Hans Günter Brauch Coping with Global Environmental Change, …eprints.manipal.edu/146864/1/Dr.Nanda Kishor-HEX_05... · 2016. 8. 26. · Hans Günter Brauch and Úrsula Oswald Spring

Arieh SingerThe Soils of Israel

1

ISSN 1865-5793 ISBN 978-3-540-xxxxx-x

VO L 5 / H E X AG O N S E R I E S O N H U MA NA N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E C U R I T Y A N D P E AC E

HESP / VOL 5

All chapters were anonymously peer reviewed. This is the third and final volume of the Global Environmental and Human Security Handbook for the Anthropocene (GEHSHA).

Hans Günter Brauch, Úrsula Oswald Spring, Czeslaw Mesjasz, John Grin, Patricia Kameri-Mbote, Béchir Chourou, Pál Dunay, Jörn Birkmann (Eds.)Coping with Global Environmental Change, Disasters and Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks

Coping with Global Environmental Change, Disasters and Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks

1 3

H E X AG O N S E R I E S O N H U MA NA N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L S E C U R I T Y A N D P E AC E / VO L 5

This policy-focused Global Environmental and Human Security Handbook for the Anthropocene (GEHSHA) addresses new security threats, challenges, vulnerabilities and risks posed by global environ-mental change and disasters. In 5 forewords, 5 preface essays and 95 peer reviewed chapters, 164 authors from 48 countries analyse in 10 parts concepts of military and political hard security and economic, social, environmental soft security with a regional focus on the Near East, North and Sub-Sahara Africa and Asia and on hazards in urban centres. The major focus is on coping with global environmental change: climate change, desertification, water, food and health and with hazards and strategies on social vulnerability and resilience building and scientific, international, regional and national political strategies, policies and measures including early warning of conflicts and hazards. The book proposes a political geo-ecology and discusses a ‘Fourth Green Revolution’ for the Anthropocene era of earth history.

Hans Günter Brauch, Adj. Prof. (PD) at the Free University of Berlin, chairman of AFES-PRESS, senior fellow at UNU-EHS in Bonn and editor of this series; he publishes on security and environment issues.

Úrsula Oswald Spring, Professor at UNAM-CRIM, Mexico; first UNU-EHS chair on social vulnerability; she writes on sustainability, development, gender, disaster, poverty and collaborates with peasants.

John Grin, Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Amsterdam; he publishes on societal transformations in water management, agriculture and health care, and advices practitioners.

Czeslaw Mesjasz, Assoc. Professor, Management, Cracow University of Economics; he publishes on systems and game theory, conflict resolution, negotiation, economics, finance and security.

Patricia Kameri-Mbote, Professor, Strathmore University; Programme Director, International Environ-mental Law Research Centre, Nairobi; she writes on law, development, property, environment and gender.

Béchir Chourou, Director, University of Tunis-Carthage, he taught International Relations at Tunis University; he publishes on Euro-Mediterranean relations, food policy and human security in the Arab world.

Pal Dunay, Faculty Member, Geneva Centre for Security Policy, Director of International Training Course in Security Policy; he publishes on European security, the post-Soviet space and conventional arms control.

Jörn Birkmann, Adj. Prof. (PD) at Bonn University, Head, Vulnerability Assessment, Risk Management and Adaptive Planning Section, United Nations University, Institute for Environment and Human Security.

Hans Günter BrauchÚrsula Oswald SpringCzeslaw MesjaszJohn Grin

Patricia Kameri-MboteBéchir ChourouPál DunayJörn Birkmann(Eds.)

Coping with Global

Environmental Change,

Disasters and Security

BrauchOswald Spring

MesjaszGrin

Kameri-MboteChourou

DunayBirkmann

(Eds.)

Contents

Forewords

Achim Steiner, Executive Director of the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) and Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations V

Konrad Osterwalder, Rector, United Nations University and Under-Secretary-General of the United Nation VII

Jean-François Bureau, NATO Assistant Secretary General for Public Diplomacy Chairman, Science for Peace and Security (SPS) Committee IX

Joy Ogwu, Permanent Representative of the Federal Republic of Nigeria to the United Nations in New York XI

HRH Prince El Hassan bin Talal,The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan XIII

Dedications XV

Acknowledgements XXVII

Permissions and Credits XXXI

Prefaces 1

The Anthropocene: Geology by Mankind 3

Paul Crutzen, Nobel Laureate for ChemistryMax Planck Institute for ChemistryDepartment Atmospheric Chemistry

Connecting Inconvenient Truths: Urgency of Nuclear Disarmament in a World of Pressing Problems 5

Amb. Jayantha Dhanapala, Former UN Under-Secretary General for Disarmament, President, Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs

Living in and Coping with World Risk Society 11

Ulrich Beck

Population Prospects and the Challenges of Sustainability 17

Hania Zlotnik

Towards a Great Land-Use Transformation? 23

Christoph Müller, Hermann Lotze-Campen, Veronika Huber, Alexander Popp, Anastasia Svirejeva-Hopkins, Michael Krause andHans Joachim Schellnhuber

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xviii Contents

Part I Introduction: Concepts of Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks 29

1 Introduction: Coping with Global Environmental Change in the Anthropocene 31

Hans Günter Brauch and Úrsula Oswald Spring

2 Concepts of Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks 61

Hans Günter Brauch

3 Disaster Risk and Vulnerability: Concepts and Measurement of Human and Environmental Insecurity 107

Omar D. Cardona

4 Economic Vulnerability and Economic Security 123

Czeslaw Mesjasz

5 Debt Relief, Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction in Low-Income Countries 157

Lidia Mesjasz

Part II Securitization of Global Environmental Change 177

6 Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks in the Evolution and Implementation of the European Security Strategy 179

Alyson J.K. Bailes

7 NATO’s Traditional Security Problems 191

Pál Dunay

8 European Responses to Security Threats in the Mediterranean in the Early 21st Century 199

Eduard Soler i Lecha

9 Inside/Outside: Turkey’s Security Dilemmas and Priorities in the Early 21st Century 207

Mustafa Aydin and Asli Toksabay Esen

10 Promoting Democracy as a Security Goal. The ‘inward-outward’ Paradox of the EU’s Foreign Policy 219

Omar Serrano

11 Language Games on Security in Finland: Towards Changing Concepts of the State and National Survival 235

Vilho Harle and Sami Moisio

12 Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks in US National Security Documents (1990–2010) 249

Hans Günter Brauch

13 Changes in the Perception of Military Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks in Russia (1991-2009) 275

Alexander Sergunin

14 Russian Security Policy in the 21st Century Based on the Experiences of Its First Decade 291

Pál Dunay

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Contents xix

15 Non-Traditional Security and the New Concept of Security of China 307

Zhongqin Zhao

16 Perceptions of Hard Security Issues in the Arab World 313

Gamal M. Selim

17 Arab Perceptions of Soft Security Issues 327

Mohammad El-Sayed Selim

18 Military Challenges and Threats in West Africa 339

Kwesi Aning and Andrews Atta-Asamoah

19 Weak States and Security Threats in West Africa 353

John Emeka Akude

Part III Economic, Social, Environmental Security and Human Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks in the Near East, North and Sub-Sahara Africa and in Asia 369

