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Landfill development in the urban fringe of Metro ManilaAuthor(s): Yuji Hara, Kazuhiko Takeuchi, Armando M. Palijon and Akinobu MurakamiSource: GeoJournal, Vol. 71, No. 2/3 (2008), pp. 127-141Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41148246 .

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GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

DOI

10.1007/S10708-008-9150-Z

Landfill

evelopment

n

the urban

fringe

f

Metro Manila

Yuji

Hara

*

Kazuhiko Takeuchi Armando

M

Palijon

*

AkinobuMurakami

Published nline: 20

May

2008

©

Springer

cience+BusinessMedia B.V. 2008

Abstract

In

low-lying

reasof urban

nd suburban

regions

n

Asia,

theuse

of andfill as allowedurban

landuse to encroach nto

watery

andforms,

uch s

back

marshes,

which were

formerly

sed as rice

fields.

o

improve

nderstanding

f the ssociations

between

and-use

atterns

nd andfill

evelopment,

we carried ut a case

study

n

the urban

fringe

f

Metro

Manila in the

Philippines.

We examined

landfill

olumederived

rom and-use

hangeusing

GIS,

and

field

urveyed

ualitative spects

of the

landfillsed.We calculatedhe ate fapplicationf

Y. Hará

(IS1)

Transdisciplinary

nitiative orGlobal

Sustainability

(TIGS),

Integrated

esearch

System

or

ustainability

Science

(IR3S),

The

University

f

Tokyo, Hongo

7-3-1,

Bunkyo-ku,

okyo

113-8654,

Japan

e-mail:

[email protected]

K. Takeuchi

Laboratory

f

Landscape Ecology

and

Planning,

Department

f

Ecosystem

tudies,

Graduate chool of

Agricultural

nd Life

Sciences,

The

University

f

Tokyo,

Yayoi

1-1-1,

Bunkyo-ku, okyo

113-8657,

Japan

A. M. Palijon

College

of

Forestry

nd

Natural

Resources,

University

f

the

Philippines

os

Baños,

College, Laguna

4031,

Philippines

A. Murakami

Department

f Social

Systems

nd

Management,

Graduate chool of

Systems

nd nformation

ngineering,

University

f

Tsukuba,

Tennodai

1-1-1,

Tsukuba

Science

City,

baraki

305-8573,

Japan

landfill

n

ow-lying

ousing

evelopment

reas o be

5.0

x

103

m3km 2

year 1,

most f which onsisted

of offsite

isposal

of construction aste or crushed

rock

produced y

urban

evelopment

nd

renewal

n

the

djoining plands.

heflow f

fill

material rom

offsite

ources o onsite andfill

evelopment

reas

was

on the basis of individual

greements

etween

suppliers

nd

developers.

Keywords

Landfill Land use

•

Landform

Material low MetroManila

Introduction

The

space

occupied

by

human

wellings hroughout

theworldhas been

expanding

ith he ssistance f

technologicaldevelopments

n civil

engineering

(Hooke 2000).

The introductionf

large-scale

on-

struction

equipment,

such as excavators and

bulldozers,

as made it

possible

to transformand-

forms hatwere

previously

onsideredo be unusable

as

living pace

Hooke

1999;

Kiersch

001). Quarries

(Mouflis 008),

aggregatemining

Drew 2002),

cut-

and-fill perations or urban and developmentn

hilly

areas

(Tamura

nd Takeuchi

1980),

and

land

reclamation n

coastal

regions

Hooimeijer

et al.

2005)

are common

xamples

f such

anthropogenic

landformransformation.

hese transformationsre

expected

o occurmore

ntensively

n

regions

acing

rapid population

rowth

Rivas

et al.

2006),

espe-

cially

in

Asia,

where vast

populations

re

being

Ô

Springer

This content downloaded from 121.54.54.134 on Mon, 22 Dec 2014 00:20:39 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions








GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

129

Fig.

1 Location

map.

Photo

a)

was taken ver

aranaque

ity

irected orthoward heMakati

entral usiness istrictn the

upland

andform.hoto

b)

shows

ypical

eaturesf

ow-lying

rea n

TaguigCity;

rom ortho south

Data

sources

nd

analytical

methods

We conducted ield

urveys

or

total

of

approxi-

mately

wo months etween

2001

and

2005,

and

collected ata as shown

n Table 1. In the

field,

we

verified

and-use

nterpretations

f aerial

imagery,

intervieweddministrativefficersnd ocal

workers,

recorded

ill

materials,

nd took andform easure-

ments.

Geographic

Information

ystem

(GIS)

technologyTNTmips

ersion

.0,

Microimages

ne,

Lincoln,NE, USA;

ArcGIS version

.0, ESRI,

Red-

lands, CA, USA;

VectorWorksversion

11.5,

Nemetschek orthAmerica, olumbia,MD, USA)

was usedfor ata

digitization,patial nalyses,

nd he

drawing

f

figures.

