Handbook of English Mcgraw Hill

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    The

    Sentence

    55.

    Period

    Fault

    56.

    Comma

    Fault

    57.

    Fused Sentences

    58.

    Misuse

    of

    Dependent

    Clauses

    59. Related

    Ideas

    60.

    Rambling

    Sentences

    61.

    Choppy

    Sentences

    62.

    Incompleteness

    63.

    Word

    Order

    64.

    Split

    Constructions

    65.

    Dangling

    Modifiers

    66.

    Mixed

    and

    Illogical

    on-tructions

    67.

    Comparisons

    68.

    Parallel

    Structure

    69. Point

    of

    View

    70.

    Coordination

    and

    Subordi-ation

    71.

    Emphasis

    72.

    Variety

    73.

    Achievement

    Tests

    The

    Paragraph

    74.

    Topic

    Sentence

    75.

    Substance

    of

    a

    Paragraph

    76.

    Methods

    of

    Development

    77.

    Order of

    Ideas

    78.

    Transitional

    Devices

    79.

    Proportion

    and

    Length

    80.

    Mechanics

    of the

    Paragraph

    The Whole

    Theme

    81.

    Choice

    of

    Topic

    82.

    Outlines

    83.

    Beginnings

    and

    Endings

    84.

    Manuscript

    Form

    85.

    Revision

    and

    Proofreading

    The Research

    Paper

    86.

    Using

    the

    Library

    87.

    Choosing

    the

    Topic

    88.

    Taking

    Notes

    89.

    Preparing

    the

    Outline

    90.

    Writing

    the

    Paper

    91.

    Making

    Footnotes

    92.

    Making

    a

    Bibliography

    The

    Precis and

    the

    Paraphrase

    93.

    The

    Precis

    94.

    The

    Paraphrase

    Writing

    for

    Special

    Purposes

    95.

    Business Letters

    96.

    ReportWriting

    97.

    Social Letters

    Listening

    and

    Thinking

    98.

    Backgrounds

    f Writers

    and

    Thinkers

    99.

    Testing

    Your

    Logic

    100.

    Propaganda

    Technique

    Appendix

    101.

    Taking

    Tests

    102.

    Sentence

    Analysis

    and

    Diagraming

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    McGraw-Hill

    HANDBOOK

    OF

    ENGLISH

    VIRGINIA

    SHAFFER

    Head

    of

    English

    Department,

    Forest

    Park

    High

    School, Baltimore,

    Mary-and;

    Coordinator of

    Writing,

    Mc-oy

    College

    of

    The

    Johns

    Hopkins

    University

    HARRY

    SHAW

    Formerly

    Director,

    Workshops

    in

    Composition,

    New

    York

    University

    Second

    Edition

    WEBSTER

    DIVISION,

    McGRAW-HILL

    BOOK

    COMPANY

    St.

    Louis

    New York

    San

    Francisco

    Dallas

    Toronto

    London

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    COPYRIGHT

    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

    We

    wish

    to

    thank

    these

    authors,

    pubhshers,

    nd

    other holders

    of

    copyright

    or

    permission

    to

    use

    the

    following

    xcerpts

    from

    copyrighted

    aterials:

    The

    excerpts

    from

    Sportsmanlike

    riving.

    Reprintedy

    permis-ion

    of the

    American

    Automobile

    Association.

    ^

    The

    excerpt

    from

    High

    Jimgle,y

    William

    Beebe.

    Reprintedby

    permission

    of

    Duell,

    Sloan and

    Pearce,

    Inc.

    ^

    The

    excerpt

    from

    My

    Sister

    Eileen,

    copyright

    938,

    by

    Ruth

    McKenney.

    Reprintedby

    per-ission

    of

    Harcourt,

    Brace

    and

    Company,

    Inc.

    and

    Rupert

    Hart-

    Ltd.

    i^

    The

    excerpt

    from

    Anything

    Can

    Happen,

    by

    and

    Helen

    Papashvily.

    eprinted

    y

    permission

    of

    Harper

    rs.

    i^

    The

    excerpt

    from

    This

    I

    Remember,

    by

    Eleanor

    Reprinted

    by

    permission

    of

    Harper

    Brothers and

    n

    and

    Company.

    ^*

    The

    excerpt

    from

    We

    Took

    to

    the

    y

    Louise

    Dickinson

    Rich.

    Copyright

    1942,

    by

    Louise

    ^n Rich.

    Reprintedby

    permission

    of

    J.

    B.

    Lippincott

    pany

    and

    Willis K.

    Wing,

    i

    The

    excerpt

    from Mirror

    for

    Man,

    by Clyde

    Kluckhohn.

    Copyright

    1949

    by

    the

    McGraw-

    Hill Book

    Company,

    Inc.

    Reprintedby

    permission

    of the

    McGraw-Hill

    Book

    Company,

    Inc.

    ^^

    The

    excerpt

    from

    Affairs

    of

    Dame

    Rumor,

    by

    Dav^d

    Jacobsen.eprinted

    by

    permission

    of

    Rinehart

    Company,

    Inc.

    '^

    The

    excerpt

    from

    How

    to

    Stay

    in

    College, y

    Robert

    U.

    Jameson.

    Reprinted

    rom the

    Saturday

    Evening

    Post

    article

    by

    permission

    of

    the author.

    ^'

    The

    excerpt

    from

    Science

    Remakes Our

    World,

    by

    James

    Stokley.

    eprinted

    by

    permission

    of

    Ives

    Washburn,

    Inc.

    Certain

    parts

    of this book have

    previously

    een

    copyrighted

    under the

    titles

    Writing

    and

    Rewriting

    (1955)

    by

    Harry

    Shaw

    and

    The

    Harper

    Handbook

    of

    College

    Composition

    (1957)

    by

    George

    S.

    Wykoff

    and

    Harry

    Shaw

    and

    are

    reprinted

    ith the

    kind

    permission

    of

    Harper

    Brothers,

    New

    York.

    McGraw-Hill HANDBOOK OF

    ENGLISH

    Copyright

    c)

    1960

    by

    McGraw-Hill,

    Inc.

    All

    Rights

    Reserved.

    Copyright

    1952

    by

    Harry

    Shaw and

    Virginia

    Shaffer.

    All

    Rights

    Reserved. Printed

    in

    the United States

    of

    America.

    This

    book,

    or

    parts

    thereof,

    may

    not

    be

    reproduced

    n

    any

    form

    without

    permission

    of the

    publishers.

    IX

    Library

    f

    Congress

    Catalog

    ard Number:

    59-10723

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    CONTENTS

    Preface vii

    Guide

    to

    Exercises

    x

    10.

    Diagnostic

    Tests

    in

    Usage

    64

    11.

    Subject

    and Verb

    Agreement

    70

    12. Pronoun

    and Antecedent

    Agreement

    84

    13.

    Reference of

    Pronouns 91

    14. Case

    of

    Pronouns 97

    15.

    Principal

    arts

    of Verbs

    112

    16. Tense

    of Verbs

    122

    17.

    Mood

    129

    18.

    Adjective

    and Adverb

    Usage

    134

    19.

    Preposition

    nd

    Conjunction

    Usage

    143

    20.

    Achievement

    Tests

    in

    Usage

    146

    iCapitalization

    I

    21.

    Use of

    Capital

    Letters

    152

    iii

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    CONTENTS

    Punctuation

    22.

    Diagnostic

    est

    on

    Commas,

    Semicolons,

    Colons,

    Apostrophes,uotation

    Marks

    161

    23.

    The

    Comma

    164

    24.

    The Semicolon

    192

    25.

    The

    Colon

    197

    26.

    The

    Apostrophe:

    ossessives

    and

    Plurals

    201

    27.

    Quotation

    Marks

    208

    28.

    Achievement

    Tests

    on

    Punctuation

    212

    29.

    The

    Period

    216

    30.

    Exclamation

    Points

    and

    Question

    Marks

    217

    31.

    The Dash

    218

    32.

    The

    Hyphen

    and

    Syllabification

    220

    33. Parentheses

    and Brackets

    222

    34.

    Italics

    224

    35.

    Abbreviations

    226

    36. Numbers

    227

    I

    The

    Word

    37.

    Use

    of

    the

    Dictionary

    231

    38.

    Pronunciation

    242

    39.

    Spelling

    244

    40.

    Vocabulary

    Growth

    259

    41.

    Provincialisms

    268

    42.

    Colloquiahsms

    268

    43.

    Idioms

    269

    44.

    Vulgarisms

    273

    45.

    Improprieties

    273

    46.

    Slang

    274

    47.

    Triteness

    275

    48.

    Jargon

    278

    49.

    Concrete

    and

    Specific

    ords

    280

    50.

    Fine

    Writing

    282

    51. Wordiness

    285

    52.