20 Environmental Challenges and Risks in North Africa 371

Béchir Chourou

21 Water Degradation as a Human Security Challenge in Jordan 395

Bassam Ossama Hayek and Nisreen Daifallah Al Hmoud

22 Water Scarcity and Degradation in Palestine as Challenges, Vulnerabilities, and Risks for Environmental Security 409

Marwan Haddad

23 Social, Environmental and Security Impacts of Climate Change on the Eastern Mediterranean 421

Hilmi S. Salem

24 Progressive Development of the Water Resources of Israel and Palestine to Mitigate the Negative Impact of Global Warming 447

Arie S. Issar

25 Jerusalem: Where To? In Search for Hidden Opportunities 459

Mohammed S. Dajani Daoudi and Ashraf M. Dajani

26 Global Climate Change Impacts for the Mediterranean in the 21st Century: Challenges for Human and Environmental Security 485

Hans Günter Brauch

27 Global Environmental Change and Conflict Potential in Central Asia 525

Jenniver Sehring and Ernst Giese

28 Impact of Environmental Change on Stability and Conflict Potentials in China 535

Thomas Heberer and Anja D. Senz

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xx Contents

Part IV Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks for Urban Centres in Hazards and Disasters 547

29 The Vulnerability of Cities to Disasters and Climate Change: A Conceptual Framework 549

Mark Pelling

30 Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Case Study on Landslide Risks in La Paz 559

Fabien Nathan

31 Revealing the Impact of Small Disasters to the Economic and Social Development 575

Mabel C. Marulanda, Omar D. Cardona and Alex H. Barbat

32 Climate Change, Natural Hazards and Coastal Ecosystems in Latin-America: A Framework for Analysis 585

Carmen Lacambra and Kaveh Zahedi

33 Flood Loss Redistribution in a Third World Megacity: The Case of Mumbai 603

Monalisa Chatterjee

34 Coping with Water- and Wastewater-related Risks in Megacity Delhi 613

Reena Singh

35 Politics of Displacement and Vulnerability 625

Nanda Kishor

36 Linking Oriental and Western Thinking to Mitigate Flood Risk 637

Xiaomeng Shen

37 Preparation for an Earthquake in the Megacity Istanbul 647

Sıdıka Tekeli Yeşil

38 Risk Management Strategies for the Predicted Earthquake Hazard in Istanbul 655

Ebru A. Gencer

39 Urban Vulnerability to Climate Change and Natural Hazards in Nigeria 669

Adeniyi Sulaiman Gbadegesin, Felix Bayode Olorunfemi and Usman Adebimpe Raheem

Part V Coping with Global Environmental Change: Climate Change, Soil and Desertification, Water Management, Food and Health 689

40 Quantifying Global Environmental Change Impacts: Methods, Criteria and Definitions for Compiling Data on Hydro-meteorological Disasters 693

Debarati Guha-Sapir and Femke Vos

Section A: Climate Change

41 Stormy Weather: International Security in the Shadow of Climate Change 719

Steffen Bauer

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Contents xxi

42 Security Risks of Climate Change: Vulnerabilities, Threats, Conflicts and Strategies 735

Jürgen Scheffran

43 New Threats? Risk and Securitization Theory on Climate Change and Water 757

Anders Jägerskog

44 Dealing With Uncertainties in Climate Change Impacts Assessments: A Case Study on the Nile Basin 765

Carlo Buontempo, Jens Kristian Lørup, Michael Sanderson, Michael Butts, Erika Palin, Rachel McCarthy, Richard Jones, Richard Betts and Mamdouh Antar

45 Mapping Areas Affected by Sea-Level Rise due to Climate Change in the Nile Delta Until 2100 773

Mohamed El Raey

46 Vulnerability of Tropical Montane Rain Forest Ecosystems due to Climate Change 789

Hans Juergen Boehmer

Section B: Soil and Desertification

47 Securitizing Land Degradation and Desertification: A Proactive Soil Security Concept 803

Hans Günter Brauch and Úrsula Oswald Spring

48 Alternative Livelihoods for Attaining Sustainability and Security in Drylands 835

Uriel N. Safriel

49 Societal Vulnerability to Desertification and Policy Response Options 853

Zafar Adeel

50 Desertification Process in Egypt 863

Ismail Abd El Galil Hussein

51 Impacts of Drought on Agriculture in Northern Mexico 875

Tulio Arredondo Moreno and Elisabeth Huber-Sannwald

52 Traditional Knowledge in Coping with Desertification 893

Pietro Laureano

53 Prodromes of Desertification in the Oasis of Tafilalet (Morocco) and Specific Local Solutions 901

Monique Mainguet, Frédéric Dumay, Lahcen Kabiri and Boualem Rémini

54 Agriculture in Drylands: Experience in Almeria 921

Andrés Miguel García Lorca

55 Land-use Changes, Desertification, and Climate Change Impacts in South-eastern Spain 935

Jorge García Gómez, Francisco López-Bermúdez and Juan Manuel Quiñonero Rubio

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xxii Contents

Section C: Water Management

56 Reconsidering Integrated Water Resources Management: Promoting Economic Growth and Tackling Environmental Stress 947

Jakob Granit

57 Coping with Population Growth, Climate Change, Water Scarcity and Growing Food Demand in China in the 21st Century 957

Zhanyi Gao and Yaqiong Hu

58 Ensuring Water Security in Rural Areas of Bangladesh under Climate Change and Non-climatic Drivers of Change 969

Mohammed Rahman Zillur and Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt

59 Applying Bottom-up Participatory Strategies and Traditional Methods of Water Harvesting in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan 983

Kanupriya Harish and Mathews Mullackal

60 Coping with Water Scarcity in the Sahel: Assessing Groundwater Resources in the Western Sahel 997

Abdelkader Dodo, Mohamedou Ould Baba Sy and Jihed Ghannem

Section D: Coping with Food Security Issues

61 Global Threats, Global Changes and Connected Communities in the Global Agrofood System 1005

John Grin and Esther Marijnen

62 Genetically Modified Organisms: A Threat for Food Security and Risk for Food Sovereignty and Survival 1019

Úrsula Oswald Spring

63 Natural Disasters and Major Challenges towards Achieving Food Security in the Sahel: The Experience of CILSS 1043

Issa Martin Bikienga

64 Responding to Climate Variability and Change: Opportunities and Challenges for Governance 1055

Sreeja Nair

65 Coping with Climate Change Impacts on Coffee and Maize for Peasants in Mexico 1067

Cecilia Conde

Section E: Coping with Health Security Issues

66 The Impact of AIDS on Women’s Social Life in a Mexican Rural Community 1081

Fátima Flores and Wolfgang Wagner

67 Integrated Assessment of Vulnerability to Heat Stress in Urban Areas 1091

Tanja Wolf, Glenn McGregor and Anna Paldy

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Contents xxiii

Part VI Coping with Hazards and Strategies for Coping with Social Vulnerability and Resilience Building 1101

