Harappan Civilizationca 6000ca 4000ca 3000Agricultural settlements, domestication of animalsSpread of farming, villages in western IndiaPre-Harappan* (?) settlements have bronze tools, pottery making.

*FromSarasvati-Sindhu Civilization (ca. 3000 B.C.E.)by Dr. S. Kalyanaraman - A tentative conclusion in need of further research:"This may mean a new paradigm in our protohistoric studies.AryansandDravidiansand perhapsMundaslived in harmony in this civilization. The so-calledindo-aryanand so-calleddravidian languagesmay have originated from the common lingua franca spoken by these people of theIndusandSarasvati river valleys."

"The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the world's first great urban civilizations. It flourished in the vast river plains and adjacent regions in what are now Pakistan and western India. The earliest cities became integrated into an extensive urban culture around 4,600 years ago and continued to dominate the region for at least 700 years, from2600 to 1900 B.C. It was only in the1920'sthat the buried cities and villages of the Indus valley were recognized by archaeologists as representing an undiscovered civilization" (FromAround the Indus in 90 slides).

2600(to 1900)Harappan Civilizationemerges in (then) forested Indus River region:(seemapof the region),an urban society, with centralized gov't, writing system, long-distance trade, priestly class, monumental architecture, skilled crafts, copper.The major cities of the Harappan complex of villages and cities areHarappa(map) andMohenjo Daro. (Don't missA Walk through MohenjodaroandAncient Cities of the Indus Valley.)

2300 - 2000Cultural exchange between theIndus Valley civilizationandMesopotamia(present day Iraq) is especially prominent. SeeChronology: India; a beautifulHarappan Unicorn Seal, the most common motif on Indus seals appearing to represent a mythical animal that Greek and Roman sources trace back to the Indian subcontinent, with long inscription of eight symbols running along the top of the seal; and links to more images fromExploring World Cultures' Image Index: India.

"The only inference that can be drawn from the anthropological and linguistic evidences... is that theHarappan population in the Indus Valley and Gujratin 2000 BC was composed of two or more groups,the more dominant among them having very close ethnic affinities with the present dayIndo-Aryanspeaking population of India. In other wordsthere is no racial evidence of any such Indo-Aryan invasion of Indiabut only of acontinuity of the same group of people who traditionally considered themselves to beAryans"(The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India,by David Fawley).

"As old as the pyramids of Egypt and the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, this is one of the major civilizations of the ancient world, yet it remains virtually unknown to American audiences"(Great Cities, Small Treasures: The Ancient World of the Indus Valley. "This exhibition will underscore the importance ofSouth Asia[seebig map], specificallyPakistanandwesternIndia[linked to more big maps],as the birthplace of a unique, highly developed and technologically sophisticated civilization.")

1600-1200Decline of Harappan Civilization(seemap of ancient Indus River Valley Civilizations), which reverts to rural, regionally distinct lifeways,but Harappan cultural traditions survive: "Further excavation revealed that the Indus Valley culture was not destroyed by outside invasion [ie.by theAryans, see below], but according to internal causes and, most likely, floods"(The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India,by David Fawley).

The Aryans and the Vedic Ageca. 2000(?)to 1000Aryanmigrations, invasions (?) into India (seeDemise of the Aryan Invasion Theory,ascholarly essay by Dr. Dinesh Agrawal). The Aryans are said to have entered India through the Khyber Pass and invaded or perhaps more peacefully intermingled with the Indus Valley peoples at least since 1600 BCE, and perhaps earlier. Legend tells us the Aryans cross the River Sindhu and settled in a region they calledSaptsindu,or the land of seven rivers (now known as thePunjab, the land of five rivers). The Aryans were Indo-European warlike herders from Asian steppes. Bronze users and horse handlers, Aryans had a superior military and their cavalry warfare enabled them to spread their culture from the Punjab across northern India, preparing the way for emergence of large empires. The Aryans had a complex cosmology and knowledge of astral sciences--astronomy considered central to Aryan statecraft. Aryans spoke theSanskrit language(the basis of a majority of Indian languages today), had apolytheistreligion (one basis ofHinduism) with a rich pantheon of deities, and astratified class system:withKshatriyas(warriors) to rule, andBrahmins(priests and teachers) at the top of the social hierarchy, supported byVaisyas(farmers) and theSudras(outcasts).

