-
198
Legal Discourses on Faith in the Pak-Afghan Borderlands*
Jan-Peter Hartung
Introduction
The matter of faith (mn) is constitutive to any Islamic
ethico-legal discussion. Moreover,
this discussion forms the backbone of debates within Muslim
circles over related matters, such as
rules for apostasy (ridda, or irtidd) and minority law (fiqh
al-aqalliyt) in Muslim majority
contexts. These issues, in turn, have contributed significantly
to positivist responses by certain
Muslim groups who claim the authority to judge over the
Islamicity of Muslim individuals and
groups, and to execute what they consider to be the legally
appropriate sanctions. The Pak-Afghan
borderlands have played a crucial role in these developments of
global reach, as drastic measures
against allegedly un-Islamic belief and conduct became evident
during the years of the Islamic
Emirate of Afghanistan and, since 2006, in the Islamic Emirate
of Vaziristan. More often than not,
these manifestations of a quite radical take on faith have been
dismissed as mere expressions of a
fundamentalist mindset that has developed in the fatal
relationship of increasingly narrow-minded
Afghan Muslim fighters (of various ethnic backgrounds) and
predominantly Arab radicals
commonly associated with al-Qida.
However, for the moment the massive complexities of what appears
to be rather ill-fated
alliances between Afghan and Arab religious activists have
hardly been seriously investigated and
subsequently have given rise to the perhaps premature dismissal
of possible interface in the specific
understanding of religion. Rather, what appears as strategic
alliances is commonly attributed solely
to the notion of hospitality (mlmastiy) or the obligation to
provide shelter (panh, or nanawta)
in Pashtun society,
thus suggesting that the Arab Muslim activists were merely
tolerate on Afghan
soil, rather than much of their religious proclivities being
shared. There seems even to be a tendency
!
"
!#$!
% &
"
'
"
(
(
(
"
(
(
(
(
)
*
"
'
!
)
'
"
(
+
(
"
"
(
"
'
,
-
*
"
(
*
(
"
"
)
!
. /
0123
45
6
1
7
2
8
09
54:
;
5
3
4:
6
9
4
9
==
:
9
=
9
T
:5
F
-
D
+
~
#
JKKL
$
X
+
!
.Y
~
A
7
93 9
=
@
8
9
4
o
D
+
i
!
.^
*
(
,,
~
w9
o
3
5
@
5
7
:
9
T
p
:
J
V
!
&
~
'~
'
+,,
-
) "
-
G
z
y
~
!
L
J
E
JKK
i$
) "
(
-
)
5
O
@
5 5
7=
>
)
""
(
)
"
~
'
~
L
XJ
E
JKLL
$!
'
!
J
"
9
=
@
9
{{
JV
D
i
`
L
L
E
L
WW
X
b!
)
I
!
'
`
I
-
b
(
)
'
"
"
'
'
)
(
"
"
!$!
y
&
l
7
9>9
O5
3 n9
?
5
3
7
09
4:
6
1 w
:
6
5
p
:
P
v3v
7
|
:
9
=
5
7
93
?
4:
6
6
4
v13 2
8
9
=
@
9
5
?
9
7
n
6
9
?
6
1
7
:5
4
2
A
8B
:
93
5
7
4
93
k
(
F
G
D H
'
)
U
H
JKLX
$
V
!
.s
'
u
>
5
9
:
@
T
5
v
=
}
>@
5 5
7=
>
5
TT
9
:
_
~
#
~
`
"
b!
d
---
!'
!
!(#
E
E
#
!
""
J
i!
JKL
$!
'
~
t
~
j
~
w
3
5
9
:
@
T
5
n
=
S
9
7
5
?
P
:
9>
91 p
T
B
v91
'
D
'
+
~
+
#
+
'
~
'~
JKK
$
i!
.
x
"
"
'
"
#
)
F
z
+
F
z
+
~
,,
~
_
+
'
+
-
~
~
F
z
+
~
'
+
d
9
?
@
T
5
91
5
7
4
3 L
!
JKLK
$
D
LJ
+
!
k
/
JKK
L
W
X
!
LX
$
#
#'
!
JKK
**
W
+
i
K
V
+
W
$
"
)
'
)
F
z
+
_
k
d
'
"
"
_
)
U
'
!
d
*
(
U
_
k
t
U
'
'
"
U
"
!
d
6
?
5
88
f
6
R
7
)
J
JKLK
(
DEE
-
!
!
"
E
(
E
JKLK
E
)E
J
E
-
++
-
204
Nr-i Muammad himself had been educated at the Jmiah-yi Qsim
al-ulm in Multan under the
tutelage of Muft Mamd (d. 1400/1980) of the Pashtun Lohn-Marvat
tribe, between 1968 and
1980 president of the Jamiyyat-i ulam-i islm, who himself had
received his education at the
Deoband Jmiah-yi qsimiyyah dr al-ulm-i shh in Muradabad.
]
It appears as if the image of a tight inter-personal network of
Deoband scholars with strong
ethnic links to the Frontier region could be painted, which
pivots around the great scholars of
Deobands second generation, and shows seriously radicalised
tendencies on its fringes. What needs
to be established, therefore, is whether an ideological line can
be drawn that accounts for the more
radically inclined responses. In the following, therefore, views
on the matter of faith after all a
core element in religious justifications of violence by some
leading exponents of the third
generation within this network will be investigated. These views
may vary according to the context
in which they are expressed; here, however, the discussion shall
be confined to the legal arguments
produced on this matter, as can be found in various collections
of legal opinions, or fatv. The first
collection under investigation consists of mostly undated fatv,
mainly by Abd al-aqq of Akoah
Khaak, issued since the inauguration of the institution in
1947.
The Normative Trajectory: Theology and Law
What appears immediately striking in the relevant section on
Creeds and Faith-related
Matters (kitb al-aqid val-mniyt) is that faith is hardly ever
positively defined. Rather, what
for Abd al-aqq and other scholars of Akoah Khaak constitutes
faith needs to be derived by
inversion, as most of the fatv provide only information about
what constitutes unbelief (kufr),
and faith can therefore be defined only by negation as the
absence of kufr. In this respect, they
)
+
'
+
'
"
++
+"
!
""
XK JKL
$! U
_
)
U
'
! '
U
'
d
j
((
'
'
(
"
)
j
j
-
z
M
'
) ""
(
")
'
-
UU
I
"
++"
&
~
z
#
L
XK
E
JKK
W$
#
~
z
#
L
X
E
JKLX
$
'
'
y
"
6
54
2>
!
)
#'
!
-
67
5
7
4
93
a6
93
?
e23
4
12
=
5
3
Q
9p
5
7
4
93
JKK
LL
+
L
J
L
i$
(
(
(
"
"
"
-
M
"
F
#
j
'
G
~
)
"
j
j
&
~
(
"
"
++"
UU
I
-
))
)
'
"
"
(
"
!
.
I
(
"
r+
+
k
j
k
(
DEE
-
j
-
!