68 Regulation and Coupling of Society and Nature in the Context of Natural Hazards 1103

Jörn Birkmann

69 Differentials in Impacts and Recovery in the Aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: Local Examples at Different Scales in Sri Lanka 1129

Katharina Marre and Fabrice Renaud

70 Risks in Central America: Bringing Them Under Control 1147

Juan Carlos Villagrán de León

71 Economics and Social Vulnerability: Dynamics of Entitlement and Access 1159

Koko Warner

72 Social Vulnerability, Discrimination, and Resilience-building in Disaster Risk Reduction 1169

Úrsula Oswald Spring

Part VII Coping with Global Environmental Change: Scientific, International, Regional and National Political Strategies, Policies and Measures 1189

Section A: Scientific Research Goals and Strategies for Coping with Global Environmental Change

73 Coping with Global Environmental Change: Need for an Interdisciplinary and Integrated Approach 1193

G.A. McBean

74 Research Agenda and Policy Input of the Earth System Science Partnership for Coping with Global Environmental Change 1205

Rik Leemans, Martin Rice, Ann Henderson-Sellers and Kevin Noone

75 The International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change – Taking Stock and Moving Forward 1221

Louise von Falkenhayn, Andreas Rechkemmer and Oran R. Young

76 DIVERSITAS: Biodiversity Science Integrating Research and Policy for Human Well-Being 1235

Bruno A. Walther, Anne Larigauderie and Michel Loreau

77 The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme’s (IGBP) Scientific Research Agenda for Coping with Global Environmental Change 1249

Kevin J. Noone, Carlos Nobre and Sybil Seitzinger

78 Climate Information for Coping with Environmental Change: Contributions of the World Climate Research Programme 1257

John A. Church, Ghassem R. Asrar, Antonio J. Busalacchi and Carolin E. Arndt

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xxiv Contents

Section B: Global Strategies, Policies and Measures for Coping with Climate Change

79 Key IPCC Conclusions on Climate Change Impacts and Adaptations 1273

Martin Parry, Osvaldo Canziani, Jean Palutikof and Clair Hanson

80 Options for Mitigating Climate Change Results of Working Group III of the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC 1283

Peter Bosch and Bert Metz

81 Global Climate Change, Natural Hazards, and the Environment: an Overview of UNESCO’s Activities 1293

Walter Erdelen and Badaoui Rouhban

82 Climate Change and Development: UNDP’s Approach to Helping Countries Build a New Paradigm 1303

Veerle Vandeweerd, Yannick Glemarec and Vivienne Caballero

Section C: Regional Strategies, Policies and Measures for Coping with Climate Change

83 EU Strategies for Climate Change Policy Beyond 2012 1319

Christian Egenhofer, Arno Behrens and Anton Georgiev

84 Coping with Climate Change in East Asia: Vulnerabilities and Responsibilities 1333

Paul G. Harris

85 Strategies for Coping with Climate Change in Latin America: Perspective beyond 2012 1341

Ricardo Zapata-Martí

86 Politics of Equity and Justice in Climate Change Negotiations in North-South Relations 1355

Ariel Macaspac Penetrante

Section D: National Strategies, Policies and Measures for Coping with Climate Change

87 Climate Change: Long-Term Security Implications for China and the International Community 1367

Yu Hongyuan and Paul J. Smith

88 Japanese Climate Change Policy: Moving Beyond the Kyoto Process 1381

Hiroshi Ohta

89 Implications of Equity Considerations and Emission Reduction Targets: Lessons from the Case of Japan’s Mid-Term Target 1393

Norichika Kanie, Hiromi Nishimoto, Yasuaki Hijioka and Yasuko Kameyama

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Contents xxv

Part VIII A Technical Tool: Remote Sensing, Vulnerability Mapping and Indicators of Environmental Security Challenges and Risks 1401

90 Land-use and Flood Risk Changes in Coastal Areas of South-eastern Spain 1403

Juan M. Quiñonero-Rubio, Francisco López-Bermúdez, Francisco Alonso-Sarría and Francisco J. Gomariz-Castillo

91 Monitoring Conflict Risk: The Contribution of Globally Used Indicator Systems 1415

Jochen Jesinghaus

Part IX Towards an Improved Early Warning of Conflicts and Hazards 1427

92 Networking Disaster and Conflict Early Warning in Response to Climate Change 1429

Patrick Meier

93 Vulnerability Assessment in Sri Lanka in the Context of Tsunami Early Warning 1441

Juan Carlos Villagrán de León

Part X Summary and Conclusions 1451

94 Political Geoecology for the Anthropocene 1453

Hans Günter Brauch, Simon Dalby and Úrsula Oswald Spring

95 Coping with Global Environmental Change – Sustainability Revolutionand Sustainable Peace 1487

Úrsula Oswald Spring and Hans Günter Brauch

Abbreviations 1505

Bibliography 1521

Biographies of Contributors 1711

Index 1765

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35 Politics of Displacement and Vulnerability

Nanda Kishor

The intricacies in the development of a country areleading to several debates which are worth mention-ing and run through the whole process of public pol-icy. Among these, the politics of development, thepolitics of displacement and inequalities along withvulnerability take a primordial position. Although thepresent work does not deal with all concepts involvedin development and displacement in detail, it doesdeal with key issues which have changed the lives ofmillions who have borne the brunt of the develop-ment of the country and accepted the sacrifice oftheir belongings and putting themselves in the posi-tion of the vulnerable.

35.1 Introduction

India is a country with multiple diversities and cul-tures. The country has gone through different phasessince its independence. She had to face the wrath ofcolonial rule for very long time, and this paralyzed thegrowth of the country severely. It is often argued (Sen1996) that outside India, the reforms have been fairlyuniversally welcomed, but they have been, since theirinception, the subject of severe debate within India.The controversies have been extensive, and the argu-ments on each side are quite firm and forceful. Thepath which was chosen after independence to pursuedevelopment appeared astoundingly humanitarianand progressive, but to the dismay of the people, itdid not allow the country to progress the way shewanted to. This chapter critically reviews the conceptof development, at the cost of people, the politics ofdevelopment and it also shows the risks involved insuch unplanned development plans leading to differ-ent vulnerabilities.

The term ‘development’ envisages a battery ofchanges – changes for the betterment of the commu-nity. It involves the notion of progress, growth,improvement, and welfare of the collective. ‘Develop-ment’ has to be an innovative process leading to thestructural transformation of social systems. The devel-

opment is multifaceted and it is not always progres-sive as it is supposed to be by its definition. Some-times, “both history and daily experiences teach usthat development processes, be they spontaneous orinduced, bring not just benefits. True development isundoubtedly beneficial to very many people. Butdevelopment changes the status quo and such changeusually entails social disruption and undesirable con-sequences for some population segments” (Cernea1996: 1515). This chapter analyses for three typicalcases displacement due to unplanned developmenttaken up by the Government of the State of AndhraPradesh (India) in its capital Hyderabad.