Preparation

f

digital

and-use

maps

We used n

existing

986

:10,000-scale

and-use

map

in

digital

ector ormats a base

map

for ur and-use

investigation

nd

ntegrated

and-use

ategories

herein

to create 5classes f anduse

Fig.

2).

Using

his s a

base

map,digital

and-use

maps

n

vector ormat or

1 66 nd 004were

roduced y

visual

nterpretation

f

aerial

photographs

nd satellite

magery.

We

scanned

the

966

erial

hotographs

t600

dpi

resolution,

dded

georeference

ata,

nd

ompiled

rastermosaic

mage

to

produce

he

1966

and-use

map.

QuickBird

atellite

imagery

as used to

produce

he

2004 land-use

map.

Theboundariesfour15

and-use lasses or

966

nd

2004 were

digitized y

means of

on-screenmanual

interpretation.

e

used 1961

opographic ap,

1966

land-usemap, nd 2001digital rthophotoosaic o

support

ur

nterpretation,

nd

also verifiedur nter-

preted

and

uses

by

nterviewing

ocal residents.

Measuring hanges

n land elevation

The

1966

and

1986

l:10,000-scale

opographic

aps,

which

rovided

levations ccurate o

within

0

cm,

â

Springer







130

GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

Table

1 Data sources

Year

Scale

Format

Publisher

Aerial hotographs 1966 1:10,000 Paper rint NationalMappingndResourcenformation

(gray

cale)

AuthorityPhilippines)

2001

1:10,000

Digital

mage Geo-Surveys Mapping

nc.

Philippines)

(gray

cale)

Satellite

magery

2004

2.44

m

Multi-spectral

ensor

DigitalGlobe

nc.

(QuickBird)

resolution

image

Topographic

aps

1961

1:50,000

Paper

National

Mapping

ndResourcenformation

Authority

1966

1:10,000

Paper

National

Mapping


Authority

1986

1:10,000

Paper

Japan

nternational

ooperation

gency

Land-use

maps

1966

1:25,000

Paper

National

Mapping


Authority

1986

1:10,000

Digital

ector

ormat

Japan

nternational

ooperation gency

Landformlassification 2002 1:10,000 Digital ectorormat Hara t al. (2002)

map

Geologicmaps

1980s-

1:50,000

Paper

Mines ndGeosciences ureau

Philippines)

Present

2004

1:2,000,000

Digital

ector ormat

Geological

urvey

f

Japan

Fig.

2 Land-use

maps

or

966,

986,

nd

2004

and

landformlassification

ap

Hara

t

al.

2002).

The

square

n

the andform

classification

ap orresponds

othe reaof

Fig.

5

wereused

to

measure

hanges

n land elevation.

We

firstcanned

hese

maps

t 300

dpi

resolutionver ur

entire

tudy

rea and

added ocation

nformation. e

Ô

Springer

then

igitized

nd

extracted

he levation

oints

rom

the1986

map.

By comparing

he

wo

ets

felevation

data,

we obtained

he

hanges

n levation rom 66

to







GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

131

1986

at 50-cm

ncrements.hese

were

xpressed

s

610

digital

ector

oints

within

he

tudy

rea.

Quantifyinghevolume f andfill evelopment

By

overlaying

he

previously

etermined

levation

change

ata

points

n

the

1966

and 1986

digital

and-

use

maps,

we extracted

hose

oints

hat ad

changed

from ural o urbananduse

residential

se,

business

use,

factory,

acant

and,

nd

road)

between 966

and

1986.

These

points

were then

grouped

ccording

o

landform

ype except pland)

yoverlaying

hem n

the

digital

andformlassification

ap

of

Hara et al.

(2002).

Next,

he

points

within ach

landform

ype

were classified

nto and-use lasses

by

overlaying

them n the1986 and-use

map.

We then

raphed

he

relationshipetween levation hange nd land use

by

andform

ype.

To evaluate

the volume

of

landfill,

we first

compared

he land-use

maps

for

1966, 1986,

and

2004 to determine

hich reas

had

changed

from

rural o urban

and use between

966 and

1986,

and

between1986

and

2004.

We then

compared

hese

areas

with the

landform lassification

map

and

calculated

he rea

of

rural-to-urban

and-use

hange

for ach andform

ype. y multiplying

hese reas

of

land-use

hange

by

the

average

elevation

hanges

within hose

areas,

we calculatedthe

volume of

landfilling

or ach

andform

ype.

Recording

andfillmaterials nd

measuring

transect

eatures

To

support

he

andfill

olume-landform

ype-land

use

interrelationships

erived

rom urGIS

analyses,

we undertook

ield

urveys

f

development

ites

n

the southern

art

f the

study

rea where ntensive

land

development

s

taking lace.

We recorded

he

characteristics

texture

nd

color)

of

fill

materials,

the

height

f

thefill

profile,

ndthe

ayering

ithin

the

fill

profile.

Where

possible,

we also

interviewed

site

managers,

orkers,

evelopers,

nd landowners

to find utwhat illmaterialshey se,why hey se

them,

nd their ource

nd cost.