    Euphony

    289

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    CONTENTS

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    CONTENTS

    83.

    Beginnings

    nd

    Endings

    of Themes

    396

    84.

    Manuscript

    Form

    396

    85.

    Revision

    and

    Proofreading

    397

    JThe

    esearch

    Paper

    |

    86.

    Using

    the

    Library

    398

    87.

    Choosing

    the

    Topic

    of

    a

    Research

    Paper

    407

    88.

    Taking

    Notes

    410

    89.

    Preparing

    the

    Outline

    414

    90.

    Writing

    the

    Paper

    415

    91.

    Making

    Footnotes

    417

    92.

    Making

    a

    BibHography

    421

    [The

    Precis

    and

    the

    Paraphrase

    |

    93.

    The

    Precis

    422

    94.

    The

    Paraphrase

    424

    [Writing

    for

    Special

    Purposes

    |

    95.

    Business

    Letters

    425

    96.

    Report Writing

    439

    97.

    Social

    Letters

    446

    [Listening

    nd

    Thinking

    98.

    Backgrounds

    of

    Writers

    and

    Thinkers

    453

    99.

    Testing

    Your

    Logic

    456

    100.

    Propaganda

    Techniques

    462

    [Appendix

    [

    101.

    Taking

    Tests

    469

    102. Sentence

    Analysis

    and

    Diagraming

    480

    Index

    491

    vi

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    PREFACE

    The McGraw-Hill Handbook of

    English,

    Second

    Edition,

    is

    designed

    to

    help

    the

    student

    build the skills he needs

    to

    express

    himself with

    clarity,

    ease,

    and

    appropriateness.

    It

    describes

    American

    English as

    it

    is

    actually

    used

    by

    careful

    speakers

    and

    writers

    and shows

    why

    some

    kinds of

    expres-ion

    are

    considered

    more

    effective

    than others.

    In

    addition

    to

    stating

    the facts about

    language

    that

    educated

    people

    must

    know,

    this book

    emphasizes

    the

    importance

    of

    clear

    thinking

    as

    an

    essential both

    to

    effective

    expression

    and

    to

    intelligent

    reading

    and

    listening.

    Types

    of

    faulty

    thinking

    are

    analyzed

    and

    exercises

    are

    provided

    to

    develop

    the

    student's

    ability

    to

    recognize

    and avoid such

    errors

    in

    his

    own

    writing

    and

    speaking.

    This

    new

    edition

    of

    the McGraw-Hill

    Handbook of

    Eng-ish

    contains

    a

    number of

    new

    features which the authors

    believe

    will

    enhance

    the

    usefulness of

    the

    book.

    A

    new

    format

    employing

    a

    second color

    gives

    increased

    promi-ence

    to

    rules,

    principles,

    and

    section

    numbers.

    Expanded

    sections

    on

    levels of

    usage,

    the

    use

    of the

    dictionary,

    and

    report

    writing

    provide

    materials

    for

    instruction

    and

    refer-nce

    essential

    to

    the student's work

    in

    English

    and his other

    studies

    as

    well.

    A

    section

    on

    taking

    tests

    acquaints

    the

    stu-ent

    with

    the form

    and

    content

    of

    college

    entrance

    and

    placement

    tests

    and

    shows

    him

    ways

    in

    which

    he

    can

    im-rove

    his

    performance.

    A

    comprehensive

    review

    of

    sentence

    diagraming

    brings together

    in

    one

    place

    all

    of the

    principles

    of

    sentence

    analysis

    and

    provides

    the

    explanations

    and

    prac-ice

    sentences

    the student needs

    to master

    them.

    vii

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    PREFACE

    This

    book

    makes

    a

    completely

    functional

    approach

    to

    grammar,

    usage,

    and

    mechanics. Rules

    are

    clearly

    stated,

    illustrated,

    nd

    immediatelyapplied.

    bundant

    drill

    ma-erial

    enables the student

    to

    familiarize

    himself with

    im-ortant

    principles

    nd

    helps

    him

    to

    see

    how

    they

    apply

    to

    his

    own

    writing.

    The

    natural-sounding

    ractice

    entences

    in

    the

    McGraw-

    Hill

    Handbook

    of

    English

    greatlyimplify

    he

    task of both

    teacher and student.

    These

    sentences

    were

    not

    written

    solely

    o

    embody

    an error.

    They

    are

    drawn from

    more

    than

    seven

    thousand student themes

    analyzed

    for this

    purpose.

    Often these

    sentences

    appear

    in

    the form of

    a

    paragraph

    on

    safe

    driving,

    ravel,

    or

    an

    illuminating

    ncident

    from the

    lifeof

    a

    literaryigure,

    o

    that the student

    adds

    to

    his knowl-dge

    and broadens

    his

    cultvu-al

    outlook

    as

    he

    studies his

    grammar.

    The authors make

    a

    special

    ffort

    to

    pro\'ide

    or different

    levels

    of

    instruction.

    The drill

    that follows

    each

    major

    prin-iple

    is

    arranged

    in

    two

    sections.

    The

    first

    begins

    with

    easy

    sentences

    and

    moves

    on

    to

    the

    kind

    of

    sentences

    that

    nor-ally

    appear

    in

    careful

    student

    writing.

    he second

    section

    provides

    entences

    of

    greater

    maturity.

    hese

    may

    be used

    for

    superior

    students

    or

    for

    review

    with

    students

    who

    have

    mastered the

    simpler

    sentences.

    Thus,

    the

    teacher

    who

    wishes

    to

    use

    homogeneous

    grouping

    can

    readily

    o

    so.

    In

    recognition

    of

    the

    fact that

    language

    changes,

    the

    authors

    of the

    McGraw-Hill

    Handbook of

    English,

    Second

    Edition,

    have

    scrutinized

    every

    explanation,

    llustrative

    example,

    and

    practice

    sentence to

    ensure

    its

    appropriate-ess

    in

    a

    handbook

    reflecting

    odern

    American

    usage.

    While

    making

    clear

    that the standards

    of

    Enghsh

    change

    with the

    needs of those who

    use

    it,

    the authors

    are

    careful

    to

    remind the

    student that

    at

    any

    given

    time

    there

    are

    standards. This book describes

    fully

    and

    accurately

    he

    standards

    of

    written

    Englishtoday.

    VIRGINIA

    SHAFFER

    HARRY

    SHAW

    viii

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    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

    For

    assistance in

    preparing

    the

    manuscript,

    the

    authors

    are

    indebted

    to

    a

    number of

    people.

    Miss

    EHzabeth Con-elly,

    former Head

    of the

    English

    Department

    at

    the

    Patter-on

    Park

    High

    School

    in

    Baltimore,

    and

    Mrs.

    Thea

    Hodes,

    former teacher

    of

    superior

    children

    at

    School

    No. 49

    in

    Bal-imore,

    read

    parts

    of

    the

    manuscript

    and offered valuable

    advice

    on

    the

    adjustment

    of

    the material

    to

    suit

    the

    needs of

    students of

    varying

    ability.

    Mrs.

    Philip

    Edwards,

    Director

    of

    Young

    People's

    Work

    at

    the Enoch

    Pratt

    Free

    Library,

    and

    her

    assistants

    gave

    invaluable

    help

    in

    locating

    illus-rative

    paragraphs

    in

    books

    popular

    with

    young

    people.

    Miss

    Bernice

    Wiese,

    Supervisor

    of School Libraries

    in

    Balti-ore,

    examined the

    section

    on

    the

    use

    of

    the

    library.

    Sug-estion

    from

    Mr.

    Simeon

    Round,

    Mrs.

    Anna

    Bloom,

    and

    Mr.

    Ellis

    Newton

    on

    The

    Theme and The

    Research

    Paper

    have been

    incorporated

    in

    the

    revision.

    The authors

    are

    grateful

    to

    all

    these

    people

    and

    to

    the students

    at

    the

    Forest Park

    High

    School and

    at

    McCoy

    College

    of The

    Johns

    Hopkins

    University,

    who have made

    helpful

    suggestions

    while

    using

    the

    materials

    in

    this

    book.

    IX

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    GUIDE

    TO EXERCISES

    Asterisks indicate

    key

    exercises

    and achievement

    tests.

    Grammar

    adjectives,

    recognition

    of, 25;

    adverbs,

    recog-ition

    of, 26; clauses,

    *

    achievement

    test

    on

    kinds

    of,

    44-45;

    recognition

    of

    adjective,

    39-40;

    recognition

    of

    adverbial,

    41-42;

    recognition

    of

    noun,

    43-44;

    nouns,

    capitahzing,

    2;

    feminine

    of,

    3;

    nominative

    and

    objective

    case

    of,

    7;

    plurals,

    3;

    phrases,

    ^achievement

    test

    on

    kinds

    of,

    36-37;

    recogni-ion

    of

    adjective,

    33-34;

    recognition

    of

    adverbial, 34-35;

    function

    and

    recognition

    of

    noun,

    31-32;

    sentences,

    choppy,

    51-52;

    combining simple,

    51-52;

    kinds

    of, 49-50;

    ^variety

    in,

    51-52;

    verbs,

    principal

    parts

    of,

    14;

    verbals

    and,

    17.