Hyderabad is one of the six metropolitan citiesand is located in the Deccan Plateau in south India. Itis the capital city of the province called AndhraPradesh with a population of 3.829753 million people(2001 census of India).1 It is situated at an altitude of536 metres above sea level on the eastern side ofIndia. The city is one of the fastest growing cities withrespect to information and technology.

35.2 The Politics of Development

The concept, ‘politics of development’ is crucial forthe understanding of the complexity of the conceptof displacement. The highest numbers of displace-ments in the country are ‘development-induced dis-placements’. So displacement cannot be studied inisolation and without controlling aspects of develop-ment the undercurrents of all paths of devastating de-velopment may not be understood. In explaining how‘politics’ has entered into development Adrian Left-wich (2000: 4) argued to locate politics in develop-ment, “the central and dominant variable determiningnot only the conception and shape of development,but developmental failure or success in all human so-

1 See at: <http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/A-Series/A-Series_links/t_00_005.aspx>.

00_GEC_Hex5.book Seite 625 Freitag, 1. Oktober 2010 12:32 12

626 Nanda Kishor

cieties, is their politics.” To put it in more appropriatewords, politics is not simply important, but it is cru-cial for both understanding and promoting develop-ment. It shapes and in turn influences by the charac-ter, structure, and capacity of the state. But thequestion why states are so political and developmentis also made political arises. The answer is clear in allthe activities of conflict, cooperation, negotiation in-volved in the use, production and distribution of re-sources, whether material or ideal, whether at local,national or international levels, or public domainshave politics as an inherent component. This defini-tion almost makes the concept very clear and gives aperfect platform for further arguments.

The meticulous answer by Government agencieson the unplanned developments in India use conceptslike globalization and its pressure on all countries togrow stronger, and take a leap in their developmentso as to compete with other countries in the world.But, even the so-called globalization failed to produceany results in making India grow stronger, especiallywith regard to the marginalized sections of its societywho have remained poor for generations. JosephStiglitz (2002: 5) argues that “those who vilify globali-zation too often overlook its benefits. But the propo-nents of globalization have been, if anything, evenmore unbalanced. To them, globalization is progress;developing countries must accept it, if they are togrow and to fight poverty effectively. But to many inthe developing world, globalization has not broughtthe promised economic benefits. A growing dividebetween the haves and have-nots has left increasingnumbers in the Third World in dire poverty, living onless than a dollar a day.” Also in India the poor haveremained poorer and the rich are becoming richer.Development does not serve those who sacrifice forthe sake of development and India’s development pat-tern documents this.

35.3 Politics of Displacement

After many debates many scholars (Cernea 1986,

1995, 1996, 1998, 1999; Goyal 1996; De wet 2001;Mathur 1995; Thukral 1996; Kothari 1996) agree thatdisplacement is a political process. This offers a plat-form for the following argument. It is essential toknow what exactly displacement means and what isinvolved in it. Walter Fernanades (1995: 280) defineddisplacement as

an unequal struggle for the control of the naturalresources and the powerful minority will continue to

appropriate most of them to their own benefit. Thisprocess of the further impoverishment of the marginal-ized sections and transfer of their resources will con-tinue, unless the weak organize themselves to resist thisonslaught.

This definition explains what displacement is, whodoes it and for whom, the impact of such an action,and what has to be done to overcome this problem.Chris De Wet (2001: 1638) described what displace-ment is all about. “Displacement is a move which iseffectively permanent, in the sense that the areawhere people used to live has been transformed bythe intervention, and there is no going back.” Dis-placement with resettlement should be distinguishedfrom resettlement, where people may simply have togo out of the way and make provision for themselves,and which should perhaps be termed ‘expulsion’.

Unfortunately, dam-related displacement was identi-fied with all other development-related displacementsand this error has influenced the provisions for reha-bilitation (Dhagmawar/De/Verma 2003). Smitu Koth-ari (1996) argues that efforts at minimizing displace-ment or improving resettlement will only be marginal,palliative, and temporary if they are not conceptual-ized in a wider socio-political context. Planners andadministrators invariably capitalize on and manipulatethe relatively weaker socio-economic and political

Table 35.1: Global distribution of projects by the type ofdevelopment. Source: World Bank (1990).

Type of Displacement

Projects with Resettlement

People Displaced

Number % Number %

Dams 39 26.6 1,233,000 62.8

Transportation 36 24.7 3,11,000 15.8

Water supply, sewerage

18 12.3 59,000 3.0

Thermal(inclu-ding mining)

15 10.3 94,000 4.8

Urban infrastructure

12 8.2 73,000 3.7

Irrigation, canals 7 4.8 71,000 3.6

Environmental protection

5 3.4 74,000 3.8

Industry 4 2.7 2,000 0.1

Forestry 2 1.4 45,000 2.3

Other 8 5.5 1,000 0

TOTAL 146 100 1,963,000 100


Politics of Displacement and Vulnerability 627

underestimated, they are treated indifferently andonly minimal cash compensation, if at all, is paid.There is an extraordinary unwillingness to grant themclear rights, such as security of tenure on alternativedeveloped land sites.

The problem is a negation of the participation bythe people in the process of planning and implemen-tation. Equal participation is a main component ofdemocracy. Democracy is not only a desirable featureof development, but a necessary feature as well. Theforced displacement of populations caused by manyinfrastructural development programmes epitomizesone category of disruptive changes that may occur as

interesting to note the public policy responses toforced displacement, the magnitude, social content(discontent) and severity of the adverse effects.

The social analysis has to delve beneath the ethno-graphic surface in order to identify the macro proc-esses and the local matters that must be addressed bydevelopment planners. Later this analysis should beused in both academic and applied forms to enablethe displaced to get justice. The law permitting theacquisition of land must be examined in a more metic-ulous way as the whole process of displacement startswith the failure of the standards of the Land Acquisi-tion Act of the government of India.

35.4 Land Acquisition Act and its Coercive Aspect

Each displacement in the state has been arbitrary andcan even be termed as forced eviction. The top-downapproach has not been changed into a bottom-up ap-

Table 35.2: Presence of resettlement and rehabilitation policies in India. Source: Cernea (1996).