Initially,

he 1966

and

1986

l:10,000-scale

opo-

graphicmaps

were

ompared

o elect

representative

transect

ver which

to measure

fill

profile.

o

supplement

ur

nterpretation

f he1966

topographic

mapalong

he elected

ransect,

e

then nterviewed

local

government

fficials

nd

ong-term

esidents

nd

took nto ccount

he nformation

leaned

romhem o

determine

n

original

966

base ine f he and urface

alongthe transect.We recorded and use alongthe

transectnd useda hand evel and laser

rangefinder

400LH

(Opti-Logic Corporation,

ullahoma,TN,

USA)

to takefieldmeasurementsf

the urrentand-

surface

rofile.

We interviewed

esidents

long

the

transect

o find ut when

and

how

they

made

their

housing

oundations,

hat illmaterials

hey

sed,

nd

where hesematerials

ame from.

n

some

cases,

we

were llowed nto

roperties

ndwere

ble

o heck he

fillmaterials t

the

plot boundary.

o determinehe

timing

nd method f constructionf

public

oads n

the

ransect,

e visited he

ivil

ngineering

ivision t

thePateros

Municipal

ffice nd

used

records froad

constructionork.

Tracing

heflow f

andfill

materials

Because

of a lack of

government

ecords n land

development

n Metro

Manila,

we

mainly

sed field

interviewso obtain

hedata we

needed

o trace he

flowof landfillmaterials or and

preparation.

ur

interviewswere started

t the

development

ites

wherewe recorded

hefillmaterials

n

use. Extensive

interviews ere undertaken

ith ocal contractors

and

pit

owners on matters uch

as the

price

of

materials,

he

supply-demand

alance,

nd

govern-

ment egulationselated o andfillmaterials. e also

conducted

nterviews nd collecteddata about

the

flow

of landfillmaterials

t the Mines and Geo-

sciences

Bureau

(MGB)

of the

Department

f

Environment

nd Natural

Resources

(DENR)

in

Manila,

t

the

MetroManila

Development

uthority

(MMDA),

and with he ivil

engineering

ivisions

f

the

Taguig

and Pateros

Municipalities.

Results

Land-use

hanges

nd andform

ypes

Land-use

maps

for

966, 1986,

nd

2004,

as

well as a

landformlassification

ap,

are shown

n

Fig.

2. In

1966,

most of the

developed

areas,

including

he

business

district,

eresituated n the northwestern

uplands

f the

tudy

rea,

nd factories ere ocated

on

back

marsh andforms

long

heriver.Within

he

4y

Springer







132

GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

low-lying

reas,

most f theresidential

evelopment

was

along

natural

evees,

showing

that

land-use

patterns

ad

adapted

o thenaturalocal environment.

By 1986,clearing fforestsnd speculative evel-

opment

fvacant andhad ed to

extensive esidential

and business

development

n the

northwestern

uplands.

n

low-lying

reas,

and

development

as

mainly

n the

backmarshes ehind henaturalevees.

By

2004,

the southwestern

pland

rea was

largely

convertedoresidentialand

use,

mainly hrough

he

development

f

arge

residentialubdivisions.

n

the

low-lying

reas,

residentialand use and

factories

were

beginning

o fill the

areas

between

natural

levees.

Thus,

n

the

study

rea between1966 and

2004,

land-usehad been transformedrom

atterns

adapted

to the natural nvironmento a

diverse

pattern

hat ad

overcome he

estrictions

mposed

y

thenatural

andforms.

Interrelationsmong andfill,andforms,

and and

use

Figure

shows the

interrelations

mong

landfill,

landforms,

nd land use. About

half of

the total

urbanizedandhas been

developed y

using

ill n

all

landform

ypes,

nd the

peak

of fill

hicknesss

1

m.

The

maximum ill

hickness

or esidential

evelop-

ments n the

natural evee

landform

s about 1

m,

whereas

hat

n

areas

of

acustrine

lains

s

less

than

50 cm.

Figure

shows stimates f

he

umulative

rowth

of fill olumenthe

tudy

rea. The

greatest

ncrease

Fig.

3

Landfill,andform,

and anduse

interrelationships

Ö

Springer







GeoJoumal

2008)

71:127-141

133

Fig.

4

Cumulative

rowth

n the

volume of

landfill

y

landform

ype

in the use of filloccurred n the lower acustrine

terrace andform. etween

1966

and

2004,

the

volume of fill

applied

to landform

ransformation

almost oubled n the tudy rea.

Characteristics

f

andfillmaterials

anda

representative

ectional

rofile

Figure

and Table2 showthecharacteristicsf the

materials

sedfor andfills

observed

uring

urfield

surveys.Many development

ites

use construction

waste such as broken oncrete or andfill. ocal

contractorslso sell crushed

ock,

ncluding

local

product

nown s

adobe,

nd ahar

eposits,

hich s

composed

of

volcaniclasticmaterialfrom round

Mt.