    USAGE

    '^achievement

    tests

    in,

    146-151;

    adjectives

    and

    adverbs,

    135-136, 141-143;

    ^agreement,

    pronoun

    and

    an-ecedent,

    87-90;

    subject

    and verb

    review,

    80-84;

    verb

    and

    single

    subject,

    72-73,

    76-77;

    verb and

    compound subject,

    78-79; case,

    of

    personal

    pronouns,

    99-102,

    104-105;

    of

    relative

    pronouns,

    108-112;

    diagnostic

    tests,

    64-69;

    lie

    and

    lay,

    121-122;

    like

    and

    as,

    145;

    prepositions

    and

    conjunctions,

    145;

    pronoun,

    reference

    of,

    94-97;

    sit

    and

    set,

    122;

    '^

    tense,

    sequence

    of,

    126-128;

    verbs,

    past

    tense

    and

    past

    participle,

    118-120;

    review,

    128-129;

    subjunctive,

    132-133.

    CAPITALIZATION

    *capitoZzzafion,

    157-159.

    PUNCTUATION

    flbbreDiaiions, 227;

    ^achievement

    tests

    in,

    212-215;

    ^apostrophe,

    205-207;

    capital

    letter

    and

    comma

    review,

    176-177;

    colon,

    and

    review

    with

    semicolon,

    198-

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    GUIDE TO

    EXERCISES

    201;

    comma,

    with

    appositives

    nd

    limiting

    xpressions,

    88-

    189;

    before coordinate

    conjunction,

    165-168;

    after

    intro-uctory

    element, 170-172;

    with

    nonrestrictive

    expressions,

    183-184;

    with

    parenthetical

    xpressions

    nd

    terms

    of

    ad-ress,

    178-180;

    review,

    186, 187, 190-92;

    in

    series, 174-176;

    dash,

    219;

    diagnostic

    ests,

    161-164; end,

    220;

    hyphen,

    222;

    italics,

    25; numbers,

    228-229;

    parentheses

    nd

    brackets,

    223-224;

    quotation

    marks,

    211-212;

    semicolon,

    194-196,

    WORD

    diction,

    alliteration and

    rhyme,

    290-291;

    choice

    of,

    276-277;

    *review

    of

    choice,

    287,

    302-4306;

    simple,

    284-

    285;

    specific

    ords,

    281, 282;

    dictionary,

    43^247;

    fine

    writing,

    284-285;

    idiom,

    271-272;

    prgon,

    279-280;

    pro-unciati

    243-244;

    spelling,

    45-248;

    adding

    suffixes,

    56-

    258;

    of

    plurals,

    54;

    spelling

    ists,48-251;

    vocabulary,

    f

    business

    words,

    261-262;

    of

    foreign

    words,

    263;

    growth,

    260-261;

    matching

    exercises,

    265-267;

    of medical

    terms,

    264;

    of

    musical

    terms,

    264;

    of scientific

    terms,

    264;

    words

    that

    are

    similar,

    246,

    247;

    ^wordiness,

    and

    wordy,

    286-289.

    SENTENCE

    achievement

    test

    on

    elective

    sentences,

    360-

    363;

    analysis

    nd

    diagraming,

    489^90;

    comparison,

    340-

    342;

    clauses,

    errors

    in

    the

    use

    of,

    315;

    emphasis,

    354-355;

    illogical

    onstructions,

    338-339;

    modifier,

    dangling,

    30-

    332,

    333,

    334-336;

    'misplaced,

    24-327;

    'parallel

    tructure,

    344-348;

    sentences,

    balanced,

    355;

    choppy,

    319;

    effective,

    352; fused,

    312;

    incomplete,

    09,

    321-322;

    loose

    and

    peri-dic,

    354;

    review

    (incomplete,

    run-on,

    fused),

    312-314;

    run-on,

    311;

    unity

    in,

    317,

    318,

    319;

    variety

    in,

    358-360;

    shifts

    n

    construction,

    in

    verb

    tense,

    349-350;

    split

    onstruc-ions,

    329;

    word

    order,

    324-327.

    PARAGRAPH

    ^coherence,

    through

    order of

    ideas,

    375-

    377;

    through

    transitional

    expressions,

    80-381;

    letters,

    n-oherent

    377;

    topic

    sentence,

    367, 373-374;

    ^

    unity

    in,

    368.

    xi

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    GUIDE TO EXERCISES

    WHOLE THEME

    *^^^^'^^^

    92-395.

    RESEARCH

    PAPER

    *^^^^ ^ /.

    se

    of card

    catalogue,

    01;

    use

    of Readers'

    Guide,

    406; use

    of reference

    books,

    402;

    limiting

    opic,

    409;

    note

    taking,

    12,

    414.

    PRECIS

    AND THE

    PARAPHRASE

    F^cfs

    and

    para-hrase,

    423-424.

    WRITING

    FOR

    SPECIAL

    VURVOSES

    betters,

    bread-

    and-butter,

    450;

    formal

    invitations

    and

    replies,

    47;

    friendly,

    452;

    'informal

    invitations

    and

    replies,

    50;

    order,

    438-439;

    *request

    for

    adjustment,

    39;

    sympathy,

    450;

    *thank-you,

    450;

    report

    writing,

    445.

    LISTENING

    AND

    THINKING

    listening,

    ackground

    of

    speakers

    or

    writers,

    454-455;

    propaganda techniques,

    464;

    name-calling,

    64;

    thinking,

    bout

    advertisements,464;

    logic

    in,

    459^61,

    466-467;

    in

    reading

    tatistics,

    66.

    TESTS

    achievement

    in

    effective

    sentences,

    360-363;

    achievement

    in

    punctuation,

    212-215;

    achievement

    in

    us-ge,

    146-151;

    College

    Entrance,

    476-479;

    completing

    anal-gies,

    474-476;

    kinds

    of

    clauses,44-45;

    kinds of

    phrases,

    36-37;

    punctuation

    diagnostic,

    61-164;

    usage

    diagnostic,

    64-69;

    vocabulary,

    70-473.

    xu

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    Grammar

    Grammar

    is

    not

    a

    static

    thing.

    It

    changes

    and

    grows

    as

    men

    put

    new

    life

    into

    it,

    and

    it

    has

    different levels for

    different

    occasions.

    In

    the

    casual

    English

    of informal

    con-ersation,

    many

    people

    today

    are

    using

    It's

    me,

    or

    Drive

    slow ;

    but these forms would not, of

    course,

    appear

    in

    formal

    writing.

    Grammar

    is

    for

    use.

    The

    definitions and

    explanations

    given

    in

    this

    part

    of the

    book

    are

    valuable

    only

    when

    they

    help

    the student

    to

    write

    and

    speak

    more

    effectively.

    e-ause

    the

    types

    of words

    defined here function

    in

    many

    different kinds of

    sentences,

    it is

    important

    to

    remember

    that

    a

    given

    word

    is

    not

    always

    used

    as

    the

    same

    part

    of

    speech.

    It

    may

    be

    a noun

    in

    one

    sentence,

    a

    verb

    in

    another,

    an

    adjective

    in

    a

    third. How

    a

    word

    is

    used

    determines what

    part

    of

    speech

    it

    is.

    Sailing

    is

    my

    favorite

    sport.

    (Noun)

    We were

    sailing

    across

    the

    bay.

    (Verb)

    Far

    off

    we

    could

    see a

    small

    sailing

    vessel.

    (Adjective)

    In

    the

    pages

    that

    follow,

    the

    essential

    principles

    of

    gram-ar

    are

    reviewed.

    If

    there has been

    some

    tendency

    to

    permit

    variations

    of the forms

    commonly accepted

    as

    correct,

    these

    variations

    are

    presented.

    A

    glossary

    of

    grammatical

    terms

    appears

    on

    pages

    52-

    61.

    If

    any

    grammatical

    terms

    used

    in

    this

    book

    are un-amiliar

    to

    you,

    turn to

    the

    glossary.

    1

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    CI^IS

    NOUNS

    1. NOUNS

    la.

    Definition.

    A

    noun

    is

    the

    name

    of

    a

    person,

    place,

    r

    thing.

    man,

    officer,

    homas

    Jefferson,

    ark,

    street,

    desk,

    team,

    courage

    lb.

    Kinds

    of

    nouns.