"
E
*
!(
(
c
(
"
h
"
-
"
V
LVV
)
M
""
L
i
JKL
$!
g
"
"
'
)
(
z
+
#
k
y
~
+
_
+
#
+
z
~
+
z
-
+
-
~
d
w
:
9
O
9p9
4
9
=
@>9
?
1
5
7
9
=
@
5
7=
>
5
TT
9
r"
'
JKLX
$!
(
DEE
-
'!
"
EE
!(
(
c
J
iW
V
""
XK JKL
$
M
"
(
)
)
)
(
"
"
F
S
9R
=
3
S
v
8
4
S
9>
}?
19>9
4
9
==
:
9
=
9
T
:5
9
T
4
9R1 p
:5
?
>
4
Dr
~
+
#
~'
JKLX
$!
-
205
seem to emulate Shh Isml Dihlavs much earlier and yet still much
venerated expositions in
Taqviyyat al-mn, which does also not provide a clear-cut
definition of faith in the way a
theological catechism (aqda) would do. Rather, it provided a
meticulous breakdown of what, in the
light of solely the Qurn and the Prophetic Sunna, constitutes
association shirk which, in its
ultimate consequence, translates into a violation of the core
doctrine of the Oneness of God
(tawd).
Interestingly, however, other than in ir-i mustaqm, in this work
Shh Isml avoided
the use of the term kufr throughout, indicating perhaps some
stronger awareness of the severe
legal consequences that this label, once assigned, entails.
While the movement of the arqah-yi muammadiyyah in the
nineteenth century seems
fairly detached from more contemporary Islamic expressions in
the Frontier region, this first
impression is deceptive. Already Abd al-aqqs own teacher and
murshid usayn Amad Madan
had emphatically embraced the legacy of Sayyid Amad Barelv and
Shh Isml and styled it a very
early movement for the re-establishment of Muslim dignity and
self-esteem as well as a progenitor of
the Indian independence struggle.
Abd al-aqq himself continued in the positive appraisal of
the
arqah-yi muammadiyyah when he considered Shh Isml undoubtedly an
activist scholar
[lim b amal], perfect associate [val-yi kmil] and a fighter on
the Path of God whose teachings
on jihd instilled in the Indian Muslims the passion for the jihd
that led up to Indian
independence
. However, while endorsing the disapproving views of the Delhite
scholar on
practices of popular piety, such as the visualisation of a Sufi
master (taawwur-i shaykh),
Abd
al-aqqs concern was not so much anymore on those kind of
regional ritualistic particularities. In
his time, these issues had to take a backseat in light of the
increasing spread of ideas and worldviews
that posed an immediate threat to fundamental articles of the
Islamic faith.
After all, we must not
.
~
~
_
d
r
N9
{
o5
TT
9
4
9
=
@>
3
r
D y
'#
~
+
L
WW
V
$
J
W
+
W!
.
_
'
d
pv
8
1
$
_
(
d
1
5
??
9
$
"
"
"
(
"
G
g
N2
=6
193
a6
93
?
e2
6
1
a
5
23
5
3
P
N19
?
545
23
H
'
)D H
'
)
I
JKKX
$
+
V
i!
Y
f9
{
7
:
@
5
9
T
4
LV
+
VX
!
Y
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
JK
W! U
(
((
-
"
'
"
)
)
(
'
z
+
F
!
L
JK
E
L
WWW$
(
"
)
#
y
#
L
W
V
!
$
_
-
~
~
'
z
+
F
#
#
~' #
'
,
'~~
d
9
=
@
9
{{
XJ
!
J
!
L
WWi$
D
LX
+
i!
Y.
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
JK
H
(
~
~
_
d
r
5
1
@
5
>v
7
4
9
{
>
U
!
'
''~ ~
~(
z
r
D y
'#
~
+
L
WWW$
LKK
!
YY
U
-
(
'
(
"
(
""
k
'
&
"
'
(
-
'
"
"
_
)
)
!
d
-
206
forget the strong impact of Pashto Nationalism in the 1930s on
the Frontier region. It should also be
recalled that one of the early beacons of Marxism in the
subcontinent, Abd al-Ram Ppalza (d.
1363/1944), was ethnically a Pashtun and, at the same time, a
Deoband scholar from around the
circles of Mamd al-asan, holding at one time the office of muft
for the entire Frontier region.Z
Consistently, therefore, the mainly undated fatv of Abd al-aqq
on matters relating to faith
and creed reflect on the severe threats of science-based
disenchantment (iktishaft) poses to a
religiously sustained worldview,
[ when they provide a catalogue of views and actions that the
scholar
considered as inevitably leading to unbelief, which, in the
context under investigation, amounts
ultimately to apostasy.
The themes covered in the twenty or so fatv relevant to our
investigation relate
overwhelmingly to the questioning of the veracity of the
authoritative texts, that is, the Qurn and
Sunna of the Prophet, the denial of the constituents of the most
basic Islamic creed, the shahda,
and further components to later and more elaborate Sunni
creeds.
\ Corroboration of the advocated
views was exclusively derived from the anaf tradition of Sunni
Muslim jurisprudence; main
reference points here were Mull Al al-Qrs (d. 1014/1605)
extensive commentary on the Fiqh
al-akbar, a very early catechism attributed to Ab anfa (d.
148/767),
] eponymous progenitor of
the anaf madhhab al-fiqh, and various collections of fatv from
within this particular legal
interpretation, prominently among them the Fatw al-hindiyya, or
lamkriyya (sic).
Finally,
Abd al-aqq quoted extensively from the Radd al-mukhtr, a most
widespread nineteenth century
commentary of the Syrian-Ottoman anaf jurist Muammad Amn ibn
bidn (d. 1258/1842) on
Y^
H
ev
=
4
v19
=
5
7
4
21
5
67
2
8
Q
9
7
:4
v3 f9
45
239
=
5
7
>
;
Q
v
O
=
5
a Q
91
45
a
5
9
45
23
;
93
?
w2
a
5
9
=
93
545
67
w2
a
5
9
=
w
a
5
6
3
a67
l
3
5o
6
1
7
54
T
2
8
Q67
:
9R91
LX
!
L
JKK
$
D
LVJ
+
LKJ
!
Ys
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
X
+
V
!
Y
x
'
!
D
LX
L
L
V L
i
+
L L
W
J
+
J
i
K
!
Y
"
(
'
*
(
*
(
q
_
y
"
j
0
5
{
:
9p
O
91
d
6
o
v
6
?
67
4
v
?
67
5
{
v
67
L
W
V
i$
D
XJ
+
XV
!
Y
H
(
*
(
'
!
D
LX
LXV
!
J L
X L
i
L
i
V
L
W
X
!
J
-
+
~
+
~
+
w
:
91 p
54
O
9
=
@
8
5
{
:
9
=
@9p
O
91
;
9
=
@
7
:5
119
=
5
=
@
5
>
> 9
=
@
S
v
==
A
=
9
=
@
1 9
=
@
939
8
q
!
r
&
D r
~
+
#
'
+
L
WW
$
J JX J
V JV
JV
W
M
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
LX
L
!