Pinatubo,

lso

commonly

alled

white and

n

Metro Manila. At several

sites,

we

found that

landowners llowed the

dumping

f construction

waste nplots hat heyntend odevelop nthenear

future. t some

sites,

andowners

ccepted

umping

of

construction aste for andfill

or

payment y

truck rivers f around 0

pesos per

truckload,

nd

also asked the truckdrivers o level the land in

preparation

or

onstruction.

herefore,

t

a consid-

erablenumber f

development

ites,

he fill

onsists

of

mixed

materials,

ncluding

mainly

broken on-

crete,

ut lso adobe and other

olidwaste.We found

that ahar

s

used

mainly

o make hollowconcrete

blocks orwall

construction,

ndcrushed ock sused

mainly

n

asphalt

or

pavement

nd

driveways.

The sectional

rofileFig.

6)

shows,

romwest o

east,a characteristicattern f fillalong a typical

sequence

f

ow-lying

andform

nits: atural

tream,

natural evee

(originally

nhabited),

ower

acustrine

terrace,

atural

evee

(originally

nhabited),

nd the

former iver ourse.Fill has sometimes een

used

under raditionalaised-floorouses on the natural

levees.

n

some old

houses,

andowners ave

placed

fillmaterial

mainly

ocal

clay

and

laterite)

nto he

traditionallypen-air round

loor f their

houses,

which

s sometimes ater enclosed to add to their

living

space.

Some

landowners

have

added

fill

several times

over the

past

three

decades,

often

Fig.

5

Map

and

photographs

f landfill bservationites.

Table 2

provides

etails f material bserved

t

numbered

sites.

hotographs

how

ypical

andfillmaterials:ahar nd

crushed

ock

t a

contractor's

hop top

eft),

roken

oncrete

fill

top right),

dobe

fill

bottomeft),

nd ocal

clay being

used

n

road onstruction

bottom

ight).

ection

rofile

-B is

shown n

Fig.

6

Ö

Springer







134

GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

Table

2 Material

urvey

ist

Site

Development

Transformation

ainmaterial

Price

pesos/m3)

number

ite or

type Type TextureColor Crushed Sand LateriteBroken

rock

concrete

0 Residential

se

Landfill

Broken oncrete G

- - - - -

1 Governmental

all

Landfill Broken oncrete G

- - -

2 Residential

se Landfill

Broken oncrete

G

- - -

3

Fill ontractor's

hop

-

Lahar S 5Y5/1 500 500 500

4 Fill ontractor's

hop

-

Crushed ock G 5B3/1

675

430

-

90

5

Fill

ontractor's

hop

-

Lahar

S 5Y5/1 550 550

-

6

Road

Landfill

Local

clay

HC 2.5Y3/3

- -

7

Road

Landfill

Lahar S 5Y5/1

- -

8

Residentialse Cut

Crushedock

Adobe)

G 7.5YR3/1

- -

9

Fill ontractor's

hop

-

Lahar

S 5Y5/1 500 450

-

100

10 Residentialse Landfill LocalClay

HC 2.5Y3/3

- -

11 Residential

se

Landfill Crushed

ock

Adobe)

G 7.5YR5/4

- -

12 Residentialse

Landfill

Broken oncrete

G

- -

13 Fill ontractor's

hop

-

Lahar S 5Y5/1 500 500

-

14 Residential

se Landfill

Laterite

LiC 7.5YR4/3

- -

15

Residentialse Landfill

Broken

oncrete G

- - -

16

Residentialse

Landfill

Laterite LiC 7.5YR4/3

- -

17 Residentialse

Landfill Crushed

ock

Adobe)

G 7.5YR5/4

- -

18

Residential

se

Landfill

Broken oncrete G

- -

-

19 Residential

se

Landfill

Crushedock

Adobe)

G 7.5YR5/4

- -

20

Residentialse

Landfill Broken oncrete G

- -

-

during

enovation

f their

houses. New houses

are

commonly uilt on higher oundationshan tradi-

tional ouses.

. Rosales

Street,

t thewestern nd

of

our

profile,

ollows he

natural evee.

According

o

the ivil

engineering

ivision

f thePaterosMunici-

pal

Office,

t wasnot

paved

until

998,

when50 cm

of

fill

was

applied

at a cost of

approximately

00

pesos per

cubic meter.

Moving

ast fromhenatural

levee to the ower

acustrine

errace,

he and surface

becomes

gradually

ower,

nd

temporary

nd

slum

housing

onstructed

f

concrete ollow

blocks with

galvanized

ron

oofing

n fill f

clay

and construc-

tionwaste

begins

o dominate.

or houses

builthere

in

the

1980s,

wners

ut

dditional

ill

n

the

ground

floors fternitial onstruction,n some cases result-

ing

in the need to

cut the bottom

ff

ground

loor

doors.

Nevertheless,

he evel

of he

pathways

n front

of the houses

has

remained,

n

average,

around

40

cm

higher

han he

ground

loor f theirhouses

becauseof

regular

ddition f fill o the

pathways

y

the local

community.

n thecenter f the

profile,

Ö

Springer

between he natural

evees,

abandonedrice fields

have become wampy acant and.Theswampyand

has become

unsanitary

ecause of

poor

drainage

nd

dumping

f solidwaste. ast of the

wampy

rea,

he

land

gradually

ises

and

temporary

ousing

n

clay

fill

ontinues ntil henext

naturalevee

s

reached.