From the introduction toThe Aryan-Dravidian Controversy, by David Frawley:"The British ruled India [seeTimeline 3],as they did other lands,by a divide-and-conquer strategy. They promoted religious, ethnic and cultural divisions among their colonies to keep them under control.Unfortunately some of these policies also entered into the intellectual realm. The same simplistic and divisive ideas that were used for interpreting the culture and history of India. Regrettably many Hindus have come to believe these ideas, even though a deeper examination reveals they may haveno real objective or scientific basis.One of these ideas is thatIndia is a land of two races- thelighter- skinnedAryansand thedarker-skinned Dravidians- and that theDravidians were the original inhabitants of India whom the invading Aryans conquered and dominated."

Sanskrit & the Vedas(ca. 1500 200 BCE)

Vedic Sanskrit, the language used in theVedas* (sacred Hindu scriptures) and the earliest form of Sanskrit, flourished: seeAryans and the Vedic Age,Sanskrit Documents: Vedas. The Vedic religious scriptures (Rig-Veda/Vedic Hymns,Brahmanas,Upanishads) are the oldest preserved forms of Indian speech. From these oral beginnings, Indian "literary" traditions of verse have sprung. The earliest works were composed to be sung or recited, and were orally transmitted for many generations before being written down.*"The hymns of theRig Vedaare considered the oldest and most important of theVedashaving been composed between1500 and the time of the great Bharata war (of theMahabharata) about 900 BC.More than a thousand hymns are organized into ten mandalas or circles of which the second through the seventh are the oldest and the tenth is the most recent....As the only writings from this ancient period of India they are considered the best source of knowledge we have,...Essentially theRig Vedais dominated by hymns praising the Aryan gods for giving them victories and wealth plundered from the local Dasas through warfare" (Political and Social Ethics of India)*"The wordVedais derived from the rootvid- "to know."Veda, therefore, means `Knowledge'. The `Knowledge' of the divinity lurking in man and the technique by which it can be brought out to full manifestation are the theme of the veda text books, and the truth of this theme is eternal" (for more, seelist of definitionsof key terms inHinduism).Many of the religious beliefs and practices ofHinduism, which comes fromsindhu,the Indo-Aryan word for "the sea," and came to apply to the region east of the Indus River, cam from theVedas (knowledge. "Composed over many centuries, Hindus believe that theVedas are "revelations" that were heard,not text composed by people.Amongst the major concepts isdharma,one's duty in this lifetime, and,karma,the actions one has performed in previous lifetimes and the actions one performs in this lifetime"--The principle of action (karma) is explained as "one becomes good by good action, bad by bad action" (Vedas and Upanishads).See alsorita (or reta),brahman, ,samsara,andmoksha; theSanskrit Home Pagefor a variety of texts in Sanskrit scripts; and don't missVedavid-an extraordinary siteworked up for a dissertation onearly Vedic traditions and textsof Ancient India, c. 1500 BCE,with "Tourist" and "Academic" Visa versions--John Gardner, Ph.D. candidate, Univ. of Iowa..

The Upanishads(ca. 800 500 BCE)

In theUpanishads,the doctrines of rebirth and the transmigration of souls* appeared, leading to important theological transformations within Hinduism. "As a king prepares a chariot or ship when going on a journey, one should prepare one's soul with the mystic doctrines of theUpanishads.The knowledge that is the light in the heart enables one to transcend this world and death while appearing asleep"(Sanderson Beck,Vedas and Upanishads;see alsoSanskrit Documents: Upanishads).*In theearly Upanishads "the supreme achievement has been indicated by the termImmortality, meaning 'deathlessness' (amritattvam),although...in thelater Upanishadsthe same has come to be indicated by the term'birthlessness'" (seelist of definitionsof key terms inHinduism)."The doctrine ofreincarnationis clearly implied in theChandogya Upanishadas it declares that those whose conduct is pleasant here will enter a pleasant womb of aBrahman,Kshatriya, orVaisya; but those of stinking conduct will enter a stinking womb of a dog, swine, or outcast [Sudra]. Thus reincarnation is explained as an ethical consequence of one's actions (karma)" (Sanderson Beck,Vedas and Upanishads).Related todharmaandkarmaare "transmigration of the soulafter death, andrebirth of the souldepending upon one'skarmain this life. This endless succession of births can be ended bymoksha, or salvation, attainable only by a strict practice of liberation from desire and education in the higher forms of knowledge....In Hinduism exists the trinity ofBrahmathe creator,Vishnuthe preserver, andShivathe destroyer and regenerator.Vishnuand Shiva incarnate themselves into other forms, as humans, animals or other living beings on earth to help the beings on earth in times of crisis" (Hinduism)."Although as the major teachings passed down orally from the century before theBuddha,theUpanishadsdon't tell us too much about the worldly society of India, they do express a widespread mysticism and spiritual life-style that was to prepare the way for the new religions ofJainismandBuddhismas well as the deepened spirituality and mystical philosophies ofHinduism" (Sanderson Beck,Vedas and Upanishads).