    A

    common noun

    is

    the

    name

    of any

    one

    of

    a

    class of

    persons,

    places,

    r

    things.

    t

    is

    not

    written

    with

    a

    capital

    letter.

    horse,child,

    garden,alley,

    ub,

    book,

    engineer

    A

    proper

    noun

    is the

    name

    of

    a

    particular

    erson,

    place,

    or

    thing.

    t

    is written

    with

    a

    capital

    etter.

    (

    See Section

    21g.

    )

    General

    Grant,

    President

    Lincoln,

    Patterson

    Park,

    Linden

    Avenue,

    Soil

    Conservation

    Service

    An abstract

    noun

    is

    the

    name

    of

    an

    idea

    or a

    quality

    part

    from

    any

    object.

    honesty,intelligence,race

    A

    collective

    noun

    names

    a

    group

    of

    persons

    or

    objects.

    class,

    crowd,

    army,

    fleet,

    family

    Note: Abstract

    nouns

    and

    collective

    nouns

    are

    usually

    common

    nouns.

    EXERCISE

    1

    Identify

    he

    proper

    nouns

    in

    the

    following

    istand

    write

    them

    with

    a

    capital

    etter

    on a

    separate

    sheet of

    paper.

    company

    maryland

    southern

    high

    high

    school

    north

    school

    secretary

    english

    l^ir^g

    2

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    NOUNS

    Ic-d

    tuesday

    junior

    1c.

    Number.

    general

    electric

    company

    house of

    repre-

    sentatives

    automobile

    lincoln

    park

    doctor

    Nouns

    may

    be

    singular

    r

    plural.

    f

    a

    noun names one

    person,

    place,

    r

    thing,

    t is

    singular

    n

    number. If

    it

    means

    more

    than

    one,

    it

    is

    plural

    n

    number.

    Field

    is

    singular;

    fields

    s

    plural.

    EXERCISE

    2

    Study

    Section

    39d. Then

    on a

    sheet

    of

    paper

    write

    the

    correct

    plural

    orm

    of each of the

    following

    ords:

    tomato

    lady

    sister-in-law

    phenomenon

    James

    Id.

    Gender.

    Nouns

    have

    four

    genders:

    asculine

    (man,

    boy),

    feminine

    (

    woman,

    girl

    ,

    and

    neuter

    (

    desk,

    road

    )

    When

    a noun

    may

    be

    either

    masculine

    or

    feminine,

    it

    has

    common

    gender

    (person,

    playmate,

    companion).

    EXERCISE

    3

    Write

    on

    your paper

    the

    feminine

    form

    (or

    equivalent)

    of

    each

    of these

    nouns:

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    ^B

    NOUNS

    1e.

    Case.

    Nouns

    have tliree

    cases:

    nominative,

    objective,

    ossessive.

    Nouns

    in

    the

    nominative

    and

    objective

    ases

    have the

    same

    form:

    boy

    (nominative),

    boy

    (objective).

    he

    possessive

    case

    requires

    n

    apostrophe

    (

    boys'

    )

    or an

    apostrophe

    and

    5

    (boy's).

    See

    Section

    26.)

    If.

    Uses

    of

    nouns

    in

    the

    nominative

    case.

    The

    most

    important

    uses

    of

    nouns

    in

    the

    nominative

    case

    are

    the

    following:

    1.

    Subject

    of

    a

    verb.

    (See

    Section

    3.)

    S.

    V.

    The

    storm

    caught

    the

    ship

    in

    mid-ocean.

    s. V.

    Suddenly

    the winds roared

    in

    a

    great

    blast

    of

    fury.

    V.

    s.

    Across

    the

    deck

    swept

    huge

    waves.

    S.

    V.

    s.

    The

    passengers

    rushed

    to

    their cabins when

    the

    waves

    V.

    rolled

    over

    the deck.

    2.

    Predicate

    noun,

    also called

    predicatecomplement,

    predicate

    nominative,

    or

    subjective

    complement.

    (See

    Section

    14b.)

    A

    predicate

    oun

    is

    a

    noun

    used

    in

    the

    predicate

    (see

    Glossary

    of

    Grammatical

    Terms)

    to

    point

    back

    to

    the

    sub-ect.

    It

    follows the verb be

    (

    am,

    is,

    are,

    was,

    been, be,

    were

    )

    or some

    other

    linking

    erb

    (

    become,

    seem).

    s.

    V.

    p.n.

    Jerry

    is

    the

    hoy

    to

    play

    halfback.

    s.

    V.

    p.n.

    The

    Anwricans

    are

    the

    people

    who have led

    the

    struggle

    for

    liberty.

    s. V.

    p.n.

    Those

    girls

    ere

    the

    winners

    of

    the basketball

    tourna-ent.

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    NOUNS

    19

    s. V.

    p.n.

    The

    man on

    the

    witness

    stand

    seemed

    a

    person

    of hon-sty.

    3.

    Noun in direct address.

    (

    See

    Section 23f

    .

    )

    Bruce,

    will

    you

    ride

    to

    the

    canyon

    with

    me?

    4. Noun

    in

    an

    absolute

    expression.

    See Section 72e.

    )

    Nighthaving

    fallen,e

    camped

    near

    the trail.

    5.

    Appositive

    with

    a

    noun

    in

    the

    nominative

    case.

    (See

    Section

    14j.)

    Melody,

    my

    horse,

    saw me

    from

    the

    corral.

    1g.

    Uses

    of

    nouns

    in

    the

    objective

    ase.

    The

    most

    important

    uses

    of

    nouns

    in

    the

    objective

    ase

    follow.

    (For

    further

    explanation,

    ee

    Section 14. See

    also

    Section

    4d for adverbial

    objective.)

    1. Direct

    object

    of

    a

    verb.

    We

    won

    the

    game.

    (Game

    is

    the

    direct

    object

    f the

    verb

    won.)

    Jean

    gave

    a

    party.

    (Party

    is

    the direct

    object

    f

    the

    verb

    gave.

    )

    2.

    Indirect

    object

    of

    a

    verb

    (object

    f

    to

    or

    for

    under-tood

    )

    Shall

    I

    give

    Ted

    a

    sweater

    at

    Christmas?

    {Ted

    is

    the

    in-irect

    object

    f the

    verb.

    Sweater

    is

    the direct

    object.)

    3.

    Object

    of

    a

    preposition.

    Mother

    brought

    some

    souvenirs

    from Atlantic

    City.

    {At-antic

    City

    is

    the

    object

    f the

    preposition

    from.)

    4.

    Appositive

    with

    a noun

    in the

    objective

    ase.

    (See

    Section

    14j.)

    We

    met

    Mr.

    Townley,

    the

    sheriff.

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    1h

    NOUNS

    5.

    Objective

    complement,

    r

    predicate

    bjective.

    See

    Section 14i.

    )

    We

    elected Walter

    president.

    I consider

    her

    a

    good

    player.

    6.

    Subject

    of

    an

    infinitive.

    See

    Section

    14g.

    )

    I

    wanted

    John

    to

    go

    to

    the

    movies.

    Sally

    asked the

    chairman

    to

    take

    a

    walk with

    her.

    7.

    Object

    of

    an

    infinitive.

    See Sections

    3g

    and 14h.

    )

    His

    desire

    to

    please

    the

    voters

    was

    great.

    The

    ship

    was

    anchored

    to

    save

    fuel.

    8.

    Object

    of

    a

    participle.

    See Sections

    3g

    and 14h.

    )

    Waving

    his

    hat.

    Rusty

    galloped

    own Main

    Street.

    Emily

    is

    the

    girlriving

    he

    car.

    9.

    Object

    of

    a

    gerund.

    (

    See Sections

    3g

    and 14h.

    )

    Catching

    mustang

    is

    not an

    easy

    job.

    Playing

    ennis

    is

    good

    exercise.

    10.

    Adverbial

    objective

    noun

    used

    as

    adverb).

    The ranch

    was

    sold

    last

    year.

    We

    stayed

    home all

    day.

    1h.

    Uses

    of

    nouns

    in

    the

    possessive

    case.

    There

    are

    two

    important

    uses

    of

    nouns

    in

    the

    possessive

    case:

    1.

    Before

    a

    noun,

    to

    show

    ownership

    r some

    other close

    relationship

    hat

    might

    be

    expressedy

    of

    or

    for

    the

    use

    of.

    The child's

    ball,

    his

    mother,

    a

    days

    journey,

    members

    lounge

    2.

    Before

    a

    gerund.

    (

    See Sections

    3g

    and 26h.

    )

    Have

    you

    heard

    about

    Ruth's

    winning

    the contest?

    6

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    NOUNS

    EXERCISE

    4

    Arrange

    the

    nouns

    in

    these

    sentences

    in two

    columns.

    Put

    those

    in

    the

    nominative

    case

    in

    one

    column

    and those

    in the

    objective

    ase

    in

    another column. Beside

    each

    noun,

    write

    the

    reason

    why

    you

    have listed

    it

    as

    nominative

    or

    objective.