States Number of Bank-financed Projects Policy Framework

Irrigation Power Infra-structure

Total National Policy*

State-wideR& R Policy

Government Orders/

Resolution

Sector Specific Policy

Andhra Pradesh 1 1 2 Yes

Bihar - 2 2 Yes

Gujarat 1 1

Haryana - 1 1

Himachal Pradesh - 1 1

Karnataka 1 1 Yes

Kerala - 1 1 Yes

Madhya Pradesh- 2 1 3 Yes

Maharashtra 1 3 2 6 Yes

Orissa - 2 1 3 Yes Water being

prepared

Punjab 1 1 2 Yes

Tamil Nadu - 1 1 Water being

prepared

Uttar Pradesh - 1 1

West Bengal - 1 1 2 Coal

Agencies

NTPC** 5 Yes Power

CIL 2 Yes Coal

Legend: *) National Highways II; **) National Thermal Power Corporation


by-products of economic growth (Cernea 1996). It is

position most people are facing. Their numbers are

628 Nanda Kishor

proach. Most of the educated among of victims of de-velopment and displacement are not even aware thatthis Land Acquisition Act exists, with which land ac-quisition must comply. This draconian law is morethan one hundred years old. In 1894 the first ever landacquisition act was formulated under the British ruleand it has remained the base for the present act. Thelatest land acquisitions in Hyderabad documents theusage of this act. The information issued to the farm-ers and others for the acquisition and compensationof their land is entitled ‘Land Acquisition Act of 1894

under the section 12 (2) - Form no. 9’. Whereas theLand Acquisition Act of 1894 categorically states that“any person or agency obstructing the process of ac-quisition on conviction before a magistrate is liable toimprisonment, for any term not exceeding onemonth, or to fine not exceeding five hundred rupeesor both.” The act ignores the resettlement question.Indeed, this is the starting point for the history of un-planned displacements in India. There have been afew amendments to this act in the year 1984 and lateralso but the basic structure remains unchanged. Thislaw is still kept as an asset by the government as it of-fers a simple way of acquiring land without any bighurdle. The growing pace of development under ‘lib-eralization’ has increased the intensity of such dis-placements to the extent that communities living intheir traditional settings are getting displaced with theloss of their traditional sources of livelihood. Oncedisplaced, the people affected by such a project are

pushed into an open-market situation as individualsand must compete for their survival in a hostile newenvironment. A majority of them are lost in this newrace of development. There have been several na-tional resettlement and rehabilitation policies whichare not mandatory to any province in the country butremain as a base and are allowed to have their own re-settlement and rehabilitation policies.

Empirical evidences give us a clear picture of thedisplacements and its vulgarity. Three cases are notsufficient to generalize about displacement in India,but the history of displacement and vulnerabilityallows drawing generalizations where the trauma andthe risk which the people have gone through and gothrough only varies in degree.

Figure 35.1 above points to certain causes and theconsequences of displacement through several differ-ent factors along with models like those on impover-ishment (Cernea 1996, 1998; Mahapatra 1999). How-ever, it does not show all those factors leading to andhappening after displacement as there are a numberof vulnerability risks. It shows how the state as a vio-lator of the people’s rights initiates unplanned devel-opment leading to displacement. This displacementhas three major consequences: a) a loss of livelihood,b) poverty, and c) forced migration, and these threeconsequences lead to vulnerability along with genderviolence, social exclusion, and risks of impoverish-ment. All these factors together contribute to margin-ality and through the psychological trauma the people

Figure 35.1: Role of the state in development, displacement and the consequences of displacement. Source: Based onprimary data compiled by the author.



are pushed to set up new slums or to join the existingslums and again appeal to the government to protecttheir rights by recognizing them as coming from theslums. This whole process of accepting and recogniz-ing which remains with the state and the state’s deci-sion remains with the political will by invoking therights of the citizens which are constitutionally recog-nized. The process continues as the state again comesup with an unplanned development and, being a pro-tector of the rights, it turns out to be the violator ofthese very rights. It is a vicious circle in which the cit-izens are totally vulnerable as the state has been usingcoercive methods to carry out involuntary displace-ments. Most of these factors are explained below inthe section dedicated to adverse consequences of dis-placement and vulnerability issues.

First three cases will be introduced and then theadverse consequences will be discussed. These threecases were chosen to justify the concepts of displace-ment of people with land titles and the displacementof people without such land titles. The empiricalwork was carried out through a stratified proportion-ate random sampling with a diachronic method ofassessment (pre-displacement and post resettlement).Focused group discussions were held as part of thework along with case study method, and finally, a tri-angulation method was adopted to crosscheck theavailable data.

35.4.1 Project of Multi Modal Transport System

The first case addresses the Multi Modal TransportSystem (MMTS) in Hyderabad in the year 2002.There was a place called Nirankari Nagar near Lak-dikapool2 behind the Ranga Reddy District collectoroffice (figure 35.2). The place comes under the surveyNo. 2, Block L, Ward no. 83 covering 21,820 squaremetres in the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corpora-tion. The people were residing in this locality for thepast thirty to thirty-five years. All of them belonged ei-ther to the Scheduled Caste (marginalized groups inIndia) or to backward classes including Muslims. Theland belonged to the South Central Railway and itwanted to have the MMTS project at the advice of thestate government of Andhra Pradesh with the ap-proval by the Government of India. The MMTSproject was of utmost importance among all govern-ment projects in the city. Due to the traffic havoc and

scarcity of buses in the city, the government hadplanned for an alternative with railways. The politicsfor this project had started long back but the peoplewere not aware of the project until the regional news-paper Eenadu reported that this locality would be dis-placed for the project when there was less than 90days to start the acquisition process. Although theland did not belong to them, the inhabitants of the lo-cality pleaded with the authorities, asking them tostop the displacement as they had resided in the local-ity for more than thirty years. As all plans had alreadybeen made it was just a mandatory function for theauthorities to give the required notification beforeland acquisition. The people thought the last resortcould be approaching the courts as they had investedall their earning in constructing their houses.

When the people of the locality resisted leavingthe locality, the authorities considered playing differ-ent politics. The people of the locality were asked tofind a place to stay wherever they wished in the city,but on the condition that all 398 families would haveto be resettled in the same place. After all effortsfailed to relocate them to a common place, the peo-ple returned to the authorities resisting against theirdisplacement. The role played by the politicians at dif-ferent stages is very significant. While the then rulingTelugu Desam Party (TDP is a regional party) re-mained silent on this issue as the project was initiatedby the party, the National Congress Party as the oppo-sition did not undertake any effort to come to the res-cue of the people. The leader of the Congress Party,Mr. Janardhan Reddy was not very happy with thesepeople as they had not voted for them. The nationalBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) sent a representative,Mr. Bandaru Dattatreya, the then Railway Ministerfor State of the Government of India, but he couldnot do much besides consoling the people and assur-ing them that no arbitrary action would succeed.Then the BJP was the ruling party in the central gov-ernment and it was supported by the TDP as a coali-tion partner. The political parties of the Left did nothelp either. The threat of losing power made the min-ister not to take any progressive measure. The Mayorof the city, Mr. Teegala Krishna Reddy, wanted to visitthe place after hearing about the protest. But the au-thorities, like the Revenue Department officials, con-vinced the Mayor that there were no problems withregard to the displacement.

The government took arbitrary measures andlodged a false complaint against the leader of thelocality and arrested him. Policemen forcefully evacu-ated the people and cleared the locality by destroying

2 This is an area in Hyderabad the first case study dealtwith. The displaced people were living in the place thatbelonged to the South Central Railway of India.