700 - 550Era of unrivaledBrahmindominance: Brahmins are religious leaders and political advisors among the social elite. "The priests placed themselves at the top of the caste system as they supervised a religion most of the people could not understand without them.... TheBrahmins...had three obligations or debts to pay back in life: they paid back the seers by studying theVedas, the gods by offering sacrifices, and their fathers by raising a family" (Sanderson Beck,Vedas and Upanishads). The Aryan religion had blended with older indigeneous beliefs. In this period, the Aryans establish themselves in the fertile Ganges plain region, with large states ruled by kings claiming divine descent, and the development of cities and a rich merchant class.

6th centuryHoly men and their followers, seeking more meaningful religious beliefs & worship, reject or try to reform empty rituals of the self-serving Aryan-Vedic religion.JainismjoinsBuddhismand other reform religions to spur the reform and growth of Hinduism in the 6th century (see alsoIntroduction to Hinduism).

ca. 542 - 483

540 -ca. 486Siddartha Gautama(orSiddharta Gotama),theBuddha,born in a region now present-day Nepal, lived and foundedBuddhism: SeeIntroduction to Buddhism; and great photo of theDeer Park at Sarnath( UPenn)where Buddha gave hisfirst sermon - the Middle Path(CUNY-Brooklyn). "Having taught for forty-five years from his enlightenment to his death, the Buddha left behind a large compendium of teachings that were memorized by various of his disciples. Since writing was a rarity then in India they were passed on through the Community (sangha) until they were written down several centuries later. These earliest texts are in the commonPali language and usually are dialogs between the Buddha and others.Often the Buddha emphasized that it was more important for disciples to see thedharma (doctrine)than the Buddha, because the dharma would remain and was what they needed to practice to attain enlightenment and even afterward." See also the text ofThe Dhammapada[trans. John Richards], an anthology of 423 verses, belonging to the part of the Theravada Pali Canon of scriptures known as the Khuddaka Nikaya; andThe Gospel of Buddha.Mahavira,the founder ofJainism,lives.

Later Upanishads &Buddhist Jatakas(ca. 4th century)

In thelater Upanishads, such as theMahanarayana Upanishad,a long hymn to the various forms of God, "[t]he influence ofBuddhismcan be seen in the description ofliberation from one's own thoughts. As fire destitute of fuel goes out, so thought losing activity becomes extinct in its source. What is one's thought, that one becomes; this is the eternal mystery. By the serenity of thought one destroys good and badkarma; focused on the soul one enjoys eternal delight. The mind is the means of bondage and release. Though the sacrificial fire is still important,meditation has become the primary means of liberation" (Sanderson Beck,Vedas and Upanishads).

From the 4th century -Jatakas: "Ancient folktales of Indiacome down to us primarily in two collections of stories many of which are about animals. These are theBuddhisttales of the former lives of the Buddha known as theJatakasand thePanchatantra[traditional Hindu animal stories considered a textbook for wise conduct in this world]. Many of the original stories probably predate the Buddha, but theJatakaswere organized into verses about the Buddha and placed into his biography starting about the fourth century BC, though the whole collection with its prose stories and commentaries was not completed for several centuries. The Jataka tales always begin with an incident in the life of the Buddha, usually a sermon he is giving which he illustrates with a story from one of his previous lives. After the tale is told he often indicates who were the other characters in the story of their previous existence. In this way the law ofkarma, or the consequences of actions, is illustrated, and the deep patterns of different souls can be seen. The Buddha, who is referred to as theBodhisattvain the stories since he is then a future Buddha, is usually the most heroic and wisest character. He is often an animal or a tree spirit and is frequently the leader of his group.He never seems to be a female, and in fact there is a strong bias against women in many stories.TheJatakasare primarily moral tales illustrating the wisdom and goodness of the Bodhisattva figure, and, with the exception of the prejudice against women, the ethical lessons are usually quite good" (Sanderson Beck).