    Example:

    NOMINATIVE

    OBJECTIVE

    leopard

    subject

    zoo

    object

    of

    preposition

    Recently leopard

    escaped

    from

    a

    zoo

    in

    Ohio.

    Some

    hunt-rs

    had

    caught

    the animal

    on

    Christmas and

    shipped

    it

    to

    the

    United

    States

    for

    display

    n

    a

    new

    zoo

    where the

    animals

    were

    not

    confined

    in

    cages

    but

    were

    allowed

    to

    roam

    at

    will

    over

    a

    wide

    territory

    urrounded

    by deep

    moats.

    The

    animals could

    not

    escape

    because

    the

    moats

    were

    too

    broad for

    even

    the

    leopard

    o

    leap.

    Or

    so

    thought

    the

    keepers

    of

    the

    zoo.

    But

    this

    leopard

    as a

    wily

    beast.

    He

    apparentlyigured

    he distance

    carefully

    nd with

    a

    great

    bound

    jumped

    across

    the

    moat.

    From

    one

    end of

    the

    country

    to

    another,

    the

    newspapers

    carried

    big

    headlines that

    told

    of

    the

    chase.

    Armed

    groups

    sought

    him

    in

    the

    park

    near

    the

    zoo

    and

    in

    the

    surrounding

    eighborhood.

    t

    firstthe

    superintendent

    f the

    zoo

    wanted the beast

    to

    be

    caught

    alive,

    but

    after

    a

    few

    hours,

    the

    danger

    seemed

    so

    great

    that

    hunters

    were

    told

    to

    shoot the animal

    at

    sight.

    ecause

    the

    keepers

    considered the

    leopard

    to

    be

    a

    very

    dangerous

    beast,

    they

    warned the

    peoplenearby

    to

    keep

    their children

    inside

    and

    to

    look for any evidence that would lead

    to

    the

    capture.

    For

    two

    days

    the whole

    country

    read the

    news

    avidly.

    hen the

    headlines

    announced that the

    zoo

    would

    try

    to

    trap

    the

    animal

    with food.

    By

    this

    time

    some

    people

    had

    begun

    to

    consider

    the

    zoo

    and the

    police

    o

    be

    very

    ineffectual. Then

    huge

    pieces

    of

    drugged

    meat

    were

    placed

    on

    the

    ground

    near

    a

    cage

    in

    which

    the

    leopard's

    ate

    was

    held,

    and the

    next

    morning

    the

    hungry

    animal

    was

    found

    hardly

    able

    to

    stand

    up

    because the

    drug

    was

    so

    strong.

    He

    was

    seized,

    and the

    country

    relaxed.

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    2a-b

    2a. Definition.

    PRONOUNS

    2. PRONOUNS

    A

    pronoun

    is

    a

    word used

    in

    place

    of

    a

    noun,

    2b. Kinds

    of

    pronouns.

    There

    are

    several kinds

    of

    pronouns:

    personal,

    elative,

    demonstrative,

    interrogative,

    eflexive,

    ntensive,

    indefinite,

    and

    reciprocal.

    1. A

    personal

    ronoun

    is

    a

    direct substitute for

    a

    noun.

    Like

    a

    noun,

    it

    has

    number,

    gender,

    nd

    case.

    It

    also

    has

    person.

    Person

    is

    shown

    in

    pronouns

    by

    a

    change

    of form

    to

    indicate the

    person

    speaking

    (first

    erson),

    the

    person

    spoken

    to

    (

    second

    person

    )

    ,

    or

    a

    person

    or

    thing

    other than

    the

    speaker

    and the

    one

    spoken

    to

    (third

    person).

    ee the

    following

    able of forms of

    personal

    ronouns:

    Singular

    Grammatical

    problemsfrequently

    rise

    from

    the fact

    that,

    unlike

    nouns,

    personal,

    elative,

    and

    interrogative

    pronouns

    have

    distinct

    case

    forms.

    These

    problems

    are

    discussed

    in

    Section 14.

    2. A

    relative pronoun relates

    or

    connects

    a

    clause

    to

    its

    antecedent

    the

    noun

    to

    which

    it

    refers.

    The

    most

    often

    8

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    PRONOUNS

    used relative

    pronouns

    are

    who,

    which,

    and

    that.

    Who-ver,

    whichever,

    and

    whatever

    are

    less

    frequently

    m-loyed

    compound

    forms;

    whosoever,

    whichsoever,

    and

    whatsoever

    have almost

    entirely

    one

    out

    of

    current

    use.

    Who

    and

    whoever

    are

    the

    only

    relative

    pronouns

    with

    complete

    ase

    forms.

    Relative

    pronouns

    do

    not

    show

    changes

    in form

    for

    person,

    gender,

    r

    number. See

    the

    following

    table of

    case

    forms for

    who

    and

    whoever:

    The choice

    of

    a

    relative

    pronoun

    is

    determined

    by

    its

    antecedent;

    the

    case

    form

    for who and whoever

    is

    deter-ined

    by

    the

    way

    the

    pronoun

    is

    used in

    the

    relative

    clause.

    (See

    Section

    14.)

    Who

    is

    used

    to

    refer

    only

    to

    persons;

    which

    is

    used

    to

    refer

    to

    things

    (inanimate

    objects

    nd

    animals),

    and

    to

    persons

    considered

    as a

    group;

    that

    may

    be

    used

    to

    refer

    to

    either

    persons

    or

    things.

    The

    flier

    who served

    in

    World

    War

    II

    is

    now an

    airline

    oflBcial.

    Radar

    equipment

    which

    is

    to

    be used for small

    ships

    must

    be installed

    carefully.

    The

    crew

    which

    won

    the

    race was

    excused

    from

    classes.

    The hat that

    I

    bought

    last

    summer

    is

    now

    out

    of fashion.

    The

    man

    that

    I

    saw

    was

    named

    Mortimer

    Taylor.

    3.

    A

    demonstrative

    pronoun

    points

    out

    and

    identifies.

    It

    has number but

    no

    gender

    or case.

    The demonstrative

    pronouns

    are

    this,that,these,

    those.

    This is

    the

    way

    to

    kick

    a

    spiral.

    That

    is

    my

    new

    television

    set.

    These

    are

    your

    books;

    those

    on

    the

    desk

    are

    mine.

    4. An

    interrogative

    ronoun

    (who,

    whom,

    whose,

    which,

    what,

    occasionally

    hoever,

    whichever,

    whatever)

    intro-

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    PRONOUNS

    duces

    a

    question.

    he

    case

    forms for the

    interrogative

    ro-oun

    who

    and

    the

    relative

    pronoun

    who

    are

    the

    same.

    Who

    shall demand that

    a

    pardon

    be

    granted?

    Which

    is

    the

    route

    we

    should take from

    Hammond?

    What

    do

    you

    have

    in

    mind?

    Whom

    do

    you

    recognize?

    5.

    A

    reflexive

    ronoun

    is

    used

    for

    reference

    to

    the

    sub-ect

    of

    the

    sentence.

    It is

    composed

    of

    one

    of the

    personal

    pronouns

    plus

    self

    or

    selves:

    myself,yourself,

    imself,

    her-elf,

    itself,

    urselves,

    yourselves,

    hemselves. These

    pronouns

    are

    also called

    compound

    personal

    pronouns.

    In

    formal

    speech

    or

    writing,

    hese

    pronouns

    are

    not

    used

    as

    subjects.

    Wrong:

    Helen, Sue,

    and

    myself

    went

    on

    a

    hike.

    Right:

    His

    laboratory

    ssistant

    burned

    himself.

    Right:

    They

    appointed

    themselves

    as

    cheer leaders.

    6. An

    intensive

    pronoun

    is

    used

    for

    emphasis.

    Intensive

    pronouns

    and reflexive

    pronouns

    have

    the

    same

    form.

    Right:

    The

    nurse

    herselfas

    at

    fault.

    Right:

    We

    students ourselves

    are

    whollyresponsible.

    7.

    Indefinite

    ronouns

    are

    somewhat

    less

    exact

    in

    meaning

    than other pronouns.

    Among

    the

    more

    frequently

    sed

    in-efinit

    pronouns

    are

    another,

    any, anyone,

    anything,

    very-ody,

    everyone,

    everything,

    ew,

    many,

    nobody,

    none, one,

    several,

    some,

    each.

    The

    pronoun

    one

    and its

    compound

    forms,

    and

    compound

    forms built

    on

    the element

    -body

    form

    the

    possessive

    ase

    in

    the

    same

    way

    as

    nouns

    (anyone's,

    everybody's).

    Indefinite pronouns involve

    grammatical

    problems

    which

    are

    discussed

    in

    Section

    lid.

    8.