630 Nanda Kishor

all structures which were built during several years ofhardship and hope. The government moved all mem-bers to a place called NTR Nagar for resettlement andallotted them small houses which were already builtfor another purpose, but it did not keep any promiseranging from providing rice, money, and a feast.Although the locality from where the people were dis-placed was declared a slum by the Municipal Corpo-ration of Hyderabad (MCH) and was receiving fundsfor the development of the slums from the WorldBank and Asian Development Bank, these funds werenever used and never reached the people. The argu-ment of the displaced was that they were paying forall amenities provided by the government. But in turnthe government never gave them proper facilities andfinally put them in a place which is far away fromtheir working place. The consequences of this dis-placement leading to vulnerability are dealt with moreelaborately below.

35.4.2 Information and Technology (IT) Park at Cyberabad

The second case is an illustration of how capitalistforces can be the worst agencies to the poor in dis-guise. Within the city of Hyderabad there is a partcalled Cyberabad that has become the hub of infor-mation and technology. A large number of economicmigrants from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka hadsettled in a place called Manikonda. There were 439

families living by cutting stones, working in construc-tion and as drivers. After IT companies like Micro-soft, Wipro, Infosys and Polaris settled in this part,there was much construction. All 439 families were in-volved in construction for these companies. The landissue was disputed when the Andhra Pradesh Indus-trial and Investment Corporation (APIICL) extendedthe land for the IT companies, and one occasionwhich served as a platform to acquire this land was avisit of the CEO of Microsoft, Mr. Bill Gates, in 2004.When he visited the city the government proposed toevacuate all families and to use the place for more ITcompanies. As the people were all informal dwellers,they were requested to vacate the place within amonth. This is the time when the politics of displace-ment sneaked in; the authorities used the divide andrule method. One of the leaders of the locality calledTirupati was taken to the IT minister, Mr. Sabita In-dra Reddy, and wooed with gifts and assured of fullsupport that he required. The leader convinced alarge number of the people that they had all come tothe city with nothing but that the government was

ready to give them a house and proper resettlement.This convinced many people and most of them fol-lowed this leader to get displaced and resettled. Themajor hurdle against the government was solved moreeasily than the authorities expected.

Another reality of forced eviction followed andthe people were sent to a village ten kilometres awayto a place called Indra Reddy Nagar, but to the dis-may of the displaced, the host community did notallow the displaced to enter their village. Although theland belonged to the government it could not domuch. The people in the nearby village were upsetthat some outsiders were being given free land. Thisgave rise to a violence of a different kind and the hostcommunity began to intimidate the displacees, withthe women being worst hit, as will be discussed belowin dealing with vulnerability and gender. Due to thepressure from academic groups, the government tooksome steps to get houses built for them, but to theconsternation of the people, during this process thegovernment came up with another infrastructureproject of the Outer Ring Road (ORR) for the city.Thus, the people were pushed into multiple displace-ments and had to move again to a semi forest oppo-site to the first allotted place of resettlement.

35.4.3 International Airport Project

The third case refers to the International AirportProject, the most devastating and one of the biggestdisplacements in Hyderabad. The government ofAndhra Pradesh, under the leadership of formerChief Minister Chandra Babu Naidu of the TeluguDesam Party (TDP), had proposed the plan for an In-ternational Airport in the year 2000, but it had not re-ceived any assurance as new leaders took over in And-hra Pradesh after the elections. The TDP lost theelections and the Congress Party came to power in2004 and instantaneously got the approval of theCentral Government of India that was also led by theCongress Party, and started the work. Both the ITpark in Cyberabad and the International Airportprojects were launched under the same legislator,Mrs. Sabita Indra Reddy. Although a formal an-nouncement was made about the land acquisition,just fifteen days before the actual date of displace-ment the people of the four villages were informed.This short notice came as a shock as there were anumber of ceremonies planned for several months al-ready in this locality. The people approached the leg-islator, Mrs. S. I. Reddy, for additional time to com-plete all ceremonies in the village. The legislator, Mrs.



S. I. Reddy granted fifteen more days and promisedproper compensation and resettlement to all affectedpeople as they had land titles. She also explained the

inevitability of having such a project and made it clearthat the project was certain to happen. When theseprocesses were going on, the people were in a di-

Figure 35.2: The three sites of displacement in the mega city of Hyderabad: 1) MMTS station Lakdikapool; 2)Cyberabad Info Tech park; and 3) the International Airport. Source: Corporate Infobase Ltd. and MunicipalCorporation of Hyderabad; at: <http://www.ghmc.gov.in/hyd/hydmap.asp>.


632 Nanda Kishor

lemma, whether to move from the place or to staythere and protest. After the given time, the authoritiescame with the police forces and asked the people tovacate. On 13 May 2004, more than 500 Special PoliceForces involuntarily displaced the people and theywere moved in lorries like animals, and the land wasforcefully acquired.

The Government of Andhra Pradesh acquired5,480 acres of land for this project and more thaneleven villages were affected either fully or partially(Reddy 2006). Out of the 5,480 acres of land 3,400

acres belonged to private owners who have land titles(Pattas), the other 1,600 acres were considered as gov-ernment land that had been occupied by the localpeople, especially by the people belonging to theSchedule caste and other backward classes for agricul-tural purposes fifty or sixty years ago. The people ofthese villages were dependent on the flora and on ag-ricultural crops. Although compensation was pro-vided to these people, it was negligible. The categori-zation of the land for compensation remaineddubious and no justifications were given by the con-cerned authorities. The compensation was far belowmarket values. Adding to the wound of displacementthe people who had been living on the assigned landswere in troubled waters as the compensation schemewas pathetic for them. Although the people were or-ganized in the Shamshabad International AirportLand Loser’s Welfare Association (SIALLWEL) itcould not bring any pressure on the government. Peo-ple received 250 square yards as compensation tobuild houses. Several demands were submitted to theland acquisition officer, one was to employ one per-son from a family in the construction of the airportwhich was agreed but never became a reality.

35.4.4 Adverse Consequence of Displacement Leading to Vulnerability

Displacement by nature itself will lead to vulnerability,and if it is in the urban arena the agony cannot appro-priately be explained. Vulnerability can be explainedaccording to Kasperson (2001: 7) as: “the degree towhich an exposure unit is susceptible to harm due toexposure to a perturbation or stress, and the ability(or lack thereof) of the exposure unit to cope,recover, or fundamentally adapt (become a newsystem or become extinct).” This is the same situationfaced by all the displacees of all three crucial cases.The number of people displaced and loss of all orpart of their productive assets, employment, and lossof livelihoods are immesurable as it just does not

involve the measurable assets but also involvespyschological trauma.