537517-509Cyrus the Persian campaigns west of the Indus River.Darius the Persian conquers the Indus Valley region, making the area a province of thePersian Empire.

The Ramayana & theMahabharata(ca. 500 BCE - CE 100)

Written down & formally composed during this period were the two great oral Sanskrit epics:The MahabharataandThe Ramayana: An Enduring Tradition(a great learning site andillustrated!from Syracuse Univ. based on an NEH institute)."The greatest imaginative literature of ancient India can be found in the long epic poems, theRamayanaand theMahabharata. Written over many centuries and not completed until sometime between the fourth century BC and the fourth century CE, they probably grew out of the story-telling of the traditional bards (sutas) who acted as charioteers to kings."TheRamayana(note graph)"is the story ofRama,the seventh incarnation ofVishnu,who was born on earth to kill the demon king Ravana of Lanka, and to re-establish righteousness in the world"; The time period of the Ramayana has been estimated as between thetwelfth and tenth centuries BC"(Sanderson Beck,Ramayana).). This epic works on many levels. As a political treatise, it describes how the Aryans rose in power and conquered the indigenous peoples who lived peacefully by the Ganges River. At the same time, "The Ramayana" is an action drama. But it is also a philosophical treatise filled with tales of love, betrayal, jealousy, greed, and heroism.The legendary author of theThe MahabharataisVyasa,who is also given credit for compiling theVedasand writing thePuranas." This epic centers in a great war (see chapter 1 of theBhagavad Gita:Observing the Armies on the Battlefield of Kuruksetra) that probably took place in thelate tenth century BCand "is filled with stories and situations that describe the culture of ancient India and has been an entertaining schoolbook for millions. Along with the virtues it also reveals the vices of the conquering and warlike Aryans and their racist caste system. Even the divineKrishnabecomes a spokesperson for the warrior mentality, as a nearly apocalyptic disaster destroys millions and threatens their whole world. Still a heroic epic of military glory like theRamayana,theMahabharatacontains much more real and well defined characters and portrays many aspects of life. If only humanity could learn from its negative lessons of violence and ambition, perhaps the peace of the sages could be found....Sanderson Beck,The Literature of India).Linked to J. D. Smith's Cambridge files and his Web page for Sanskrit epic texts, is a sample of theMahabharata text printed in Nagari script.The earliest records of such written texts may be later by several centuries than the conjectured date of its composition, because they were created and passed down orally through generations. Furthermore, much Indian literature is either religious or reworkings of familiar stories from the Sanskrit epics, theRamayanaand theMahabharata, and the mythological writings known asPuranas, so the authors often remain anonymous.(SeesomeSanskrit documentswith English translations, andIndia Glossary,includingdharma,rita (or reta),brahman,karma,samsara,moksha.)

TheBhagavad Gita

Later, theBhagavad Gita*[see e-text of theGitathis online version trans. Ramanand Prasad)was added as an episode in theMahabharataand "now ranks as one of the three principal texts that define and capture the essence ofHinduism; the other two being theUpanishadsand theBrahma Sutras"(Exploring Ancient World Cultures: India).See another online text of theGita; and essays"The Historical Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian Religious Doctrines"(Soumen De);On the Nature of Brahman: An Introduction to the Bhagavad-Gita(Jeff Hooks, St. Petersburg Junior College), including links toThe Drama of the Gita and the Film of the Mahabharata;and Mohan Ayyar'sHindu Image Gallery of Deities,includingSurya (the Sun & Karna's father) and depictions ofMahabharatascenes from theBhagavad GitalikeKrishna advising Arjuna.*The termYogahas been used in the context of the evenness of mind through work,... tranquillity for mental composure in all pairs-of-opposites, is defined here as Yoga. Defined thus, the term Yoga, as used here, indicates a special condition of the mind in which it comes to a neutral equilibrium in all the ebb and flow of life's tides. The instructions in the stanza [of theBhagavad Gita]advise us that desireless action can be performed only when one gets completely established in Yoga, where the term means, precisely whatVyasa[reputed author of theMahabharata] defines it to mean here" (and seemoredefinitions of key termsinHinduism).For another explanation ofBhakti Yoga,"divine science of yoga as spoken inBhagavad-gita,"seeWhat Is Bhakti?