    A

    reciprocal

    ronoun

    indicates

    an

    interchange

    f

    action

    suggestedby

    the verb. This

    interchange

    ay

    be

    seen

    in

    the

    following

    entences

    involving

    he

    only

    two

    reciprocal

    ro-ouns

    in

    English:

    The

    two teams

    complimented

    each other.

    The

    members of the

    squad

    shouted

    at

    one

    another.

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    3a-b

    ASSERTING WORDS:

    VERBS

    AND

    VERBALS

    3.

    ASSERTING

    WORDS:

    VERBS AND

    VERBALS

    3a.

    Definition.

    A verb

    expresses

    action

    or

    state

    of

    being,

    Morgan

    kicked

    the

    ball with all his

    strength.

    Be

    ready

    at

    eight

    o'clock.

    Howard

    became

    a

    statesman

    and

    wrote

    a

    number

    of

    books.

    3b.

    Kinds of

    verbs.

    Verbs

    are

    classified

    as

    transitive,

    intransitive,r

    linking.

    A

    transitive

    verb

    is

    regularly

    ccompanied

    by

    a

    direct

    object.

    V. o.

    The

    engineers

    threw

    a

    bridge

    across

    the

    river.

    V.

    o.

    The

    refugees

    te

    bits

    of bread found

    on

    the

    road.

    V. o.

    An

    old

    woman

    seized

    a

    squawking

    goose

    and

    ran

    into

    the house.

    An

    intransitive

    verb

    requires

    o

    object.

    Automobiles from

    Paris

    crept

    along

    the roads.

    People

    ran

    wildly

    in

    every

    direction.

    Many

    verbs

    can

    be used

    in

    either

    a

    transitive

    or

    an

    in-ransit

    sense.

    We

    read the

    news

    with

    great

    care. (Transitive)

    We read until

    late

    at

    night.

    (Intransitive)

    I

    won

    the

    first

    set.

    (Transitive)

    I

    won

    easily.

    Intransitive)

    A

    linking,

    r

    copulative,

    erb

    shows

    the

    relationship

    f

    the

    subject

    o

    the

    predicate

    oun.

    Washington

    was our

    first

    president.

    My

    favorite color

    is

    green.

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    ^^

    ASSERTING WORDS:

    VERBS

    AND

    VERBALS

    3c.

    Auxiliary

    verbs.

    Auxiliary,

    r

    helping,

    erbs,

    such

    as

    may,

    can,

    must,

    would,

    should,

    do,

    did,

    shall,

    will,

    and

    all forms of

    be

    and

    have,

    are

    often used with other verbs

    to

    express

    particular

    shades of

    meaning

    usually

    of

    time

    (see

    Section

    3f)

    or

    voice

    (see

    Section

    3d).

    Such combinations

    are

    called verb

    phrases.

    I

    have known

    Jerry

    since

    the

    first

    grade.

    (Time)

    This theme

    was

    rewritten

    three

    times.

    (Voice)

    Sd.

    Voice.

    Transitive

    verbs

    are

    further classified

    as

    to

    voice

    active

    or

    passive.

    A

    verb

    is in

    the

    active

    voice

    when

    its

    subject

    performs

    the

    action.

    We

    built

    a

    large

    house

    in

    the

    country.

    The

    engineers

    Jiave

    developed

    new

    types

    of

    electrical

    refrigerators.

    The

    Marshall Plan

    helps

    the

    reconstruction

    of

    Europe.

    A verb

    is

    in

    the

    passive

    voice

    when

    its

    subject

    eceives

    the

    action.

    Notice

    that

    some

    form of the verb be

    (am,

    is,

    are,

    was,

    were,

    been,

    be)

    is

    used with

    another verb in the

    passive

    voice.

    A

    large

    house

    was

    built

    in

    the

    country.

    The

    doors

    were

    bolted

    from the inside.

    3e.-

    Mood.

    The mood of

    a

    verb shows the mood

    or

    manner

    in

    which

    the

    speaker

    thinks

    of the action.

    A

    verb

    in

    the

    indicative mood

    states

    a

    fact

    or

    asks

    a

    question

    of

    fact.

    The farmer

    planted

    his

    crop

    early.

    What

    time

    is

    it?

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    ASSERTING

    WORDS:

    VERBS

    AND VERBALS

    A

    verb

    in

    the

    imperative

    mood

    expresses

    a

    command.

    Clean

    your

    room.

    Open

    your

    books

    to

    page

    10.

    A verb in

    the

    subjunctive

    ood

    indicates

    a

    condition

    contrary

    to

    fact

    or

    a

    wish. The

    subjunctive

    s

    discussed

    in

    Section

    17c-g.

    If

    you

    were

    in

    Europe,

    you

    would

    iind

    life

    very

    different.

    I

    wish

    I

    were

    in

    the South where

    it

    is

    always

    warm.

    3f.

    Tense

    Tense

    indicates

    the

    time

    of

    the

    action

    or

    state

    expressed

    by

    a

    verb.

    Every

    verb has three

    principal

    arts

    which

    are

    used

    as

    a

    basis for the formation of

    tenses.

    Many

    mistakes

    are

    made

    in

    usage because

    people

    do

    not

    understand how

    to

    form these

    tenses

    or

    how

    to

    use

    them.

    (

    See

    Sections

    15 and

    16.)

    The

    principal

    arts

    of

    a

    verb

    are

    the

    present,past,past

    participle.''^

    If

    the second

    and third

    principal

    arts

    of

    a

    verb

    add

    -d,-ed,

    or

    -t,

    the verb

    is

    called

    a

    regular

    erb. Otherwise

    it is

    an

    irregular

    erb,

    and

    its

    parts

    should be memorized. Notice

    the

    irregular

    erbs in

    the

    preceding

    list.

    *

    A

    fourth

    principal

    part,

    the

    present

    participle,

    s

    sometimes

    also

    given.

    The

    present

    participle

    is

    made

    by adding

    -ing

    to

    the

    present

    tense

    form of

    a

    verb:

    talk,

    talking.

    The

    four

    principal

    parts

    are

    given

    in

    this order:

    talk,

    talked,talked,

    talking.

    13

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    ASSERTING WORDS:

    VERBS AND

    VERBALS

    EXERCISE

    5

    Write

    the

    principal

    arts

    of each of the

    following

    erbs.

    Then

    write

    sentences

    using

    each

    of

    these verbs

    in

    the

    past

    tense.

    (

    For

    a

    discussion

    of

    tenses

    and their

    use,

    see

    Section

    16.)

    Understanding

    he difference

    between verbs and

    verbals

    will

    help

    you

    to

    avoid

    one

    of the

    most

    serious

    errors

    in

    writing,

    the

    half

    sentence

    or

    fragment.

    A

    verb

    is

    used

    as

    the

    simple

    predicate

    f

    a

    sentence;

    with the

    subject,

    he

    verb

    may

    make

    a

    complete

    statement.

    A

    verbal

    cannot

    be

    used

    as

    a

    simplepredicate

    f

    a

    sentence.

    (

    See Section

    55.

    )

    He

    kicked

    the ball.

    (Verb)

    Kicking

    the

    ball

    (Verbal)

    To

    kick

    the ball

    (Verbal)

    There

    are

    three

    types

    of

    verbals:

    participles,

    erunds,

    nd

    infinitives.For

    help

    in

    using

    verbals,

    ee

    Sections

    14k,

    16i

    and

    j,

    and 65.

    )

    1. A

    participle

    s

    a

    word

    which has the

    function

    of both

    verb and

    adjective.

    he

    present

    participle

    lways

    ends

    in

    -ing

    {speaking,

    inging).

    he

    past

    participle

    s the

    third

    principal

    art

    of the verb. The

    perfect

    participle

    onsists

    of

    having

    or

    having

    been

    plus

    the

    past

    participlehaving

    spoken,

    having

    been

    driven).

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    ASSERTING

    WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS

    Notice

    the

    past

    participles

    n

    the

    following

    ist

    of

    principal

    parts

    PAST PARTICIPLE

    walk walked walked

    smile smiled smiled

    drive

    drove driven

    draw drew drawn

    see

    saw

    seen

    sing

    sang

    sung

    bring brought brought

    Notice that

    some

    of

    the

    past participles

    nd in

    -ed

    and

    some

    in

    -n;

    others

    change

    the vowel

    (sung);

    and

    still

    others

    change

    their

    form

    completely

    (

    brought

    )

    The

    participle

    an

    take

    an

    object

    and be modified

    by

    an

    adverb. When it

    does,

    the

    group

    of words

    taken

    together

    s

    called

    a

    participia

    phrase.

    (

    See

    Section

    6b.

    )

    The

    ball kicked

    by

    the

    player

    ent into

    the

    stand.