The many stories from the field refer to anextreme level of psychological and physical trauma. Inthe NTR Nagar (1st resettlement colony) when a boynamed Salim was asked what he wanted to become inthe future, he replied that he wanted to become adoctor and treat his fellow residents, but his dreamswere shattered and now he is without school and thefamily is no more capable of assisting him as he has 6older sisters waiting to be married off. Another caseof a boy called Tofique Ahmed is more depressing. Af-ter the displacement his father lost his job and laterended up as an alcohol addict and died in an accidentclose to the new locality, currently the boy is 16 yearsold and is responsible for his family. He works with aconstruction group doing manual labour. He hasmanaged to enrol two of his sisters in a Madarasa fortheir education by sacrificing his own. A girl Sailajawas a top student in her previous school and she haddreams to become a civil servant but as the new local-ity had no school she was forced to do householdwork.

The vulnerability level at the Indra Reddy Nagarresettlement colony is the worst in all three resettle-ments. The people were residing without even aproper shelter. They were displaced in 2004 and weredoomed to remain without proper housing facilitiesuntil May 2005. Their huts were so small that a per-son could not stand and it was built with smallwooden sticks and leaves. The worst part was that,during the summer when throughout Andhra Pradeshit rained incessantly, their belongings got washedaway along with the huts and the people had to takeshelter in one of the buildings in the vicinity whichwere under construction. As the people had tappedthe power from the electric poles directly many of thechildren were electrocuted. In one such incident a boycalled Ravi passed away and he was the only son ofthe family. The resettlement colony made peopleextremely vulnerable during the nights. The resettle-ment colony is so far away from the city and it is sur-rounded by a small forest where snakes would sneakthrough the houses and were seen on the small roadsof the colony. There are several incidents where eld-erly people and children got bitten by the snakes.

In the International Airport resettlement colonythe agony of the people has been unimaginable. Add-ing to the shock, several elderly people passed awaywith cardiac arrests as they lost everything, at the ex-pense of mere compensation. The system exposedthem to extreme stress, crises, and shocks at the dis-



placement site of the International Airport area. Oneperson, Mr. Krishna, who is the president of theShamshabad Mandal Differently Abled Peoples Asso-ciation, lost his father due to cardiac arrest when thedisplacement took place, and his mother also passedaway within two months due to the separation fromher husband as it came as a shock for her. Mr. J Nar-asimha lost both parents due to the shock of losingthe land of their livelihood. There are hundreds of ex-amples which are depressing and each case docu-ments the autocratic way used by the government andyet again failing to keep the promises it made to thepeople.

35.4.5 Human Rights Abuse, Human Security Approach and A Gender Perspective

The displacement has caused several vulnerabilities in-cluding cultural alienation, dispossession of land re-sources, human rights abuse, and lowering of livingstandards. Due to its crosscutting nature no social orequity and distribution analysis can proceed without adiscussion of gender. Thus, a growing constituency ofpolicymakers, social advisers, and gender scholars ad-dress gender mainstreaming and ‘engendering’ activi-ties. They use gender conceptually and practically toapproach a whole array of issues ranging from forcedmigration to development cooperation and health.Here the process will be reviewed which led to themainstreaming of gender in national development, atleast at the de jure level. The tragedy of displacementdue to development projects is compounded becausethe affected bear the cost without sharing the bene-fits. In the case of women, of course they had evenlesser access, as mere passive recipients in fallouts.

There is an attempt to link human security issuesand other societal, economic, and development chal-lenges India is currently experiencing due to globaliza-tion and privatization. The individual and their inter-ests are under threat from the state behaving in acoercive manner to suppress the freedom of its peo-ple by working for vested economic and political in-terests. According to the human security conceptthere is a need for protection from “sudden and hurt-ful disruptions in patterns of daily life” (UNDP 1994:22). This aspect of daily life further identified somecore elements which reflect the basic needs of humansecurity: economic, food, health, environmental, per-sonal, community, and political security (UNDP 1994:23–25). The concepts of human security, peace, anddevelopment can be related in a more cohesive man-ner. Human security is formulated on the premise of

rights and entitlements that were articulated andadopted in the Universal Declaration on HumanRights (UDHR)3. The UDHR states that the basic so-cio-political and economic conditions should be guar-anteed to every human being, and that “every one hasthe right to life, liberty and security of the person”(Art. 3, UDHR).

The Commission on Human Security, chaired byNobel laureate Amartya Sen and Sadako Ogata (CHS2003), calls for an integration of policy responses toaddress the interconnectivity of threats to humansecurity. The report focused on human security issuesin the light of democratic principles and developmentdealing with the security in protecting the peoplefrom violent conflict, encouraging fair trade, and mar-kets to benefit the extremely poor, ensuring universalaccess to basic education and healthcare facilities. Itsgreatest strength is its focus on larger socio-economicand political threats.

These threats are noticed in all three case studieson Hyderabad that noted five human rights chal-lenges. The Indian Constitution provides certainrights which are not respected but abused by somegovernment agencies. These rights define the situa-tion as the right a) to development and self-determi-nation, b) to participation, c) to life and livelihood, d)as the right of vulnerable groups, and e) as the rightto remedy arising from development-induced dis-placement. The Indian Constitution also mentionssome rights explicitly or implicitly among the funda-mental rights (Art. 19, 21, 29, 31), as guiding principlesof state policy (38, 41, 46, 47, 48A), as special provi-sions relating to certain classes (Art. 330, 342), and asright to constitutional remedies (Art. 32). If the gov-ernment is to seriously address problems of the reset-tlement and rehabilitation (R&R) process, it must in-troduce a rights-based approach to the respectivenational policy.

Only in the past few decades a gender perspectivehas been offered by scholars (Vandana Shiva 1993;Ganguly Thukral 1996, Goyal 1996; Cernea 1997; Vas-udha 1998) and different organizations working onwomen’s issues. The adoption of the convention onthe elimination of all forms of discrimination againstwomen in 1979 was an important step in addressingthe imbalances in gender-related issues. The UN(2002) issued a report on Women, Peace and Security

3 United Nations, 1948: Universal Declaration of HumanRights. General Assembly Resolution 217A (III), UNDoc A/810 at 71 (New York: United Nations); at:<http://www.udhr.org>.


634 Nanda Kishor

based on Security Council resolution 1325 adopted in2000. The study acknowledges that more has to bedone to achieve the expected goal.

Vandana Shiva (1993) argued that women’s under-development was not due to insufficient and inade-quate participation, but due to their enforced andasymmetric participation whereby they bore the costbut were excluded from the benefits. This refers to adifferent set of ideas on the process of displacementand resettlement of women where women have beenneglected in the policy process. The authorities incharge of the relocation did not understand the prob-lems of women in adjusting to the new locality. Since,even under normal circumstances, society has yet totreat women equally, the displaced women will needadditional attention to cope with the changed circum-stances until they can become equals. The traumas ofdisplacements are directly connected with the rightsof women and their civil liberties. There is a need tomaintain the social rights of all those who are vulner-able, but the required attention has so far not beengranted. Úrsula Oswald Spring (2006) argued that

human rights and its phases of development do notguarantee minimal life conditions, but reinforce theindividualization process increasing social vulnerability.On the contrary, social rights reinforce networks andcreate within diverse cultural contexts and cosmovisionsoptions for resilience building, reduction of social vul-nerability, self reliance and peaceful conflict resolutions.