J L
W
X
!
J J
i
K
J
i
L
!
L
-
-
~
~
+
#
F
~
+
&
~
z
9
=
@09
4
R
9
=
@
:5
3
?
5
TT
9
;
9
=
@>9
1
}8
9
O5
=
@09
4
R
9
=
@
=
9>p1
5
TT
9
8
>9
?
::
9
O
9
=
@
5
>
> 9
=
@9
9>
A
O
93
8
9 9
=
@fv
>
3
q
!
'
+
'
+
~
&
D r
~
+
#
'
+
JKKK
$
D
LJ
D
J
V JVK JV
i
JVV
J
W
J
!
-
207
the Durr al-mukhtr by Muammad Al al-Dn al-akaf (d.
1088/1677).
These references are
significant, as they indicate that the legal views of those
commonly associated with the libn
remained well within the confines of anaf fiqh, the dominant
orientation in the subcontinent in
general, and of the Deoband maslak in particular.
Some elements in Abd al-aqqs legal opinions remain striking
nonetheless. One, he
appears to have appropriated some conceptions of Islamist
parlance, when he spoke about Islam as a
system (nim) and a code of life (z bitah-yi ayt), which
indicates a substantial impact of the
ideas of ideologues like Ab l-Al Mawdd (d. 1399/1979) on
contemporary conceptions of Islam
even beyond the mere confines of his immediate followers.Z
Such notions got combined with a
super-elevation of the revealed ethical and legal benchmark when
Abd al-aqq declared the sharah
to be sacred (muqaddasah): neither notion is seconded by the
classical legal and theological
reference works, which suggests to consider them as
context-specific modifications of anaf legal
practice. In the age of competing ideologies, it seems, a
certain degree of exaggeration is considered
appropriate in order to counter alternative worldviews. On the
other hand, however, Abd al-aqq
appeared full aware of the religious particularities that
dominated the subcontinent in general, and
the Frontier region in particular, when he made unmistakably
clear that all those practices
condemned by the protagonists of the arqah-yi muammadiyyah in
the early nineteenth century
as associationism (shirk) do nonetheless not qualify as unbelief
(kufr). The same went for
immorality (fisq va fujr), which for Abd al-aqq encompasses acts
like scorning the first two of
the so-called Rightly-Guided Caliphs, but does not lead to the
expulsion from the Muslim
community.Z
Y H
(
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
LXV L
L
W
X
-
'
'
9
??
9
=
@>vp
:4
1
9
=
9
=
@
?
v11 9
=
@>vp
:4
1
7
:
91
4
93R1 9
=
@9
O
1
q
!
+
#
'
+
-
z
+
#
--
Dr
~
~
+
#
'
JKKX
$
D
X
i
X
K
D
L
K
!
^
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
LXV
M
"
(
+
I
/
)
A
w
T7
4
6
> 2
8
n
5
8
6
P
S
9R
?}?
93
?
4:
6
vp
:4
1
D
X
~
+
~
"
0
5
{
:
9
=
@9p
O
91
)
'
z
! U
,
/
-
"
) `
-
#
b
#
) `
b (
'
'
'
'
`
=
9R
5
7
45
9
==
9 9
=
@
7
9
OO
9R 9
=
@
{
9
4
=
8
9@
:
vR9 p
8
5
1
=
>9
=
9
b
"
'
! U
(
)
"
"
"
'
+
w
:
91 p
54
O
9
=
@
8
5
{
:
LLX
!
-
208
What appears of utmost importance to Abd al-aqq in this overall
context is that the
monopoly of definition needs to remain with the ulam,Z
because ultimately there is no getting
away from the ultimate penalty for apostasy, following the sound
Prophetic adth: Whoever
changes his religion, kill him! [man baddala dnahu
fa-qtluh]Z
. The ulam would be the only
qualified personnel to responsibly pronounce someone an
unbeliever, in full awareness of the grave
legal consequences. Therefore, in a number of fatv Abd al-aqq
pointed towards the various
safety mechanisms built into this process, from establishing
unmitigated responsibility for acts of
apostasy to the scope and procedures for penitence (istitba),
again in full compliance with the
anaf legal tradition.ZZ
Similarly, with regard to the possessions of an apostate who did
not repent
and was subsequently executed, Abd al-aqq remained well within
the universe of anaf fiqh.Z
[
All these considerate responses, however, represent only the
theoretical perspective of Islamic
jurisprudence; they do not necessarily translate into actual
practice. In order to bridge that gap, other
types of statements need to be considered, prominently among
them sermons and public speeches,
but also shorter and rather popular pamphlets. Here, we possess
only a very few testimonies of Abd
al-aqq directly; those of his son and successor as rector of the
Dr al-ulm aqqniyyah Smi
al-aqq (b. 1356/1937), in contrast, are available in abundance.
Of course, these statements are
considerably later and respond therefore to a quite changed
situation where the dichotomy of
^.
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
L
X
"
+
w
:
91 p
54
O
9
=
@
8
5
{
:
J
WW
)
"
)
,
~
'
'
+
+
&
#
~
|
:
v
=
9
4
9
=
@
8
9
4
R
>9
>9
>
}
9
4
9
=
@
8
9
4
R
q
!
'
+
+
#
-
D
#
L
W
V
$
D
XVV
!
^Y
*
(
+
&
#
~
|
:
v
=
9
4
9
=
@
8
9
4
R
D
X
i
D y
~'
~'
+
-
+
~
-
+,
~
'~' #
+
-
+
!
J
M
g
N2
=6
193
a6
93
?
e2
6
1
a
5
23
5
3
LJ
i
+
I
/
)
_
U
r
)"
D
U
)
I
q
*
"
d
ev
=
4
v1
6
93
?
m
5
9
=
2
B
v
6
X
!
L
JKLX
$
D
VL
+
W
K
!
^^
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
JJK
'
"
#
(
-
"
~
+F
~$
D
V
M
+
w
:
91 p
54
O
9
=
@
8
5
{
:
J
W
M
+
~
g
#
+r
+
~
j
9
=
@N9
8
7
1 9
=
@p9
O
1
&
D r
~
+
#
L
W
VL
$
D
L
X
`
~
J
+
&
,
$
D
L
W
J
b$
M
+r
+
U
~
j
~
w
:
91 9
=
@>9
{
5
? 8
5
=
> 9
=
@p9
=
>
q
!
~
z
&
D
+
#
'
L
WW
V
$
D
L
V
-
~
~
+
~
+
U
~
-
q
!
r
!
,
+
!
&
D
#
'
'
~
~
z
L
WWi$
L VX
+
W
L
-
"
-
'
-
>9
1
5
8
9
5
=
>
)
_
(
"
(
"
(
`
5
?