Classical Sanskrit(ca. 400 BCE)

Classical Sanskritwas "perfected" by Indian grammarianPaniniin hisSutra(lesson),written in theDevanagari alphabet and script.Vedic and classical Sanskrithave both come to be considered "high" (artificial or written) languages of literary and technical works, and maintained as the languages of the priestly, learned, and cultivated castes of India. However,Sanskritalso retains oral traditions, handed downorallyby generations of priestly singers and still exists in many nonliterary vernacular dialects of the Indian subcontinent. (SeeOrigins of Sanskritand try a modern lesson inSanskrit Grammar)

ThePankrits(ca. 3rd c. BCE - CE 12th c. )

3rdcent. BCE (to ca. CE 12thcentury): Middle Indo-Aryan languages emerged, embracing thevernacular dialects of SanskritcalledPankrits. The best known and oldest literary Pankrit is Pali,the language ofBuddhist canonical writingsandJain religious texts. The themes and forms of much traditional Indian literature are derived from Sanskrit and Pankrits (medieval dialects of Sanskrit). This is true of the literature of the Dravidian-speaking regions, as well as that of the Indo-Iranian languages of the north. (SeeThe Buddha and the Texts of the Pali Canon,Australian National Univ., fromAnthology of Scriptures of World Religions,by John Powers and James Fieser, McGraw-Hill, 1996.)

377Buddhist Council at Vaisali.

327 - 325Alexander("the Great")crosses Hindu Kush and invades northwest India; stimulation of cultural exchange with the West. (SeeAlexander's Invasion of Indiaand theWorld of Alexander.)

323324Alexander the Great dies, providing the opportunity for an independent state in India.Chandragupta Mauryafounds theMaurya dynasty, the first Indian empire.Its capital is inPatna(seeChronology: India)

321-184

273-232Mauryan Empireflourished(seeMauryan Empire, Ashoka and History):EmperorAshoka, grandson ofChandragupta Mauryaand most impressive ruler in theMauryadynasty, rules in India and institutes a series of edicts designed to bring about moral reform: seeThe Edicts of King Ashoka. Trade and commerce grows. Ashoka having converted toBuddhism, his policy on reform flows from his Buddhist orientation. See theDhammapada, "one of the greatest literary works of earlyBuddhism....Put together from highlights of Buddha's ethical teachings it was in existence by the time ofEmperor Ashokain the third century BC. It begins with the idea that we are the result of our thoughts, impure or pure."

250A general council ofBuddhistmonks is held inPatna, wherethe canon of Buddhist scripturesis selected.(SeeRise of Religions and Emergence of the State: Buddhism and Jainism)

after 184Mauryan Dynasty endswhen the last ruler is assassinated by an ambitious army commander, andIndia undergoes political fragmentation.

AD/CE1 - 105Kushansinvade northwest India and thePunjab,and establish theKushan Empire. The Kushans were patrons ofBuddhism, and engaged in international trade overland and by sea. Northern Indian cities develop along overland routes, and busy port cities attract foreigners.

1st - 3rd c.South Indian Kingdoms of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandavas develop and flourish.

Tamil Language Literature(CE 1st - 5th centuries)

Tamillanguage writings stem from oral traditions predating classical Sanskrit, including secular lyrics on love and war, and the grammatical-stylistic workTolkappiyam(Old Composition). Between the 2ndand 5thcenturies, two long Tamil verse romance-epics were written:Cilappatikaram(The Jeweled Anklet) by Ilanko Atikal, which has been translated into English (1939 and 1965); and its sequelManimekalai(The Girdle of Gems), a Buddhist work by Cattanar. (See also a 4th century image ofRelief Fragment with Buddha Flanked by Worshipers,and visitTamils - a brief introduction to their history, culture and literature,byProf. A. Veluppillai, fromTamil Electronic Library).

320 -535Gupta Empire(descendants ofMauryan) flourishes innorthern India,with an agricultural economic base, flourishing trade and cities (though most Indians lived in villages), manufacturing, and technological advances. Considered"India's Golden Age"the Gupta period featured an opulent court and scholarly achievements in math, arts, philosophy, and sciences.Sanskritrevived as the literary language, along withTamilas one of major languages of India. During this"Hindu Renaissance,"reformed Hinduism supplants Buddhism, the Brahmins emphasize theUpanishads(the later books of theVedas- see above), and religious freedom encouraged, with education centered inHinduBrahminical schools andBuddhistmonasteries.

5th centuryThe astronomerAryabhattaadvanced explanations of time concepts. The concept of different units of time dates back to theRig Vedas. (SeePanchanga, literally 'five limbs' -pancha, 'five' andanga, 'limb' - is the almanac of the Hindus, so named because it deals with the five Hindu divisions of time.)