The women need time to adjust to the new commu-nity and all communities are not safe for women. Forexample, men in resettlement colonies do not havetoilet facilities, so, they go out to the field but it is noteasy for women to do the same during the daytime.There are other examples to document that womenare worst hit in any developmental project. A shock-ing and disgraceful situation occurred at the IndraReddy Nagar resettlement colony. Uma was pregnantand when it was raining heavily in Andhra Pradeshduring the summer, due to the unhealthy conditionsat the resettlement colony she got sick at night, and asthe colony had no transportation facility or healthcentre Uma passed away without proper medical care,along with the child.

The future of the women and children has beentaken for granted by the authorities. The childrenwho are displaced have no proper education and theutter poverty has made them vulnerable at one leveland on the other hand there are instances of childrenbecoming anti-social elements by indulging in theftand other crimes. Due to the burden some parentshave even sold their children and there are instances

that a girl was sold for a low price like a commodity.Women trafficking and child abuse have been othermajor factors of vulnerability.4 The women are merepassive recipients. First of all children and women arevulnerable in the family during post displacement sit-uations. Thus, there is a necessity to emphasize educa-tion.

35.5 Conclusion

The debate on resettlement and rehabilitation cannotoccur in isolation. Many decisions of this generationwill affect the needs of coming generations and thisgeneration is not entitled to transfer a devastatedfuture to coming generations for which every citizenwill be blamed and held responsible.

• First, involuntary displacement is a phenomenonwhich should be understood in a humane way. Anexperience is required to asses the best way. Thehuman security issues involved in developmentand displacement must be understood by theagencies involved in the process. Human rightsabuses must end as well as the vulnerability thiscauses and to the risks involved in such projects.

• Secondly, there is a growing consensus among pol-icymakers and the academic community on theoverwhelming exposure and risk of impoverish-ment and on rights to protection and assistance.In reality, however, a bewildering array of motivesfor development-induced displacement prevails.The members of civil society should take theresponsibility and make sure that the marginalizedpeople are not harassed, and that their rights arenot abused. The civil society has to respond posi-tively and make it possible that a more egalitariansociety may emerge.

• Third, the absence of (and inability to enforce) le-gal frameworks is a major factor of concern, thereis a growing attention to the (human) rights andentitlements of those displaced as a consequenceof conflict and development, although there is lit-tle consensus on appropriate institutional re-sponses. The resettlement of internally displacedpeople has, until recently, been treated as a periph-eral issue, the reasons for this are varied and inter-connected – including the absence of internationalattention, the marginal status and the lacking

4 In a previous volume of this book series these issueshave been analysed for other countries by Truong(2009) and Perpinian/Villareal/Oswald Spring (2009).



‘voice’ of the displaced, and the limited attentiondevoted to the subject by social scientists andother disciplines. This mindset has to change andthe world must respond in a more cohesive man-ner and practice solidarity with the displaced com-munities.

• Lastly, the development-induced displacementsleading to social, economic and political vulnera-bility, and moving to psychological trauma must begiven a pause and any development should be egal-itarian, only then a country can progress towardsthe right direction and build a conducive andhealthy environment for everyone to live in. This isthe responsibility of every human being who isconcerned about the world.



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This is the third and final volume of the Global Environmental and Human Security Handbook for the Anthropocene (GEHSHA).

Hans Günter Brauch, Free University of Berlin, Germany; Úrsula Oswald Spring, National University of Mexico, Cuernavaca, Mor. Mexico; Czeslaw Mesjasz, Cracow University of Economics, Poland; John Grin, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Patricia Kameri-Mbote, Strathmore University, Nairobi, Kenya; Béchir Chourou, University of Tunis-Carthage, Tunisia; Pál Dunay, Geneva Centre for Security Policy; Jörn Birkmann, UNU-EHS, Bonn (Eds.)

Coping with Global Environmental Change, Disasters and Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks This policy-focused Global Environmental and Human Security Handbook for the Anthropocene (GEHSHA) addresses new security threats, challenges, vulnerabilities and risks posed by global environmental change and disasters. In 5 forewords, 5 preface essays 95 peer reviewed chapters, 164 authors from 48 countries analyse in 10 parts concepts of military and political hard security and economic, social, environmental soft security with a regional focus on the Near East, North and Sub-Sahara Africa and Asia and on hazards in urban centres. The major focus is on coping with global environmental change: climate change, desertification, water, food and health and with hazards and strategies on social vulnerability and resilience building and scientific, international, regional and national political strategies, policies and measures including early warning of conflicts and hazards. The book proposes a political geo-ecology and discusses a ‘Fourth Green Revolution’.

All chapters were anonymously peer reviewed.

Forewords by Achim Steiner. Exec. Director of UNEP; Konrad Osterwalder, Rector, UNU; Jean-Francois Bureau, Assistant Secretary General, NATO; Joy Ogwu, former Foreign Minister of Nigeria; His Royal Highness, Prince Hassan Bin Talal of Jordan

Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace (HESP), volume 5

More information on this book series at: http://www.afes-press-books. de/html/hexagon.htm

Part I Introduction.- Part II Securitization of Global Environmental Change.- Part III Economic, So-cial, Environmental and Human Security Dangers in the Near East, Africa and Asia.- Part IV Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks for Urban Centres in Hazards and Disasters.- Part V Coping with Climate Change, Soil and Desertification, Water Management, Food and Health.- Part VI Coping with Hazards, Social Vulnerability and Resilience Building.- Part VII Coping with Global Env. Change: Scientific, International and National Political Strategies, Policies and Measures.- Part VIII Remote Sensing, Vulnerability Mapping and Indicators of Env. Security Challenges.- Part IX Towards an Improved Early Warning of Conflicts and Hazards.- Part X Summary and Conclusions.

2011, lii, 1816pp., 184 figures, 78 tables and 38 boxes, Hardcover Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, Vol. 5 € 299.00 (+ VAT) $ 409.00 (+ VAT) ₤ 269.50 (+ VAT)

More information on this volume at: http://www.afes-press-books. de/html/hexagon_5htm ISBN: 978-3-642-17775-0 - e-ISBN: 978-3-642-17776-7 - DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-17776-7

___ copies Brauch (Eds.), Coping with Global Environmental Change, Disasters and Security, HESP 5, ISBN: 978-3-642-17775-0 € 299.00 ___ copies Brauch (Eds.), Facing Global Environmental Change, HESP 4, ISBN: 978-3-540-68487-9 € 249.99 / $ 379.00 / ₤ 226.50 ___ copies Brauch (Eds.), Globalization and Environmental Challenges, HESP 3, ISBN: 978-3-540-75976-8 € 259.99 / $ 359,00 / ₤ 233,00

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