1
p 9
=
@>v19pp9
O
b
d
-
)
O
9
7
5
$
!
^
~
A
7
93 9
=
@
8
9
4
o
D
i
K
+
!
^
'
!
D
i
L
"
(
+
&
#
~
|
:
v
=
9
4
9
=
@
8
9
4
R
JK
D y
~' '
+
-
!
$
-
"
"
-
'
!
"
(
'
'
+
,
~
09
4
9
=
@
O
1
7
:
91
9 9
=
@Cvp
:
1
q
!
'
+
j
j
'
'
~
'
&
~
j
&
D r
~
+
~
D
X
&
+r
+
l
>
?
9
4
9
=
@
{
1
7
:
91
9 9
=
@Cvp
:
1
q
!
'
~
z
&
D r
~
+
#
'
+
JKKL
$
D
L
i
!
g
)
,
~
A
7
93 9
=
@
8
9
4
o
D
i
X
+
'
'
09
4
9
=
@
O
1
D
J
i
J
+
"
)
(
)
~
+r
+
#
m
v11 9
=
@>vp
:4
1
$!
-
210
Of extraordinary interest however are his reference to the Fat
al-mulhim, an extensive
Arabic commentary on the canonical adth-compilation of Muslim
ibn ajjj by Shabbr Amad
Usmn, the first president of the Jamiyyat al-ulam-i islm (JUI),
because they corroborate the
above-highlighted stress on the maintenance of the Deoband
tradition by embracing the views of
the previous generations of scholars in this fold. This is even
more so the case, as the tightly meshed
network of Deoband scholars shows Rashd Amad Ludhiynav himself
very close to Usmns
successor as president of the JUI, the Karachi-based later
Grand-muft of Pakistan Muammad Shfi
Deoband (d. 1396/1976) and his sons Muammad Taq (b. 1362/1943)
and Muammad Raf
Usmn (b.?), the latter being the current Grand-muft of Pakistan.
The latter two are very
prominent, yet quite controversial public figures in
contemporary Pakistan, who have taken at times
a rather sympathetic stance towards the libn.[
Ludhiynav, in turn, was known for his direct
active ideological and logistic support to the leadership of the
movement,[
although the suggestion
that Mull Muammad Umar khnd (b. 1378/1959) has been a direct
student of his[
remains so
far uncorroborated.
Ludhiynavs references to Usmns Fat al-mulhim clearly corroborate
his definition of
faith as consisting of three inevitable components.[
Usmn, in turn, built his argument on the
works of such diverse earlier scholars as the Asharite
theologian Ab l-Mal Abd al-Malik
al-Juwayn (d. 478/1085), better known as the Imm al-aramayn,
Murta al-Zabd (d.
1202/1790) and the medieval Damascene traditionist Taq al-Dn
Amad ibn Taymiyya (d.
728/1328),[Z
thus embracing earlier efforts by Muslim scholars in the
subcontinent to harmonise
various currents of speculative theology (kalm) with the
traditionism of the so-called ab
s
N
:
6
l
=
9>9
5
3 e23
4
6
>
2191
T
L
K
L
J
!
s
"
*
_
+
U
d
U$
(
'
~
~
'
z
'~'
z
'!
c
$
"
(
'
)
~
"
'
JKKL
'
_
F "
H
"
H
I
LJ
i
L
WWW$
L
W
V
W
JKLL
$
"
")
+
`
"
b
"
q
d
"
-
+
~
"
'
!!
XK
!
KL
HE
LKJ
$!
(
'
JKLX
"
H
"
"
~
HE
LLLL
$!
s.
&
t
j
_
(
"
)
"
U
'
d
w
6
3
?
v3
B
7
O
6
Rv
4
76
5
3 v3
?
5
B
6
33v
4
P
v
S
2
45o
9
45
23 v3
?
w
6=
O
7
4o
6
1
7
4
3
?
3
5
7
5
7=
9>
5
7a
:
6
1
S
2
O5
=
5
7
5
6
1v3
B
q
!
r"
j
L
X
+
VJ
&
D r
'
"
&
"
JKKL
$
LVL
!
sY
~
A
7
93 9
=
@
8
9
4
o
D
i
K
i
J
M
"
(
''
~
S
9R
7
}
9
4
8
9
4
9
=
@>v
=
:5
>
O5
@
7
:
91
9 9
=
@
5
>
>
S
v
7=
5
>
5O
3
9
9
=
@
v
7
:
91
q
!
z
~#
&
D r
~
~
~
+
'
L
J
i
E
JKK
i$
D
LJ
!
s^
~
"
|
54
O
9
=
@
5
1
7
:
?
5
=
{
9R
5
9
=
@9
?
5
==
9
8
v
}
=
9
=
@
5
45
{
?
+
-
+
'
-
"
+t
j
~
9
=
@
?
3
v
4
9
{{
3
'
U
"
"
09
4
R
D "
(
U
,
+r
'
U
S
9
>
}
9
4
9
=
@
8
9
4
R
q
!
jj
~
-
+
&
~
j
+
z
Dr
~
+
-
~
L
WW
V
$
D
LJX
!
-
211
al-adth.[[ This is an important observation, especially as we
can discern a growing impact of
especially Ibn Taymiyyas works first and foremost selected ones
of his fatw, as well as his
Iqti al-ir al-mustaqm on definitions of faith in conservative
Muslim circles. Indeed, it
appears that the notion of al-ir al-mustaqm the straight path
for the guidance to which God
is evoked in two Qurnic passages[\ forms a thread that links Ibn
Taymiyya, after all a major
reference point for the Arab neo-anbalites, by way of Shh Isml
Dihlav to Ludhiynav
himself.[]
This commonality might eventually be of quite some significance,
as it could be used to
overcome apparently significant differences in the conceptions
of faith of conservative, yet
politically inclined Deoband ulam on the one hand, and Muslims
from the Arab world prone to
religiously justified violence on the other. Indeed, it is
because of these discrepancies that some of the
latter have been prompted to take a rather distant position
towards the libn. Thus, while, for
example, the influential Saudi Arabian radical scholar amd ibn
Uql al-Shuayb (d. 1422/2001)
fully seconded the political regime of the libn during the
Emirate period as in full compliance
with the shara in a well-renowned fatw from November 2000,[ the
likes of Bah Muaf Jughl,
also known as Abd al-amd al-Sr (b. 1396/1976), and Ab Muab
al-Zarqw (killed 1427/2006)
have published pamphlets that go as far as even questioning the
fidelity of the libn.[ Much of
their criticism revolves around the strict adherence of the libn
to the anaf notions of faith,
ss
"
(
)
'
+
#
~#
!
LK
i
E
L
ii
$
w
:
91 9
=
@
9
{
5
?
9
=
@
9v
?
5
TT
9
~
+r
r
~
! W
LV
E
LKJ
$
-
"
"
#
~
-
-
_
"
d
9
=
@
8
5
1
{
9 9
=
@3
5
TT
9
$!
