Handbook of English Mcgraw Hill

7/26/2019 Handbook of English Mcgraw Hill

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The

Sentence

55.

Period

Fault

56.

Comma

Fault

57.

Fused Sentences

58.

Misuse

of

Dependent

Clauses

59. Related

Ideas

60.

Rambling

Sentences

61.

Choppy

Sentences

62.

Incompleteness

63.

Word

Order

64.

Split

Constructions

65.

Dangling

Modifiers

66.

Mixed

and

Illogical

on-tructions

67.

Comparisons

68.

Parallel

Structure

69. Point

of

View

70.

Coordination

and

Subordi-ation

71.

Emphasis

72.

Variety

73.

Achievement

Tests

The

Paragraph

74.

Topic

Sentence

75.

Substance

of

a

Paragraph

76.

Methods

of

Development

77.

Order of

Ideas

78.

Transitional

Devices

79.

Proportion

and

Length

80.

Mechanics

of the

Paragraph

The Whole

Theme

81.

Choice

of

Topic

82.

Outlines

83.

Beginnings

and

Endings

84.

Manuscript

Form

85.

Revision

and

Proofreading

The Research

Paper

86.

Using

the

Library

87.

Choosing

the

Topic

88.

Taking

Notes

89.

Preparing

the

Outline

90.

Writing

the

Paper

91.

Making

Footnotes

92.

Making

a

Bibliography

The

Precis and

the

Paraphrase

93.

The

Precis

94.

The

Paraphrase

Writing

for

Special

Purposes

95.

Business Letters

96.

ReportWriting

97.

Social Letters

Listening

and

Thinking

98.

Backgrounds

f Writers

and

Thinkers

99.

Testing

Your

Logic

100.

Propaganda

Technique

Appendix

101.

Taking

Tests

102.

Sentence

Analysis

and

Diagraming


8/521


9/521

McGraw-Hill

HANDBOOK

OF

ENGLISH

VIRGINIA

SHAFFER

Head

of

English

Department,

Forest

Park

High

School, Baltimore,

Mary-and;

Coordinator of

Writing,

Mc-oy

College

of

The

Johns

Hopkins

University

HARRY

SHAW

Formerly

Director,

Workshops

in

Composition,

New

York

University

Second

Edition

WEBSTER

DIVISION,

McGRAW-HILL

BOOK

COMPANY

St.

Louis

New York

San

Francisco

Dallas

Toronto

London


10/521

COPYRIGHT

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We

wish

to

thank

these

authors,

pubhshers,

nd

other holders

of

copyright

or

permission

to

use

the

following

xcerpts

from

copyrighted

aterials:

The

excerpts

from

Sportsmanlike

riving.

Reprintedy

permis-ion

of the

American

Automobile

Association.

^

The

excerpt

from

High

Jimgle,y

William

Beebe.

Reprintedby

permission

of

Duell,

Sloan and

Pearce,

Inc.

^

The

excerpt

from

My

Sister

Eileen,

copyright

938,

by

Ruth

McKenney.

Reprintedby

per-ission

of

Harcourt,

Brace

and

Company,

Inc.

and

Rupert

Hart-

Ltd.

i^

The

excerpt

from

Anything

Can

Happen,

by

and

Helen

Papashvily.

eprinted

y

permission

of

Harper

rs.

i^

The

excerpt

from

This

I

Remember,

by

Eleanor

Reprinted

by

permission

of

Harper

Brothers and

n

and

Company.

^*

The

excerpt

from

We

Took

to

the

y

Louise

Dickinson

Rich.

Copyright

1942,

by

Louise

^n Rich.

Reprintedby

permission

of

J.

B.

Lippincott

pany

and

Willis K.

Wing,

i

The

excerpt

from Mirror

for

Man,

by Clyde

Kluckhohn.

Copyright

1949

by

the

McGraw-

Hill Book

Company,

Inc.

Reprintedby

permission

of the

McGraw-Hill

Book

Company,

Inc.

^^

The

excerpt

from

Affairs

of

Dame

Rumor,

by

Dav^d

Jacobsen.eprinted

by

permission

of

Rinehart

Company,

Inc.

'^

The

excerpt

from

How

to

Stay

in

College, y

Robert

U.

Jameson.

Reprinted

rom the

Saturday

Evening

Post

article

by

permission

of

the author.

^'

The

excerpt

from

Science

Remakes Our

World,

by

James

Stokley.

eprinted

by

permission

of

Ives

Washburn,

Inc.

Certain

parts

of this book have

previously

een

copyrighted

under the

titles

Writing

and

Rewriting

(1955)

by

Harry

Shaw

and

The

Harper

Handbook

of

College

Composition

(1957)

by

George

S.

Wykoff

and

Harry

Shaw

and

are

reprinted

ith the

kind

permission

of

Harper

Brothers,

New

York.

McGraw-Hill HANDBOOK OF

ENGLISH

Copyright

c)

1960

by

McGraw-Hill,

Inc.

All

Rights

Reserved.

Copyright

1952

by

Harry

Shaw and

Virginia

Shaffer.

All

Rights

Reserved. Printed

in

the United States

of

America.

This

book,

or

parts

thereof,

may

not

be

reproduced

n

any

form

without

permission

of the

publishers.

IX

Library

f

Congress

Catalog

ard Number:

59-10723


11/521

CONTENTS

Preface vii

Guide

to

Exercises

x

10.

Diagnostic

Tests

in

Usage

64

11.