The Notion of Time in India: An Introduction,(Prof. Charles Ess, Drury College, based on Hajime Nakamura'sNotion of Time in India)"...the substance of things is seen as basically unchanging, its underlying reality unaffected by the ceaseless flux. The Indian does not concede that we never step into the same river twice; he directs our attention not to the flow of water but to the river itself, the unchanging universal. Indian thought places a high value on universality, and the connection between this, and the static conception of phenomena, is of course not accidental.'The one remains, the many change and flee.'"See also:"Indian versus Chinese Attitudes Towards History"(Charles Ess, Professor of Philosophy, Drury College).

405-411Fa Hien of Chinatravels through India.

By the 6thcentury, India and China developed two major cultural centers of East Asia, each with distinctive cultures and highly developed civilizations.India's Pattern:political disunity, short-lived empires divided by rival kingdoms; regional identities and cultural diversity pronounced, with common religious ideas and cultural traditions to bind; caste system; foreign invaders converted and assimilated to Indian ways.

Late 5th c.First Hun invasions and fall of the Gupta Empire

570-632Muhammed,founder ofIslam, lived.After 632, Islam emerged as major world religion and power.

Precursors of the Bhakti Tradition &Emergence of Hindi(6th - 9th centuries)

Tamil language sectarian devotional poems were composed, considered some of the first examples of the Indianbhakti*tradition (ecstatic personal devotion to a god); for example the Tamil Alvars (mystics) wrote ecstatic hymns to Vishnu between the 7thand 10thcenturies.(See also 6th c. image ofShivafrom World Art Treasures).*"Self-less love,seeking a fulfilment in itself, when directed towards the divine with firm faith and an all out belief, is calledBhakti.Love itself means identifying with the object of love in such a way that the joys and sorrows of the beloved become equally poignant joys and sorrows of the lover. In short, the lovers become one with their beloveds, both in their physical and emotional lives"(and seemoredefinitions of key termsinHinduism)."[Old] Hindi [language] started to emerge as Apabhramsha in the 7th cent. and by the 10 cent. became stable.Several dialects of Hindi have been used in literature.Brajwas the popular literary dialect until it was replaced bykhari boliin the 19th century" (Hindi: The Language of Songs,including a timeline)."Hindi, which is a descendant of the Sanskrit language, is not strictly the name of any chief dialect of the area but is an adjective, Persian in origin, meaning Indian....[from] a mixed speech spoken around the area of Delhi, North India, which gained currency during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as a contact language between the Arabs, Afghans, Persian and Turks, and native residents." "Hindi is written in theDevanagari scriptwhich is ranked as the most scientific writing system among the existing writing systems of the world. The Devanagari script is written from left to right and is a descendant of the Brahmi script which was wellestablished in India before 500 B.C. The script is phonetic in nature and there is a fairly regular correspondence between the letters and their pronunciation."he literary history of Hindi goes back to the twelfth century. Some notable literary figures of Hindi are Kabir, Surdas, and Tulsidas. It also has an approximately three-century old, well-attested and rich grammatical tradition of its own." Today "Hindi is a modern Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Nepal) and also in other countries outside Asia (Mauritius, Trinidad, Fiji, Surinam, Guyana, South Africa and other countries). Approximately six hundred million people speak Hindi, as either a first or second language. It is ranked among the five most widely spoken languages of the world. Along with English, it is the official language of India.Hindi/Urdu conversation lessons on the Web at Syracuse University

7th c.8th c.Missionaries carryBuddhismtoTibet, where it begins merging with indigenousBonreligion.Kings and wealthy families supportBuddhisminTibet.The "great eighth century A.D. teacher Padmasambhava...travelled from India toteach in Tibet" (seeSaraha Maha-siddha, b. CE 769, credited with foundingTantra; alsoBackground of the Tibetan Educational SystemandDictionary of Tibetan Buddhist Terms(Erik Shmidt [aka Erik Padma Kunsang] of Rangjung Yeshe Publications, Nitartha International, the Tibetan teachings preservation project--fromHindu Tantric Home Page).

712Arab conquest of the Sind, northwest India, by Mohammed bin Qasim.

735FirstParsi(of theZoroastrianreligion) settlement in India.

ca. 750Islam reaches borders of India and China, carried by traders, merchants, and missionaries, eventually spreading to No. Asia and Indonesia