'
+
#
~#
z
7
:5
T
9
4
9
=
@
9
==
>9
9
=
@>v9
{{
5
{
A
O
?
9
=
@
9p> 9
=
@w
5
T
=
p
}
4
R9
=
@
9
==
>9 9
=
@>v
?
9
{{
5
{
8
9
=
9
4
93 R9
=
@
7
:
9
T
p
:
S
v9>>9
?
A
O
?
v
:
9
=
7
:
91 9
=
@
5
>
> 9
=
@
8
5
=
9
=
@>9R
=
S
v9>>9
?
5O
3
A
7
9
?
9
=
@
5
??
{
9
=
=
@
9
{
5
?
9
=
@
9v
?
5
TT
9
q
!
+
~'
H
D
+
'
+
#
LXJJ
$
-
"
)
)
(
S
9p
5
3
B
9
7
4
P
N2R91
?
7
9
w
a
:
22
=
2
8
|
:
9
T
1
O
?
!
s
x
~
L
+
g
~
$
D
i
X
+
~~
$
D
LLV
!
s
U
,
+r
'
U
v
7
4
9
{
> >vp
:
=
5
8
9 9
O
9
=
@
:
>
q
!
~
g
~
+
~
'
~
+
)
&
D r
~
+
L
LX
E
L
WW
X
$
JL XLL
XL
W
M
r
5
1
@
5
>v
7
4
9
{
>
~
A
7
93 9
=
@
8
9
4
o
D
LX
+
VJ
!
s
+
#
z
'
,
+
'
_
~
#
z
+
~
'~
d
S
9R
{
5
9
=
@19
7
>
=
5
@
8
9
5
=
9
4
9
=
@
7
:
9
T
p
:
9
=
@
9
==
>9
9>>
}?
5O
3
l
{
=
9
=
@w
:
v
9
T
O
F
'
J
W
JKKK
$
---
!
+
)
!
"
E
c
"
'
"
'
"
r
LVK
""
L
i
JKL
$!
s r
9
?
5
a
9
=
93
?
4:
6
6
o5o
9
=
2
8 S
6
?
5
6
o
9
=
N
:
6
2
=
2
B
T
H
'
)D H
'
)
I
JKLJ
$
L
i
M
'
z
+
,
_
+
,
~
-
D
~
-
+
~
'
d
S
5
3
O
91 9
=
@
4
9R
?
R9
=
@
5:
?
~
+
~
L
J
$
D
---
!
-
!
-
E
c
-
i
""
L
JKL
$! U
"
-
# '
'
+
+
z
-
"
" ""
(
)
"
' (
)
'
z
+
,
'!
LX
V
E
L
W
W$
'
z
~
+
g
'!
LX
W
E
L
Wi
K
$
|9
7
:
8
7
:
v
O
v
:
4
9
=
@>v
{
45
=
3
4
9
4
9 1
T
9
4
>93
9p
:
9
==
9
O5
@9
=
9
=
@
?
3
'
JKKK
-
"
((
*
!
"
#
-
)
(
'
z
~
u
v
39
4
9
=
@>v
9
TT
9
O
3
JKKK
-
"
"
(
"
'
+
,
!
-
212
which does not consider particular actions (aml) as an
inevitable part of mn,\
and which
therefore stands somewhat in opposition to the strong
neo-anbalite unease with taqld on the one
hand, and their conceptions of faith that all include acts of
the limbs (aml al-jawri) as
defining criterion.\
For most of the Arab authors in this context, the classical anaf
position
reflects an unhealthy proximity to theological positions
associated with the Murjia, a current of
Islamic speculative thought which had emerged from around the
dispute between the last two of the
Medinese Caliphs Uthmn ibn Affn and Al ibn Ab lib in the late
seventh century CE.\
In
their refusal to take a side in the conflict and to rather leave
the ultimate decision to divine decree on
Judgement Day (irj), its advocates clearly emphasised tadq the
factual assertion of the
cognition of single concepts over any act in this world. In our
case at hand, such a perception
seems corroborated by the fact that, other than the
Sufi-scholars of the arqah-yi muammadiyyah
in the early nineteenth century, none of the Deoband scholars
discussed here was directly involved
in any activity that could be construed as a direct translation
of their legal religious thought into
practice. This is even more so the case, as in either collection
of fatw we lack vital information such
as the identity of the respective mustaft or the context in
which a certain fatw was issued.\
There is, however, another element that might be suitable for
breaching the gap between the
more theoretical aspects of faith, that is, marifa, tadq and
inqiyd, and their translation into
concrete practice. After all, the prominence of numerous
students of Abd al-aqq and of
Ludhiynav in libn circles, coupled with the strong emphasis in
the Deoband maslak on
person-bound interpretation (taqld shakh) in times of distress,
further reinforced by pr-murd
links, suggests some correlation between the religious and legal
thought of these scholars and the
activities of their students. This suspicion is solidified by
the fact that Abd al-aqq had some
blatant sympathies for those who would take up their arms
against the enemies of the faith, be they
the mujhidn during the time of the Soviet occupation of
Afghanistan, or later the libn, while
x
'
z
+
w
:
91 p
54
O
9
=
@
8
5
{
:
9
=
@9p
O
91 XJ
i
M
k
)
#
_
"
I
(
c
y
-
'
I
"
r
'
'
-
+
d
e23
4
6
4
v9
=
5
7
5
3
B
u
5:
9
?
5
N
:
2v
B
:4
q
!
r
yj
L
+
i
D /
E F
- G
#
D
I JKLJ
$
L
W!
x
'
!
M
9
?
5
a
9
=
W
+
V
!
x
.
k
)
#
w
6a6
?
6
1
7
93
?
Q
2
7
4
23
6
1
7
LL
+
X
!
x
Y
U
"
"
*
"
-
"
'
"
"
(
*
"
'
'
M
"
""
(
)
)
(
)"
)
)
'
-
)
-
-
!
-
213
Ludhiynav had proven himself instrumental to the libn and their
predominantly Arab allies
during the time of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
A Glimpse at Transregional Trajectories
Indeed, it seems as if in our case it is the intrinsically
hierarchical relationship of teacher-pr
and student-murd that correlates with the nexus of theory and
practice in the Arabic neo-anbalite
conceptions of faith. Crucial in this regard is the emphatic
claim of the monopoly of interpretation
in contemporary Muslim society by the ulam, especially in the
absence of formal Islamic rule,
which Abd al-aqq and Ludhiynav, both, have fervently argued
for.\Z
This need for proper
qualification to legal decision-making was increasingly also
acknowledged by leading representatives
among the radically inclined Arabs, as the example of Sayyid Imm
al-Sharf, a.k.a. Dr Fal (b.
