4 ton

(depends

on

livestock)

2

Food (1) food 5-10 L 1

washing

dishes

cleaning 3 3

Wash clothes

(4)

cleaning 20-

30L

1

Wash cat

and dog

animals 5 4

Water herds

(2)

animals 1500-

3000

1

water for

vegetables

vegetable 1-2 ton

(depends

on size of

planted

area)

5

Planting

vegetables

(3)

vegetable 1

tonne

–

2000

L

1

Wash

clothes

cleaning 40 6

Having bath

(5)

sanitation 10-

20L

1

cleaning the

home

cleaning 5 7

Washing

bowls

cleaning 2-3L 2

watering

trees and

bushes

nature 500-1000 8

Making felt felt 500 L 2

making

livestock

feed (for

winter

only) like

soup

animals 100 9

Cleaning

home

cleaning 5-10L 2

Having

bath

sanitation 20 10

Feeding dog animals 3 2

wash face

& hands

sanitation 1 11

Making

vodka

food 20-30 2

Mixing clay

for fence

building 500-

1000L

12

Washing

face and

hands

sanitation 3L 3

making

camel

vodka

food - 13

Washing

herds

animals 1000-

2000L

3

playing

with water

to cool off

other 200-500L 14

Washing felt felt 20-30 3

washing

livestock

animals 5-10 ton 15

Washing hair sanitation 5-10L 3

washing car

&

motorbike

vehicle 500 16

Washing big

pot (for

cooking)

cleaning 2-5L 3

Plant trees nature 50-

100

4

Washing

dishes

(bigger than

cleaning 3-5L 4

bowls)

Watering

flowers

nature 5 4

Mixing clay building 100-

300L

4

Washing cat animals 2 4

Washing car vehicle 50-

100

5

Make bricks building 100-

200

5

Washing

wooden parts

of ger

cleaning 10-20

L

5

Part C: Vegetable Farmers Community

Vegetable Farmers - Man Vegetable Farmers Woman

Wa

ter

Use

Ty

pe

Am

ou

nt/

da

y

Pri

ori

ty

Wa

ter

use

Ty

pe

Am

ou

nt/

da

y

Pri

ori

ty

Tea food 8L 1

Water use Amt

per

day

Food food 6 L 1

Water

vegetables

vegetable 10

Tonnes

1

Water

vegetables

vegetable 300 L 1

Make tea food 10 L 1

Washing

car

vehicle 40 L 2

Wash dishes cleaning 4 L 2

Having bath sanitation 7 L 2

Wash

clothes

cleaning 50 L 2

Water herd animals 700L 1 Having bath sanitation 20 L 2

Washing

children

sanitation 5 L 2

Washing

ger floor

cleaning 20 L 2

Washing

clothes

cleaning 20 L 1

Cooking

food

food 5 L 1

Water dog animals 0.5 L 2

Water herd animals 2

tonnes

1

Camel 30 L

Goat 4 L

Sheep 3 L

Cow 5 L

Horse 5 L

Water trees nature 40 L 1

Appendix C: Influence/Rich Picture Diagrams

Influence diagram of Gobi Khishig herder community.

Influence diagram of vegetable farmers in Nomgon soum.

Appendix D: Problem Trees

Ikh Gobi Herder Community

Problems Causes Impacts Solutions

1. lack of water

2. decreasing

vegetation

3. salty water

4. drought (dry

weather)

1. less rain

2. no trees &

vegetation to attract

rain (if vegetation

cover is dense, then

rain comes through

feedback loop)

3. landscape (regional

geological structure,

salt coming from

rocks)

4. lack of water (due to

too much sunlight &

salt in the soil)

1. liver & kidney

diseases (impact of

salty water)

2. livestock not getting

fat (impact of salty

water)

1. make large

artificial basin/lake

2. shoot clouds (cloud

seeding)

3. plant trees to make

artificial forest

4. purify salty water

for drinking

5. drill deeper wells

6. use artificial things

to collect water

7. get special

equipment for

water purification

Vegetable Farmer Community

Problems Causes Impacts Solutions

1. water resources

getting lower every

year (lack well

equipment)

2. lack of technical

equipment (tractor,

etc.), cannot plant

seeds early enough

to get seeds

3. lack of wells (only

a few wells)

4. drinking water is

too salty (get sick)

5. not enough buyers

b/c financial ability

low

6. far from market

7. high cost of seeds

& poor quality

(cannot get seeds

from own

vegetables due to

time, tractor access

poor, by hand,

cannot afford

therefore late; buy

seeds from China

and elsewhere;

cannot devote crop

to seeds, need to

eat)

1. drought & hard winter

2. bank’s credit (high

interest)

3. few buyers (small

market)

4. people unable to buy

vegetables b/c of

livelihoods

5. centre market very far

to Dalanzadgad

(110km from

Nomgon, 730km to

UB, 100km to nearest

soum centre)

6. bring seeds from

northern part of

Mongolia (Khangai)

so fuel cost is high

(also plant late)

7. soil fertility is low

(nutrients poor)

8. climate is harsh

9. windy, etc.

10. (cost high, profit not

good)

1. crops - low amount

(low yield)

2. planting time is

really late b/c lack

equipment

3. water resource &

supply poor

(decreasing water,

few wells)

4. effecting health

5. soil getting salty

from salty water

6. cannot improve own

livelihood level

because people

cannot buy the

vegetables & market

is far

7. cost increasing,

revenue decreasing

8. financial &

economic ability

very low

1. plant trees/make

forest (use trees to

protect vegetation

seedlings from

wind, idea from

china: black plastic

over soil and leave

hole for plant to

come out)

2. establish

greenhouse

3. cooperation (work

together)

4. creativity (creative

in new ideas)

5. need government

policy – to attract

specialists

(convince

professionals & ag.

students to come to

this area instead of

going north)

6. establish own

foundation (find

projects to fund

vegetable farming

& improve

financial capacity)

7. make seed bank (of

own seeds)

8. training sessions

for farmers on how

to plant vegetables

(also preservation)

9. attract specialists to

area via gov.

incentives (no one

wants to go to area

because cannot

make money)

10. need local

government

support