Flow of fillmaterial

Figure

shows he

geology

nd source reas for

fill

materials or he MetroManila

region.

n the ow-

lying evelopment

iteswithin he

tudy

rea,

ahar

s

almost

exclusively

sed

in

concrete,

nd

to make

hollow

oncrete locks n

particular.

t is sometimes

also used for he base of majorroads. The lahar s

trucked rom n area at thefoot f Mt. Pinatubo

n

Pampanga

rovince

Fig.

7).

The

cost

o the nduser

in our

study

rea s about

6,000

pesos per

truckload,

which s

equivalent

o about

500

pesos per

cubic

meter. t the

ource,

t

costs600

pesos per

ruckload,

equivalent

o

50

pesos per

cubicmeter.

ccording

o







GeoJoumal

2008)

71:127-141

135

Fig.

6 Sectional

profile

A-B.

Photographs

how

examples

of

typical

urrentand use and landfill

long

the transect.

rom

left oright:modifiedraditional aised-floor ouse on a natural

levee,

slum

housing

onstructed

f concrete ollow blocks and

galvanized

ron

roofing, welling

where

regular

ddition f

fill

has necessitated

utting

ff the

bottom of

a

door,

swampy

abandonedpaddyfield, egetablepatch, emporary ousing n

clay

fill,

nd a

path slopingup

to

the

main road

our interviews

t the source

pits,

factories,

nd

control

oints

n the

source

area,

production

as

more

than

1,300

truckloads

er

day,

equivalent

o

1.8

x

104

m3

per

day, during

he

peak period

of

reconstruction

fter he xtensive

amage

aused

by

the

1991

eruption

f

Mt. Pinatubo. he lanarfrom

Pampanga

rovince s used for constructions far

away

as

Batangas

Province,

pproximately

00

km

south f Metro

Manila. Before he

1991

eruption

f

Mt.

Pinatubo,

iver

and

was

commerciallyxploited

for use as a construction

aterial.The

eruption

depositedargevolumes f lahar near thevolcano,

and local landowners oon

began

to use

private

contractorso remove he aharfrom

heir

and. The

contractors

ay

an excavation ee to landowners. n

organizationomprising

he

private

ontractorsnd

construction

ompanies

et

up

control

oints

t

the

entrance o the source area

to monitor xcavation

practices.

he

organization

ays

a fee to the ocal

government

n the basis of the number f

trucks

passing hrough.

Crushed rock

is used

for

surface

filling

nd

leveling.

t is trucked

mainly

rom an Mateo

and

TayTay

in

Rizal Province

Fig.

7),

a

hilly

and

mountainous

rea

east

of

our

study

rea. The cost

to the end

user

of this

rushed

ock

s about

7,000

pesos per

truck,

quivalent

o

580

pesos per

cubic

meter. different

ype

f crushed

ock,

ocally

alled

adobe,

s used

mainly

or andfill. his

is

produced

from heuplands rea Fig.7), especiallynthe rea

of

Makati

City (Fig.

1),

through

urface

eveling

work or

arge-scale

hopping

enters r subdivision

developments.

n the

uplands

rea,

the Pleistocene

Guadalupe

ormation

largely

olcanic

uff)

utcrops

at the urface

Aurelio

ndPeña

2002).

Leveling,

nd

in

some areas

cutting,

f theuneven nd

rocky

and

Ô

Springer







136

GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

Fig.

7

Regionalmap howing

ources f

fillmaterial.hoto

a)

shows

ahar

mining

t

Pampanga.

hoto

b)

shows ock

mining

t

TayTay

surface

for new

land

development rovides

arge

volumes

f adobe.

They

re trucked

irectly

o low-

lying

onstruction

ites,

r

to contractor

hops

nthe

low-lying

reas,

where t s

mixedwith onstruction

waste

nd sold for

bout

1,200

pesos per

truckload,

equivalent

o about 100

pesos

per

cubic meter. fter

leveling

r

cutting

t

upland

onstruction

ites,

high

quality

ahar nd crushed

ock are used

for urface

filling

o

provide

oundations

o

support

arge

and

heavybuildings.

Construction

aste

n theform f

broken oncrete

is

themain

fillmaterial sed

for

ow-lying evelop-

ment ites.

t

s

produced

mainly

rom he

upland

rea

as

a result f

building

enovation

ork,

nd s

mixed

with dobe and trucked

o

development

ites

n

low-

lying

reas. Demolition

f old concrete

overnment

buildings

n

low-lying

reas

provides

additional

concretewastefor

fill

t

nearby evelopment

ites.

This

waste is

often

dumped,

with

permission

f

landowners,

nto acant

lots

or

se

as

fill

or

uture

land

developments.

therwise

t s

provided

o local

contractor

hops

for ale.

Local peoplethatwe interviewednAugust 005

along

the transectA-B

in

Fig.