1369/1950), one-time companion of Ayman al-awhir (b. 1370/1951),
provides ample evidence.\[
Qualification for legal interpretation, however, is only one
aspect in the South Asian context. Here,
the quest for adequate and comprehensive community
representation has been virulent since the
emergence of the various scholarly orientations (maslik) in the
aftermath of the Uprising of 1857;
competition for leadership, enshrined in vigorous arguments
pro-and-counter the fidelity of the
other, runs first and foremost along these lines.\\ In order to
ensure the sustainability of a
maslak-bound interpretation of faith various intertwined
mechanisms are employed in the
religious teaching context, among which taqld shakh in legal
interpretation and pr-murd-bonds
in general regards stand out. It is especially the latter,
derived from Sufi practice, that guarantees the
conveyance of religious interpretation into the wider society by
the students. It is here that the
component of practice comes into play, as the actions of libn in
the societies of the Frontier can
well be understood as practical implementation of religious
interpretation of scholars of the
Deoband maslak with strong tied into the Frontier region, like
Abd al-aqq of Akoah Khaak
and Rashd Amad Ludhiynav of Karachi.
x
^
*
(
)
~
09
4
o
@
T
5
9
{{
3
5
TT
9
:
D
L
i
M
D
LLV
+
JK
~
A
7
93 9
=
@
8
9
4
o
D
X
+
L
i!
x
s
+
#
~
+
+r
#
z
g
_
k
,
+
+
~
-
+
~
d
N
:
6 Q
12
6a
4
8
21
4:
6
676
91
a
:
2
8
5
7
4
S
2
o
6
>
6
3
4
7
F
'
JKK
$
D
L X
W
L
---
!
+
(
!
)E
)
E
U
/
r
h
+
/
r
!(
""
L
i
JKL
$!
xx
I
"
~
#
)
""
)
>9
7
=
5
p
'
)
*
(
"
(
!
"
(
"
-
'
-
-
"
"
(
!
-
214
Concluding Thoughts
In conclusion to what needs to be understood as a very tentative
investigation, perhaps the
following can safely be stated. The notion of the
incommensurability of the religious views held by
contemporary Arab radical activists and those Islamic
articulations in the Pak-Afghan borderlands
does not really appear sustainable. While Sufi expressions could
potentially indeed serve as a means
for delineation, they never do so per se. A closer and more
differentiating look however reveals that
the version of Sufism emphatically introduced to the Frontier
region by the leading representatives
of the arqah-yi muammadiyyah in the first decades of the
nineteenth century was in fact very
close to the purist thoughts that began to take effect in the
wider Arab world around the same time.
After all, it was not entirely by accident that the British
colonial authorities subscribed very soon to
the label Wahhabi to denote the adherents to the arqah-yi
muammadiyyah during the first
years of direct colonial rule, as at least to some extent there
appear to be doctrinal overlaps.\] Such
overlaps, again, could serve as common ground for puritan Muslim
activists in the Frontier region,
regardless their respective origins and belonging.
On the other hand, the deep roots and strong impact of Sufism in
the regional setting creates
also a doctrinal divide between local and other Muslim activists
in the area, so that in fact one needs
to carefully assess each and every case of Pashtun-Arab
interaction on its own, made even more
complicated by the increasing impact of activists of the
zbekiston islomij harakat (IMU) in the
Frontier region.\ The fervent anti-ritualistic type of Sufism
advocated by the arqah-yi
muammadiyyah and their followers, which appeared highly
attractive to certain currents of
Indo-Muslim scholarship that emerged in the aftermath of the
Uprising of 1857, appears nonetheless
as a vital tool to adapt at least to some extent to similar
traits in the contemporary Arab world.
x
U
'
_
k
'
d
)
(
)
$
-
(
"
"
"
'
" "
k
k
/
!
L
W
KK
$
N
:
6
93
7
P
A
1
6
4:
6T
C2v3
?
5
3 e23
7a
5
6
3
a6
4
2
6
O
6=
A
B
9
5
3
7
4 4:
6
v
66
3
LV
L
-
#
(
(
'
""
-
'
y
~
!
LXL
E
LV
W
V
$
('
!
k
-
"
)
)
-
-
)
(
"
&
)
(
t
4
9R
?
$
_
"
d
7
:5
1p
$
-
'
'
'
+
k
~'
!
LJK
i
E
L
W
J
$
91
{
9
:
@
T
5
>v9>>9
?
5
TT
9
:
#
!
H
(
*
(
#
'
'
+
k
~'
S
9
>
}
9
4
9
=
@
4
9R
?
9
=
@39
?
5
TT
9
""D
'
+
#
z
LX
W
L
$
L
W
+
JJ
(
r
N9
{
o5
TT
9
4
9
=
@>
3 LJ
+
W!
x
)
'
q
)
"
)
"
k
_
j
'
#
"
I
#
U
'
)
d
&
"
#
)
D
k
J
JKLL
$
(
DEE
)
-
!
)E
E
E
E
&
"
#
)
h
-
'!(
""
V JKL
$!
g
)"
-
'
(
DEE
!'
jE
-
"
"
('
"
j
'
#!
-
215
It can be argued that it is first and foremost this particular
understanding of Sufism that
established firm roots in the Frontier region that could in fact
breach the doctrinal gap between the
radical interpretations of Arab neo-anbalites of what
constitutes faith and those
uncompromisingly anaf ones of Deoband scholarship in the
Frontier. In fact, patterns of
ascertaining learned authority, already established in distinct
procedures in legal decision-making
processes, became substantially strengthened by the additional
implication of corresponding Sufi
patterns. It is, as has been argued in this paper, the role of
these patterns that helped to translate the
legal deliberations of the scholar-pr, always in the light of a
rather purist understanding of what
constitutes faith, into a wider social praxis by the
student-murd. This way, a phenomenon like the
libn might become more tangible, as well as the highly complex
and not always straightforward
relationship of local actors in the Frontier region with Muslim
activists originally from the Arab
world.
Bibliography
Ahmad, Qeyamuddin. The Wahhabi Movement in India. Revised
edition, New Delhi: Manohar,
1994.
Ahmed, Akbar S. Resistance and Control in Pakistan. Revised
edition, London and New York:
Routledge, 2004.
Afghn, Mawln Abd al-aqq. Davat-i aqq. Edited by Sam al-aqq, 2
vols., Akoah Khaak:
Mutamar al-muannifn-i dr al-ulm aqqniyyah, 2000.
Fatv-yi aqqniyyah. Edited by Mawln Muft Mukhtrallh aqqn, 6
vols., Akoah
Khaak: Mutamar al-muannifn-i dr al-ulm aqqniyyah, 1422/2002.
Ali, Tahir. When a Good Taliban became a Terror Victim. Rediff
News (August 24, 2010).
http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/aug/24/when-a-good-taliban-became-a-terror-
victim.htm (accessed May 30, 2014).
Anonymous (a). Mawln Ab l-asan Al Nadv madda illuhu ke khib ke
baz iqtibst.
al-aqq (1417/1996): 13-6.
Anonymous (b). Jmi k tss [sic]. (2014).
www.banuri.edu.pk/ur/tasesoirtika (accessed May 26,
2014).