    (Parti-iple

    used

    as an

    adjective)

    1 2

    The

    crowd

    cheering

    he

    team

    could be heard

    a

    mile

    away.

    (1:

    participle

    sed

    as

    an

    adjective

    n

    a

    participia

    phrase;

    2:

    object

    of

    participle)

    1

    2

    We

    followed

    the

    crowd,

    cheering

    lustily.

    1:

    participle

    used

    as

    an

    adjective

    n

    a

    participialhrase;

    :

    adverb

    modifyingparticiple)

    2.

    A

    gerund

    is

    a

    verbal

    noun.

    Gerunds

    have

    the

    same

    form

    as

    present

    or

    perfect

    participles,

    ut

    are

    used

    as nouns

    instead of

    adjectives.

    gerund

    may

    take

    an

    object

    and be

    modified

    by

    an

    adverb

    or an

    adjective.

    1 2

    Discovering

    he

    plans

    of the

    enemy

    was

    the

    job

    of the

    intelligence

    ervice.

    (1:

    gerund;

    2:

    object

    of

    gerund)

    15

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    ASSERTING WORDS:

    VERBS AND

    VERBALS

    1

    2

    Working intelligently

    s

    no

    easy

    task.

    (1:

    gerund;

    2:

    ad-erb

    modifier)

    2 1

    Our

    music

    teacher dislikes loud

    singing.

    (1:

    gerund;

    2:

    adjective

    modifier)

    3.

    An

    infinitiue

    s

    the

    form of

    the verb

    usually

    preceded

    by

    to.

    to

    walk

    to

    observe

    to

    have

    enjoyed

    An

    infinitive

    may

    be

    used

    as

    a

    noun,

    an

    adjective,

    r

    an

    adverb.

    My

    greatest

    pleasure

    s

    to

    travel.

    (Infinitive

    sed

    as

    noun)

    We

    have four

    days

    to

    spend

    in

    Billings.

    Infinitive

    sed

    as

    adjective)

    Bruce

    was

    glad

    to

    have

    come.

    (Infinitive

    sed

    as

    adverb)

    Sometimes the

    word

    to

    is

    omitted from the infinitive.

    Let

    me

    go

    with

    you.

    Will

    you

    help

    me

    pack?

    The infinitive

    may

    take

    an

    object

    and be modified

    by

    an

    adverb or an adverbial

    phrase

    or

    clause.

    1

    2

    To reach

    the

    mountain

    we

    walked

    twenty

    miles.

    (1:

    in-initive

    2:

    object

    of

    infinitive)

    1

    2

    George

    and

    I tried

    to

    walk

    faster.

    (1:

    infinitive;

    :

    adverb

    modifier)

    1

    2

    The

    snow

    began

    to

    drift

    along

    the

    slope.

    (1:

    infinitive;

    2:

    adverbial

    phrase

    modifying

    infinitive)

    1

    2

    I

    intend

    to

    stay

    here until you

    arrive.

    (1:

    infinitive;

    :

    adverbial

    clause

    modifying

    infinitive)

    16

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    ASSERTING

    WORDS: VERBS

    AND

    VERBALS

    9

    EXERCISE 6

    From

    the

    followingparagraph,

    list

    in

    one

    column

    all

    verbs that

    are

    used

    as

    simplepredicates;

    n

    another

    column,

    listall verbals.

    The

    listing

    as been made for the first

    two

    sentences.

    Verbs

    Verbal

    had

    to

    go

    liked

    had named

    Shelley,

    he

    English

    poet,

    had

    a

    tragic

    death.

    He

    liked

    to

    go

    out

    on

    the

    Mediterranean

    Sea

    in

    a

    light

    sailboat

    which

    he had

    named Ariel.

    But

    because he

    was

    very

    unskillful

    as a

    sailor,

    ome

    of his friends

    worried

    about

    him

    constantly.

    helley,

    however,

    loved

    the

    beauty

    of

    the

    sea

    and the

    graceful

    ashion

    in

    which the boat

    slipped

    ver

    the

    waves.

    One

    day,

    after

    visiting

    some

    friends,

    he

    set out

    for his

    home

    in

    Lerici

    in

    spite

    of

    a

    warning

    of

    a

    storm.

    Wishing

    to

    protect

    Shelley,

    is friend

    Trelawny,

    who

    was a

    good

    sailor,

    wanted

    to

    accompany

    the

    writer

    in

    a

    larger

    oat named

    Bolivar;

    but he

    had

    not

    obtained

    port

    clearance

    papers,

    and the

    port

    authorities

    kept

    him

    from

    leaving.helley

    as

    in

    a

    hurry;

    o

    he

    set

    out,

    leavingTrelawny

    fuming

    at

    the shore. The sailors

    on

    Trelawny

    's

    boat,

    gready

    concerned

    about

    Shelley,

    atched

    the black

    clouds

    gathering.

    When

    the

    storm

    finally

    roke,

    Trelawny,

    worried about

    his

    friend,

    tried

    to

    get

    news

    of

    him.

    Meantime,

    Shelley's

    ife waited

    at

    Lerici,

    feeling

    ure

    that

    Shelley

    could

    not

    have

    been

    so

    foolish

    as

    to

    set out

    in the

    storm.

    Finally

    he decided

    to

    go

    to

    Leghorn

    to

    see

    what had

    happened

    to

    him.

    Reaching

    the

    city,

    he

    begged

    for

    news

    and

    was

    told that

    Shelley

    ad

    indeed

    set

    out

    just

    before

    the

    storm.

    Panic-stricken,

    Mary

    made

    inquiries

    n

    every

    direction,

    but

    getting

    news

    of her husband

    was

    difiicult.

    At

    last she

    and

    Trelawny

    learned that

    parts

    of

    a

    wreck

    had

    been

    cast

    up

    on

    the

    shore

    at

    Viareggio.They

    stilldid

    not

    give

    up

    hope,

    but

    several

    days

    later the

    body

    of

    Shelley

    as

    washed up

    on

    the shore.

    He

    was

    onlythirty

    ears

    old when he died.

    17

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    S

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  • 7/26/2019 Handbook of English Mcgraw Hill

    43/521

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    23

  • 7/26/2019 Handbook of English Mcgraw Hill

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    4ci-b

    MODIFYING words:

    ADJECTIVES

    AND

    ADVERBS

    4.

    MODIFYING

    WORDS:

    ADJECTIVES

    AND

    ADVERBS

    4a, Definition of

    adfective.

    An

    adjective

    odifies

    a noun

    or

    a

    pronoun.

    4b.

    Uses

    of

    adjectives.

    By

    describing

    r

    limiting,

    n

    adjective

    akes

    more

    nearly

    exact

    the

    meaning

    of the word

    it

    modifies.

    Adjectives

    ell

    what

    kind

    of,

    how

    many,

    ivhich

    one.

    Adjectives

    re

    of

    two

    general

    kinds:

    1.

    Descriptive:

    red

    convertible,an

    easy

    job,

    broken

    window

    2.

    Limiting:

    he

    first

    ay,

    his

    former roommate,

    five

    imes

    Note: A

    noun

    or

    pronoun

    in

    the

    possessive

    ase

    may

    be

    considered

    an

    adjective

    ince it

    limitsthe

    meaning

    of

    another

    noun.

    The articles

    a,

    an,

    and the

    are

    adjectives.

    is

    used before

    a

    word

    beginning

    ith

    a consonant

    sound;

    an,

    before

    a

    word

    beginning

    ith

    a

    vowel

    sound.

    Remember that it is

    the

    sound,

    not

    the

    spelling,

    hat determines which article

    should

    be used.

    A

    word

    beginning

    with silent

    h

    actually

    starts

    with

    a

    vowel. The sound of

    y

    before

    a

    vowel

    is

    a

    consonant

    sound

    and

    calls for

    a,

    whether the word

    begins

    with

    y

    or

    with

    a

    vowel

    having

    the sound of

    y,

    such

    as

    long

    u.

    an

    apple,

    n

    hour,

    an

    opportunity,

    hero,

    a

    European,

    a

    university

    An

    adjective

    s

    called

    a

    predicatedjective

    r

    predicate

    complement

    when it

    is related

    to

    the

    subjectby

    a

    linking

    verb

    (be,feel,

    become,

    taste,

    seem,

    appear,

    look, sound,

    for

    example

    )

    The

    water

    felt

    warm.

    24

    The

    com

    is

    green.

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    MODIFYING WORDS:

    ADJECTIVES

    AND ADVERBS

    EXERCISE

    7

    In

    one

    column,

    listeach word

    (including

    erbals)

    used

    as

    an

    adjective

    n

    this

    paragraph.

    n

    another

    column,

    list

    the

    noun

    that each

    adjective

    odifies.

    Across

    a

    sea

    that

    was

    now

    turquoise,

    ow

    emerald,

    we

    could

    watch the Venezuelan

    coastline with the

    purple

    Andes

    in the

    background.