5 said

that

they

previously

sed fill

composed

of

clay

and latente

from

ntipoloFig.

7),

thenearest

illy egion

ast

of

our

study

rea. An

82-year-old

omanwho was a

long-time

esident

aid that

hey

used

to

regularly

collect these

materials

nd

carry

them

by

two-

Ô

Springer

wheeled cart to

fill

their

ground

floors o

protect

their omesfrom

looding.

esidents lso said

that,

since the

1980s,

construction aste has

commonly

been used for andfill.

oday,

he ocal

clay

s more

commonly

used for other

purposes,

uch as to

temporarilyepairpaths

thathave been

submerged

and

damaged uring eavy

ains

see

photo

n

Fig.

6).

Discussion

Spatiotemporal

elationships

etween andform

and and use

In

the

study

area,

land-use

patterns

have been

transformed

ver ime

y

a

change

rom n

approach

that

adapted

to the natural andforms o one that

modified hose

andforms,

hich

orresponds

o the

Oya

(1993)

model of land-use

change

in Asian

insular oothill-rimmedowland reas.

Although

he

upland

rea had

begun

o

develop

a

strong ousing

base in

large-scale

ubdivisions n 1966

(mostly

interpreted

rom 966 aerial

photographs)

nd there

were also some businessareas being developed,

forest till overed bout31% of the surface.

n

the

low-lying

reas

at

this

ime,

esidential

and use was

largely

confined o the natural evees

and

was,

therefore,

elatively

afefrom he ffects f

flooding.

A

photograph

aken

n

1960

in a

low-lying

rea

(Fig.

8a)

shows

n

original

waterscape

hat s

typical







GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

137

Fig.

8

(a)

Traditional

illage andscape long

stream nd

naturalevee andformround ite16

of

Fig.

5

in

1960

with

kind

ermission

o use

by

Nocheseda,

.I.)- fl>)

An

abandoned

wooden oat bserved

t site

of

Fig.

5

on

November

001

ofthat ime. raditionalaised-floorettlementsere

located n thebanks

fthe

tream,

nd

villagers

sed

wooden

boats s theirmain

form f

transport.

ome

of

these

lements an still e found

n

thefield

oday.

For

xample,

he

photograph

n the eft ide

of

Fig.

6

shows a traditional ooden raised-floor

welling

where he

original

pen-air

round

loorhas been

enclosed

by

a concrete lock wall.

During

ur field

survey,

e

also observed everal

bandonedwooden

boats

Fig.

8b)

in settlements

long

theroads that

have

historically

followed the natural levee

landforms.

As the regional populationhas continued o

become concentrated

n Metro

Manila,

urban and

use,

and residentialand use

in

particular,

as been

expanding

nto vulnerable reas

(Villanueva

et al.

2000)

such s theback marshes nd acustrine

lains

between henaturalevees

Midorikawa

nd Bautista

2002).

Because these andformsre

vulnerable o

flooding

JICA

2000),

the

xtensive se of andfills

essentialfor

development

f the

land

(Hara

et al.

2002).

Between

1986

and

2004,

residential reas

expanded nto the areas well beyondthe natural

levees

Figs.

2

and

4).

These residential

reas were

generally

mixture f slum

housing

and

large

subdivision

evelopments

n

fill

Woodward-Clyde

Inc.

2000;

Murakami t al.

2003).

During

his ame

period,

usiness ffices nd

large shopping

enters

were

developed

n vacant andon

the

upland

Serote

1991).

Thus,

by

2004

in

the

study

rea,

urban and

use

had

overcome he

restrictions

mposedby

the

naturalandforms.

Quantitative

nd

qualitative

haracteristics

of andfill

The use of landfill

s

by

far the most common

landform

ransformation

ractice

for

residential

development

n

low-lying

andforms

n

the

study

area

(Figs.

3 and

4).

We calculated he cumulative

volume f fill

pplied

between 966 and 2004 to be

1.95

x

105 m3

km~2,

which

represents pproxi-

mately

5.0

x

103 m3

km~2year~1

and is com-

parable

to the

rate of

fill

on the urban

fringe

f

Bangkok

(5.7

x

103m3

km 2year-1;

Hara et al.

2008).

The

material

mainly

sed for andfill

or

develop-

ment f

ow-lying

and s construction

aste,

roken

concretenparticularTable 2, Figs.5 and6). How-

ever,

according

ur field

observations

Fig.

6)

and

interviews ith ocal

inhabitants,

andfill

ractices

seem to have been variable nd to have

adapted

o

make use of themost

readily

vailable fillmaterial.

Initially,

ocal

clay

fillwas

used

to

raisethe evel of

the

ground

loors f

houses.

The

common eedto cut

off he ottom

fdoors

n

these reas

photo,

ig.

6)

is

evidence f the

gradual

nd

regular

ddition f fill.

More

recently,

andowners ave

used construction

waste

forfill

when

hey eplaced

raditional

ouses

with etached

ouses.

n

new

arge-scale

ubdivision

developments

n

low

lying

reas,

onstructionaste

used for andfill as raised he and urface o a level

higher

han the

average

and elevationof

nearby

detached ouses

Murakami

t al.