-
216
s, Nam. Mawln Muft Mamd ramatallh alayhi ayt awr khidmt. Lahore:
Dr
al-kitb, 2013.
al-Asqaln, Amad ibn Al ibn ajjar. Fat al-br shar a al-Bukhr.
Edited by Abd al-Azz
ibn Abdallh ibn Bz, 13 vols., Beirut: Dr al-marifa, 1379h.
al-Ayn, Badr al-Dn Ab Muammad ibn Mamd. Umdat al-qr shar a
al-Bukhr.
Edited by Abdallh Mamd Muammad Umar, 25 vols., Beirut: Dr
al-kutub
al-ilmiyya, 1421/2001.
Bell, Kevin. Usama bin Ladins Father Sheikh: Yunus Khalis and
the Return of al-Qa`idas
Leadership to Afghanistan. Westpoint, NY: Combating Terrorism
Center, 2013.
al-Bukhr, Ab Abdallh Muammad. a al-Bukhr. Edited by iddq Jaml
al-Ar, Beirut:
Dr al-fikr, 1426/2005.
al-Bukhr, hir ibn Amad Abd al-Rashd. Khulat al-fatw ma majmat
al-fatw. Edited by
Muammad Abd al-ayy al-Laknaw [sic], 4 vols., Lahore: Amjad Akem,
1978.
Caron, James M. Cultural Histories of Pashtun Nationalism,
Public Participation, and Social
Inequality in Monarchic Afghanistan, 1905-1960. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Pennsylvania, 2009.
A History of Pashto Literature. Or, Pashto Histories of the
World. London: Hurst / New
York: OUP, forthcoming.
Dihlav, Shh Isml Shahd. Taqviyyat al-mn. Delhi: Kutubkhnah-yi
amdiyyah, 1998.
ir-i mustaqm. Translated into Urdu by Muammad Abbs Qsim Jallpr,
Delhi:
Kutubkhnah-yi amdiyyah, 1999.
al-Duktr Fal, al-Shaykh Sayyid Imm al-Sharf. Wathqat tarshd
al-amal al-jihd f mir
wal-lam. The Project for the Research of Islamist Movements
(November, 2007).
www.eprism.org/images/TARSHID_AL-JIHAD.pdf (accessed June 16,
2014).
Einzmann, Harald. Religises Volksbrauchtum in Afghanistan:
Islamische Heiligenverehrung und
Wallfahrtswesen im Raum Kabul. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1977.
Friedmann, Yohannan. Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith
Relations in the Muslim
Tradition. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Gangoh, az rat Mawln al-ajj al-fi Rashd Amad. Fatv-yi
rashdiyyah. mubawwab
bi-arz-i jadd. Delhi: Dars kutubkhnah, 1987.
-
217
Glatzer, Bernt. Zum politischen Islam der afghanischen Taliban.
In Sendungsbewutsein [sic] und
Eigennutz: Zu Motivation und Selbstverstndnis islamischer
Mobilisierung. Edited by
Dietrich Reetz, 173-82. Berlin: Das Arabische Buch, 2001.
Green, Nile. Tribe, Diaspora, and Sainthood in Afghan History.
Journal of Asian Studies 67, no.1
(2008): 171-211.
al-anaf, al-Mull Al al-Qr. Shar kitb al-fiqh al-akbar, al-shirra
lil-imm al-Mull Al
al-Qr al-anaf. Edited by Al Muammad Dandal. Beirut: Dr al-kutub
al-ilmiyya,
1416/1995.
aqqn, Mawln Abd al-Qayym. Savni-i shaykh al-ads az rat Mawln Abd
al-aqq -
ramatallh alayhi. Nawshahrah: al-Qsim Akeim, 1422/2001.
Savni-i shaykh al-islm azrat Mawln Sayyid usayn Amad Madan.
Nawshahrah:
al-Qsim Akeim, 1425/2004.
aqqn, Nr al-Jaml. Shajarah-yi nasab-i az rat Mawln Nr-i Muammad
ib-i shahd.
ad-yi Vazristn 1, no. 5 (2010): 12-5.
Haroon, Sana. Frontiers of Faith. Islam in the Indo-Afghan
Borderland. London: Hurst / New
York: Columbia UP, 2007.
Hartung, Jan-Peter. The Limits of the Dialogical: Thoughts on
Muslim Patterns of In and
Exclusion. Culture and Dialogue 3, no.1 (2013): 73-94.
A System of Life: Mawdd and the Ideologisation of Islam. London:
Hurst / New York:
OUP, 2013.
Ibn Abd al-Wahhb, Shaykh Muammad. Majmat al-tawd al-najdiyya.
Mecca: Mabaat
al-ukma, 1391h.
Ibn bidn, Muammad Amn. Radd al-mukhtr al al-durr al-mukhtr shar
tanwr al-abr.
Edited by al-Shaykh dil Amad Abd al-Mawjd and al-Shaykh Al
Muammad
Muawwa, 12 vols., Riyadh: Dr lam al-kutub, 1423/2003.
Ibn Khaldn, Wal al-Dn Abd al-Ramn ibn Muammad. Muqaddimat Ibn
Khaldn. Edited by
Abdallh Muammad Darwsh, 2 vols., Damascus: Dr yarrib lil-dirst
wal-nashr
wal-tawz, 1425/2004.
Ibn Taymiyya, Taq al-Dn Amad. Iqti al-ir al-mustaqm mukhlifa ab
al-jhm. Edited
by Im Fris al-aristn and Muammad Ibrhm al-Zughl. Beirut: Dr
al-jl, 1413/1993.
-
218
Majmat al-fatw. Edited by mir Jazzr and Anwar al-Bz. 37 vols.
al-Manra: Dr
al-waf,1998.
al-Ifahn, Ab Qsim usayn ibn Muammad al-Rghib. al-Mufradt f gharb
al-qurn. Edited
by Markaz al-buth al-dirst, 2 vols., Mecca: Maktabat Nizr Muaf
al-Bz, 1997.
Kamran, Tahir. Evolution and Impact of Deobandi Islam in the
Punjab. The Historian 4/1, no. 2
(2006): 28-50.
al-Ksn, Imm Al al-Dn Ab Bakr ibn Masd. Badi al-ani f tartb
al-shari. Edited by
al-Shaykh Al Muammad Muawwa and al-Shaykh dil Amad Abd al-Mawjd,
10
vols., Beirut: Dr al-kutub al-ilmiyya, 1424/2002.
Kashmr, gh Shorish. Sayyid Aallh Bukhr: savni va afkr. Lahore:
Mabt-i chan,
1998.
Lav, Daniel. Radical Islam and the Revival of Medieval Theology.
Cambridge: CUP, 2012.
Ludhiyanav, Muft Rashd Amad. Anvr al-rashd. Edited by Amad Nr
al-Muqtad, 2 vols.,
Karachi: Kitbgah, 1424h.