    Flying

    fish stood

    a

    moment

    on

    their

    tails,

    flew

    a

    little

    distance,

    and

    dived

    back

    into

    the

    sea.

    The

    air

    was

    still.

    The

    fresh

    odor of the

    sea

    mingled

    with

    the

    heavy

    smell

    of

    sweat

    from the

    stevedores' bodies.

    In

    a

    few

    moments

    a

    dozen

    small boats had

    reached the side of

    our

    ship,

    and

    their brown-

    skinned

    occupants

    were

    slipping

    nto

    the clear

    water to

    find

    the

    money

    that the

    passengers

    had thrown down

    for them.

    4c.

    Definition

    of

    adverb.

    An

    adverb

    modifies

    a

    verb,

    an

    adjective,

    r

    another adverb

    by

    describing,imiting,

    r

    in

    some

    other

    way

    making

    the

    meaning

    more

    nearly

    exact.

    4cl.

    Uses

    of

    adverbs.

    An adverb

    tells

    how, when, where,

    why,

    to

    what

    extent.

    (Adverbs

    that tell

    why

    are

    usually

    n

    the form of

    phrases

    or

    clauses

    rather

    than

    single

    ords.

    See

    Sections

    6

    and

    7.)

    We

    saw

    a

    paraderecently.

    When)

    We

    certainly

    id

    enjoy

    the

    music

    playedby

    the bands.

    (

    To

    what

    extent

    )

    Here

    we

    saw

    soldiers from

    many

    countries.

    (Where)

    The

    taxi

    drove

    slowly

    down

    the

    street.

    (How)

    If

    we

    teU how

    slowly

    the

    taxi

    drove,

    we

    have

    an

    adverb

    modifying

    another

    adverb.

    I

    quite

    1

    The

    taxi

    drove

    -

    very

    I

    slowly

    down

    the

    street.

    I

    too

    25

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    4cl

    MODIFYING

    WORDS:

    ADJECTIVES

    AND ADVERBS

    The

    following

    xamples

    show adverbs

    used

    to

    modify

    adjectives

    When

    the

    day

    was

    over,

    our

    guide

    was

    very

    tired.

    (Very

    modifies

    the

    adjective

    ired.

    )

    He

    was

    almost

    sick with

    fatigue.

    {

    Almost modifies

    the

    adjective

    ick.

    )

    Occasionally

    noun

    is

    used

    as an

    adverb.

    (The

    use

    of

    a

    noun

    is

    called

    the

    adverbial

    objective.)

    After

    the

    game

    we

    went

    home.

    Neither

    adjectives

    or

    adverbs should

    be used

    profusely..

    Overuse

    of

    either robs

    sentences

    of

    conciseness

    and force.

    Both

    adjectives

    nd adverbs

    can

    help

    to

    make

    Vxriting

    pe-ific

    and

    vi\

    id.

    but

    writing

    that

    is

    heavilv

    larded with

    them

    is

    weak and

    flabby.

    articular

    problems

    in

    the

    use

    of

    ad-ectives

    and

    adverbs

    are

    discussed

    in

    Sections IS

    and

    63.

    EXERCISE 8

    In

    one

    column

    on

    your paper,

    list each

    word

    (including

    verbals)

    used

    as

    an

    adverb

    in

    the

    followingparagraph.

    n

    a

    second

    column,

    list

    the

    word

    that

    each adverb modifies.

    Have

    you

    read

    Tlie

    Ancient

    Mariner?

    Many

    very

    interesting,

    stories

    are

    told

    about

    the author of the

    poem,

    Samuel

    Cole-idge.

    Among

    them

    are some

    particularly

    ood

    tales of the

    poet's

    love

    for

    talking.

    ne

    day

    Coleridge

    et

    Lamb

    walking

    rapidly

    o-

    work and

    stopped

    to

    talk

    to

    liim.

    Lamb,

    who

    was

    hurrying

    tO'

    reach his

    job

    on

    time,

    moved

    awav;

    but

    Coleridge

    quickly

    grabbed

    the

    button

    of liislistener's

    coat

    and

    insisted

    upon

    finish-ng

    his

    story.

    For

    a

    few

    minutes

    Lamb

    waited

    patiently,

    ut

    Coleridge

    as

    apparently

    preparing

    for

    a

    long

    talk.

    Presently

    Lamb

    took

    a

    knife

    from

    his

    pocket

    and carefullv

    cut

    ofi:the

    button

    that

    Coleridge

    as

    holding.

    hat

    evening

    Lamb,

    return-ng

    from

    work,

    saw

    Coleridge

    still

    holding

    the

    button and

    still

    talking

    vigorously.

    26

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    JOINING

    WORDS:

    PREPOSITIONS,

    CONJUNCTIONS

    5ci-b

    5.

    JOINING

    WORDS:

    PREPOSITIONS

    AND

    CONJUNCTIONS

    5a.

    Definition of

    preposition.

    A

    preposition

    s

    a

    linking

    ord used

    to

    show the relation-hip

    of

    a noun or

    pronoun

    to

    some

    other

    word

    in

    the

    sentence.

    It

    is

    usually

    ollowed

    by

    an

    object.

    5b.

    List

    of

    prepositions.

    Here

    is

    a

    listof

    common

    prepositions:

    The

    meaning

    of

    a

    sentence

    is

    sometimes

    confused

    if

    prepositions

    re

    not

    used

    correctly

    n

    combination

    with

    other words.

    (See

    Section

    43.)

    Between

    is

    used

    when

    two

    are

    considered.

    Among

    is

    used

    when

    more

    than

    two

    are

    considered.

    I

    must

    choose between

    dancing

    and

    tennis.

    The

    money

    was

    divided

    among

    six

    heirs.

    Note: In

    casual

    speech,

    etween

    is sometimes

    used when

    more

    than

    two

    are

    considered.

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    Sc-d

    JOINING

    WORDS:

    PREPOSITIONS,

    CONJUNCTIONS

    Beside

    means

    next to.

    Besides

    means

    in

    addition

    to.

    The

    most

    popular

    boy

    in

    school

    sits

    beside

    me

    in

    French.

    What

    are

    you

    studying

    esides

    English

    nd

    math?

    5c.

    Definition

    of

    conjunction.

    A

    conjunction

    s

    a

    linking

    ord used

    to connect

    words

    or

    groups

    of words

    in

    a

    sentence.

    Sd. Kinds of

    conjunctions.

    Coordinating

    onjunctions

    oin

    words

    or

    groups

    of words

    of

    equal

    rank;

    for

    example,

    and,

    but,

    for,

    or,

    nor.

    Certain

    coordinating

    onjunctions

    sed

    in

    pairs

    are

    called

    correlative

    conjunctions.

    ost

    frequently

    sed

    of these

    are

    either

    . . .

    or;

    neither

    . .

    .

    nor;

    both

    .

    . .

    and;

    whether

    . .

    .

    or.

    Subordinating

    conjunctionsjoin

    dependent

    clauses

    to

    main

    clauses;

    for

    example,

    if,

    as,

    since,

    because,

    although,

    while,

    so

    that,

    when.

    (

    See Section

    7.

    )

    Note:

    Certain adverbs

    are

    used

    as

    connectives.

    They

    are

    called

    conjunctive

    adverbs.

    Examples

    are

    however,

    more-ver,

    nevertheless,

    herefore.

    See

    Glossary

    f Grammatical

    Terms

    and

    Section

    24b.)

    In

    good

    writing,

    conjunctions

    ust

    be

    chosen

    with

    care

    in order that

    they

    may

    show the

    exact

    relationship

    e-ween

    ideas. Often

    a

    careless

    ^^^:iter

    will

    use

    and

    where

    the

    relationship

    f

    clauses

    needs

    to

    be

    more

    accurately

    expressed,robablyby

    use

    of subordination.

    Notice

    how

    the

    emphasis

    and

    meaning

    differ

    in

    these

    sentences:

    The

    search

    for the chemical formula has been

    rewarding,

    and further

    investigation

    ill

    make

    the

    rewards

    even

    greater.

    Although

    the

    search

    for the chemical

    formula has been

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    PHRASES

    V9d

    rewarding,

    urther

    investigation

    ill make

    the

    rewards

    even

    greater.

    Common

    errors

    in

    the

    use

    of

    conjunctions

    re

    discussed

    in Sections

    19a-c,

    23a-c,

    and

    70.

    The

    conjunction

    s

    the

    seventh

    kind

    of

    word,

    or

    part

    of

    speech,

    that

    you

    have studied

    so

    far.

    There

    are

    eight

    parts

    of

    speechaltogether.

    he

    seven

    parts

    of

    speech

    that

    you

    have

    studied

    are

    nouns,

    pronouns,

    verb