2003).

These landfill

ractices

re

presumably

or

pro-

tection

gainst looding.

ara

et al.

(2002)

reported

that

ocal residentssed whatever illwas available o

protect

heir omes

gainst looding,

nd n

doing

o,

4JÜ

pringer







138

GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

they

created and-locked

lots

as

poorly

drained

swampy

and. For the maintenance

f

public

roads,

intermittent

ill renovations ave

been carried ut

without onsiderationf appropriateuilding tan-

dards,

s verified

y

staff f the

ngineering

ivision

of thePateros

municipal

ffices

n 25

August,

005.

This is

inviting

dditionalfill

practices

n

the

neighboring

ouses.

Thus in this

area,

landfill as

been

regular ractice

or

many ears,

nitially sing

local

clay

nd,

more

ecently,sing

he

arge

olumes

of broken oncrete

hathave resulted

rom

uilding

renovations.s a

result,

hebaseline f

fill

eight

as

been

gradually

aised. or

nstance,

ccording

o the

records f

road renovationn the Pateros

municipal

office,

M. Almeda

Street,

heoldest oad of

Pateros,

had been filled

with50 cm of

fill hree imes

until

1980.We calculated hetotalvolume ffillused n

the

study

rea

from

986

to

2004

(Fig.

4)

by using

the

average

fill

height

n

1986

(calculated

by

comparison

f the 1966

and

1986

topographic

aps)

as

a

baseline.

However,

on the

premise

hat the

baseline

f fill

height

as

been

gradually

aised,

he

cumulative olume

f andfill ver

the entire

eriod

from 1966

to

2004

might

be

greater

han we

calculated.

Individual

greements

asis of

fillmaterial

low

between

uppliers

nd

developers

Constructionaste,which s themostwidely sedfill

material

n the

ow-lying

reas,

ends o

flow one-to-

one

from he ource o the ite

where

t

s

used,

hat

is,

directly

rom

upplier

o end user.Wreckers

ant

to

dump

heir aste

conomically,

nd andowners

n

low-lying

reas

wantto

acquire

andfill o

develop

theirand s

cheaply

s

possible.

herefore,

one-to-

one flow

ccurs

n

the form

f a trade-off

elation-

ship.

This

relationship

evelops

on

a

case-by-case

basis,

sometimes

hroughcquaintances.

or exam-

ple,

some landowners

pen

theirvacant

lots for

dumping,

nd wreckers

an

dump

wastes

for ree r

for a small fee

(Fig.

5).

For

large-scalebuilding

renovation rojects,however,demolitionworkers

may

look for

nearbydumping

ites

by talking

o

neighbors

r relatives.

The recent

rend f urban

renewal

n the

uplands ppears

o

have resulted

n

a

considerable

ne-to-one

lowof construction

aste

and

dobe nto

ow-lying evelopmentlots.

Material

flow

f his

ype

was

not

bserved

n the

development

¥j

Springer

of

suburban

angkok

Hara

et al.

2008),

probably

because of the

greater

istances

more

han 00

km)

between he ource

nd

the

nd user.

Theflows f rushedockexcludingdobe) nd anar

intoMetroManila re

argely

ne-to-one,

ven

hough

the source

reas,

eingdependent

n

geologic

ondi-

tions,

re distant rom

development

ites. Lanar is

excavated t

Pampanga,

t the foot f Mt. Pinatubo.

Estimatedahar

roduction

romhis rea

uring

he

eak

period,

hortly

fterhe 991

ruption

ftheMt. inatubo

volcano,

was around 6.6

x

106

m3

year 1.

This

figure

s

comparable

o

the

peak

of

sand

production

for

Bangkok,

whichwas 5.5

x

107

m3

year 1

Hara

et al.

2008),

and for

okyo,

whichwas 3.0

x

107

m3

year 1

(Asahi

et al.

1993).

There is

convenient

highway

ccess to the

Pampanga egion,

romwhere

the ahar strucked,pproximately0 km othe ow-

lying evelopment

ites

n the

tudy

rea; hence,

t

s

transported

irectly

rom ource oenduse.

Although

there

re

some

ntermediateontractorsn both he

source nd end use

areas,

he

general

low s one-to-

one. This s differentrom he ituationn

Bangkok,

where ource reasfor

ill

remore han 00

km

rom

development

ites,

nd

ransport

s

via a

node-linkage

structure ith

apillary

low

owardts nduse

n

the

urban

ringe evelopment

ites.

The

structure

f the

laharflow nMetroManila s

adapted

o themacro-

scale

géomorphologieetting

f an

insular,

eolog-

ically

controlledowlandrimmed

y

volcanoes

nd

mountainousreas.This s in contrasto the ase of

Bangkok

wherematerial lowhas

adapted

o a

huge

andflat ontinentalelta

etting.