Asan al-fatv. 10 vols., Karachi: H.M. Sad kampan, 1425h.
Khubt al-rashd, 7 vols., Karachi: Kitbgah, 1429h.
Madan, usayn Amad. Naqsh-i ayt: khd-nivisht-i savni. Karachi: Dr
al-ishat, n.d.
al-Maqdis, Ab Muammad. al-Zarqw: munira wa-muniba. Minbar
al-tawd wal-jihd
(Jumd al-thn, 1425h). www.tawhed.ws/r?i=dtwiam56 (accessed June
15, 2014).
al-Marghinn, al-Imm Burhn al-Dn. al-Hidya shar bidyat al-mubtad,
maa shar al-Allma
Abd al-ayy al-Laknaw. Edited by Nam Ashraf Nr Amad, 8 vols.,
Karachi: Idrat
al-qurn wal-ulm al-islmiyya, 1417h.
Marwat, Fazal-ur-Rahim. Maulana Abdul Rahim Popalzai: A Marxist
Maulana. The Journal of
Humanities & Social Sciences (University of Peshawar) 13/1,
no. 2 (2005): 182-102.
Merah, Muammad shiq-i Ilh. Takirat al-rashd. 2 vols., Sahranpr:
Maktabah-yi
khalliyyah, n.d.
al-Muaffar, al-Shaykh Wal Khn. al-Shaykh al-Muft Mamd f mirt
al-shuhr wal-awm.
Shabakat al-madris al-islmiyya, (December 4, 2013).
http://madarisweb.com/ar/item.
php?id=2698 (accessed May 30, 2014).
-
219
Nadv, Sayyid Ab l-asan Al. Srat-i Sayyid Amad-i Shahd. 2 vols.,
Lucknow: Majlis-i taqqt
va nashriyyt-i islm, 1406/1986.
Nasr, Seyed Vali Reza. The Rise of Sunni Militancy in Pakistan:
The Changing Role of Islamism
and the Ulama in Society and Politics. Modern Asian Studies 34,
no.1 (2000): 139-80.
Plett, Barbara. Can Sufi Islam Counter the Taleban [sic]? BBC
News, (February 24, 2009).
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7896943.stm
(accessed May 30, 2014).
Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: The Power of Militant Islam in
Afghanistan and Beyond. Revised
edition, London: I.B. Tauris, 2008.
al-Rz, al-Imm Fakhr al-Dn Muammad. al-Tafsr al-kabr. 32 vols.,
Beirut: Dr al-fikr, 1401/1981.
Riz v, Sayyid Mabb. Trkh-i dr al-ulm Deoband. 2 vols., Deoband:
Idrah-yi ihtimm-i Dr
al-ulm, 1992-3.
Sam al-aqq, Mawln. Khubt-i aqq. Edited by Mawln Muft Mukhtrallh
aqqn,
Akoah Khaak: Mutamar al-muannifn-i dr al-ulm aqqniyyah, n.d.
Shaikh, Farzana. Will Sufi Islam Save Pakistan? In Under the
Drones: Modern Lives in the
Afghanistan-Pakistan Borderlands. Edited by Shahzad Bashir and
Robert D. Crews, 174-91.
Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard UP, 2012.
al-Shaykh Nim al-Burhnfr, Mawln et al. al-Fatw al-hindiyya,
al-marfa bil-Fatw
al-lamkriyya f madhhab al-imm al-aam Ab anfa al-Numn. Edited by
Abd
al-Laf asan Abd al-Ramn, 6 vols., Beirut: Dr al-kutub
al-ilmiyya, 1421/2000.
al-Shuayb, al-Shaykh amd ibn Uql. Sul an shariyyat ukmat
al-libn. Mawqi al-rasm
li-failat al-shaykh al-allma ammd ibn Uql al-Shuayb, Raman 2
(November 29,
2000). www.al-oglaa.com/?section=subject& SubjectID=180
(accessed June 16, 2014).
al-Wal wal-bar wa-wujb nurat libn wa-ukm min hir al-amrkn
alayh.
Mawqi al-rasm li-failat al-shaykh al-allma ammd ibn Uql
al-Shuayb, Rajab 12
(September 29, 2001). www.al-oglaa.com/?section= subject&
SubjectID=163 (accessed June
16, 2014).
Siylkt, Abd al-akm. shiyat al-allma al-muaqqiq Abd al-akm
al-Siylkt
wal-allma al-mudaqqiq falatan wal-shaykh Muammad Abduh al
shar
al-imm al-fil al-mawl Muammad ibn Asad al-iddq al l-aqid
al-audiyya.
Edited by Muammad usayn al-ishb. Cairo: al-Mabaa al-khayriyya,
1322h.
-
220
al-Taftzn, Sad al-Dn. Shar al-maqid f ilm al-kalm. Edited by li
Ms Sharaf, 5 vols.,
Beirut: lam al-kutub, 1419/1998.
al-Thnaw, al-Bith al-Allma Muammad Al. Mawsat kashshf iilt
al-funn wal-ulm.
Edited by Dr. Rafq al-Ajam et al., Beirut: Maktabat lubnn
nshirn, 1996.
al-Thnaw, Mawln afar Amad al-Uthmn. Il al-sunan. Edited by
Muammad Taq
Uthmn, 18 vols., Karachi: Idrat al-qurn wal-ulm islmiyya,
1418h.
Umm isn, Umm al-shuhad. Sniah-yi Ll Masjid: ham par ky guzar?
Islamabad: Shubah-i
nashr va ishat-i tark-i ulabah va libt, 2007.
al-Uthmn, al-Shaykh Shabbr Amad. Mawsat fat al-mulhim bi-shar a
al-imm Muslim
ibn ajjj al-Qushar. Edited by Mamf Shkir, 6 vols, Beirut: Dr iy
turth al-arab,
1426h/2006.
van, Ess, Josef. Kritisches zum Fiqh akbar. Revue des tudes
Islamiques 54 (1986): 327-38.
Vazr, Tj-i Muammad. Pkistn ke saradd pashtn qabil ke shajarah-yi
nasab k taqq par
mabn trkh pas manar. ad-yi Vazristn 1, no. 1 (2010): 27-32.
Wagemakers, Joas. Seceders and Postponers? An Analysis of the
Khawarij and Murjia Labels in
Polemical Debates between Quietist and Jihadi-Salafis. In
Contextualising Jihadi Thought.
Edited by Jeevan Deol and Zaheer Kazmi, 145-164. London: Hurst /
New York: OUP, 2012.
Wieland-Karimi, Almut. Islamische Mystik in Afghanistan: Die
strukturelle Einbindung der Sufik
in die Gesellschaft. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1998.
Witter, Michael. Uzbek Militancy in Pakistans Tribal Region.
Backgrounder: Institute or the
Study of War, (January 27, 2011).
https://understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Back
grounderIMU_web.pdf (accessed July 8, 2014).
Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. The Ulama in Contemporary Islam:
Custodians of Change. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton UP, 2002.