Crushed

ock s

producedmainly

rom

ayTay,

which

s

thenearest

illy

nd mountainousrea ess

than10km fromhe eastrim fMetroManila. t is

trucked

irectly

o

ow-lyingevelopmentlots

r to

local

contractors.aterite nd

clay

for andfill ave

also

been ruckedrom hese reas

directly

o the ow-

lying evelopment

reas,

lthough

he

olume

ppears

to

have

decreased

s lateritend

lay

hasbeen

eplaced

by

construction aste.These flows

f

crushed

ock,

laterite,

nd

lay

re lso

governed y

hemacro-scale

géomorphologieettingsiscussed bove.

Taking

andfill

ractice

nto onsideration

in land-use

lanning

This

study

has shown that

adaptive, unplanned

landfill

ractice

s

employed

n

ow-lying

reas.

JICA







GeoJournal

2008)

71:127-141

139

(2000)

reported

hat hese

ractices

ause

changes

n

the

distribution

f

flood-prone

reas and

long-stand-

ing swampy lots

nd can lead to

unsanitaryiving

environments.ara et al. (2002) pointedout that

controlling

ill

height,aking

nto ccount henatural

landform

atterns,

s an effective

ay

to avoid

these

situations.

herefore,

oning

based on natural

and-

forms,

o that andfill

ractices

re

not n conflict ith

the

natural

nvironment,

s

important. ccording

o

the currentand-use

planning

ystem

n this area

(Pateros

Urban

Planning

Office

000;

Taguig City

Development Planning

Office

2003),

zoning

is

determined

y

and

essentially

parallel

with the

constructionf main roads (Fig.9), without ny

consideration

f fill

volumes hat

may

be

required.

During

ur nterviewsn

August

005,

staff t both

the ivil

engineering

nd urban

lanning

ivisions f

the

Pateros

nd

Taguigmunicipal

fficesnsisted hat

there re

effectively

o

rules

governing

he

use

of

landfill. r.

Mor P. Cabilino f the ivil

engineering

Fig.

9 The currentand-

use

plan

for

Taguig City

showing xisting

oad

network asis

zoning

Ö

Springer







140

GeoJournal

2008)

7

1 127-141

division

f the Pateros

municipal

ffice tated

hat

landowners

eterminehe

fill

height

or heir

lots,

and

generally

match t to the

levation f

the

ccess

roadtotheir lot.The Departmentf PublicWorks

and

Highways

DPWH)

provides

national

uilding

code

DPWH 2005),

which

equires

oring

o test he

geology

nd soundness

f foundationsor

buildings

of more than

three

tories.

The Mines and Geo-

sciences

Bureau

(MGB)

of the

Department

f

Environmentnd Natural

Resources

DENR)

also

promotes

eological

and environmentalssessment

for ewurbanand

development

ith he ssuance f

DENR AdministrativerderNo. 2000-28.

Accord-

ing

to Dr. Edwin G.

Domingo,

ssistant irector t

MGB,

individual

ill

practices

evertheless

re cur-

rently

ncontrolled;

n

particular,uality

ontrol or

fillmaterialssnotfunctional.here s an mmediate

need to

develop

and

implement

zoning

scheme

based on natural

andforms,

ncorporating

oth

quantity

nd

quality

onstraints

n landfill

ractices.

Our

tudy

as revealed

hat he low f

fill

material

from ffsite ource

reas to onsite

andfill

evelop-

ment reas is

predominantly

n a one-to-one asis

using

trade-off

elationships.urrently,

hese flows

take

place independently

ithout

egulation

r

any

form

f

managementystem.

his situation

might

promote

ncontrolled rban

prawl

nd

unsanitary

urban

iving

nvironments.

evelopment

f a

system

for n effectivend

regulated

low f

fillmaterialn

Metro Manila is a task of immediatemportance.

Mapping

and

information

ystems

based on GIS

technology

hat s

being

ested

n

Japan

MLIT

2003)

and other

egions

Li

et al.

2005)

may provide

n

effectiveolution

o this

problem.

Acknowledgements

his esearch as

supportedy

Grants-

in-Aid or cientificesearch

18780017

nd

03J11839)

rom

the

Japanese inistry

f

Education, ulture,

ports,

cience

and

Technology.

e

express

ur

deep appreciation

or

help

with

ur

field

urvey

rom

Ms. Maria Florencia

.

Navera,

research

ssociate,

niversity

fthe

Philippines

os

Baños.

We

especially

ppreciate

he kind

help

of

Dr. Edwin G.

Domingo,

ssistant irector t the Mines

and Geosciences

Bureau in the

Department

f


Resources,and staff of Metro Manila Development

Authority,

nd he

Taguig

ndPateros

Municipal

ffices.We

also hank r.

Ryuichiro

eki

nd ther

xperts

rom

he

Japan

International

ooperation

gency

or

helping

s withour

survey.

e

especially

hank r.Elmer . Nocheseda

nd

other

local

residents,andowners,

ocal

contractors,

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urfield

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Documents

Hara, Takeuchi, Palijon & Murakami 2008 Landfill Development in the Urban Fringe of NCR