Subject

and Verb

Agreement

70

12. Pronoun

and Antecedent

Agreement

84

13.

Reference of

Pronouns 91

14. Case

of

Pronouns 97

15.

Principal

arts

of Verbs

112

16. Tense

of Verbs

122

17.

Mood

129

18.

Adjective

and Adverb

Usage

134

19.

Preposition

nd

Conjunction

Usage

143

20.

Achievement

Tests

in

Usage

146

iCapitalization

I

21.

Use of

Capital

Letters

152

iii


12/521

CONTENTS

Punctuation

22.

Diagnostic

est

on

Commas,

Semicolons,

Colons,

Apostrophes,uotation

Marks

161

23.

The

Comma

164

24.

The Semicolon

192

25.

The

Colon

197

26.

The

Apostrophe:

ossessives

and

Plurals

201

27.

Quotation

Marks

208

28.

Achievement

Tests

on

Punctuation

212

29.

The

Period

216

30.

Exclamation

Points

and

Question

Marks

217

31.

The Dash

218

32.

The

Hyphen

and

Syllabification

220

33. Parentheses

and Brackets

222

34.

Italics

224

35.

Abbreviations

226

36. Numbers

227

I

The

Word

37.

Use

of

the

Dictionary

231

38.

Pronunciation

242

39.

Spelling

244

40.

Vocabulary

Growth

259

41.

Provincialisms

268

42.

Colloquiahsms

268

43.

Idioms

269

44.

Vulgarisms

273

45.

Improprieties

273

46.

Slang

274

47.

Triteness

275

48.

Jargon

278

49.

Concrete

and

Specific

ords

280

50.

Fine

Writing

282

51. Wordiness

285

52.

Euphony

289


13/521

CONTENTS


14/521

CONTENTS

83.

Beginnings

nd

Endings

of Themes

396

84.

Manuscript

Form

396

85.

Revision

and

Proofreading

397

JThe

esearch

Paper

|

86.

Using

the

Library

398

87.

Choosing

the

Topic

of

a

Research

Paper

407

88.

Taking

Notes

410

89.

Preparing

the

Outline

414

90.

Writing

the

Paper

415

91.

Making

Footnotes

417

92.

Making

a

BibHography

421

[The

Precis

and

the

Paraphrase

|

93.

The

Precis

422

94.

The

Paraphrase

424

[Writing

for

Special

Purposes

|

95.

Business

Letters

425

96.

Report Writing

439

97.

Social

Letters

446

[Listening

nd

Thinking

98.

Backgrounds

of

Writers

and

Thinkers

453

99.

Testing

Your

Logic

456

100.

Propaganda

Techniques

462

[Appendix

[

101.

Taking

Tests

469

102. Sentence

Analysis

and

Diagraming

480

Index

491

vi


15/521

PREFACE

The McGraw-Hill Handbook of

English,

Second

Edition,

is

designed

to

help

the

student

build the skills he needs

to

express

himself with

clarity,

ease,

and

appropriateness.

It

describes

American

English as

it

is

actually

used

by

careful

speakers

and

writers

and shows

why

some

kinds of

expres-ion

are

considered

more

effective

than others.

In

addition

to

stating

the facts about

language

that

educated

people

must

know,

this book

emphasizes

the

importance

of

clear

thinking

as

an

essential both

to

effective

expression

and

to

intelligent

reading

and

listening.

Types

of

faulty

thinking

are

analyzed

and

exercises

are

provided

to

develop

the

student's

ability

to

recognize

and avoid such

errors

in

his

own

writing

and

speaking.

This

new

edition

of

the McGraw-Hill

Handbook of

Eng-ish

contains

a

number of

new

features which the authors

believe

will

enhance

the

usefulness of

the

book.

A

new

format

employing

a

second color

gives

increased

promi-ence

to

rules,

principles,

and

section

numbers.

Expanded

sections

on

levels of

usage,

the

use

of the

dictionary,

and

report

writing

provide

materials

for

instruction

and

refer-nce

essential

to

the student's work

in

English

and his other

studies

as

well.

A

section

on

taking

tests

acquaints

the

stu-ent

with

the form

and

content

of

college

entrance

and

placement

tests

and

shows

him

ways

in

which

he

can

im-rove

his

performance.

A

comprehensive

review

of

sentence

diagraming

brings together

in

one

place

all

of the

principles

of

sentence

analysis

and

provides

the

explanations

and

prac-ice

sentences

the student needs

to master

them.

vii


16/521

PREFACE

This

book

makes

a

completely

functional

approach

to

grammar,

usage,

and

mechanics. Rules

are

clearly

stated,

illustrated,

nd

immediatelyapplied.

bundant

drill

ma-erial

enables the student

to

familiarize

himself with

im-ortant

principles

nd

helps

him

to

see

how

they

apply

to

his

own

writing.

The

natural-sounding

ractice

entences

in

the

McGraw-

Hill

Handbook

of

English

greatlyimplify

he

task of both

teacher and student.

These

sentences

were

not

written

solely

o

embody

an error.

They

are

drawn from

more

than

seven

thousand student themes

analyzed

for this

purpose.

Often these

sentences

appear

in

the form of

a

paragraph

on

safe

driving,

ravel,

or

an

illuminating

ncident

from the

lifeof

a

literaryigure,

o

that the student

adds

to

his knowl-dge

and broadens

his

cultvu-al

outlook

as

he

studies his

grammar.

The authors make

a

special

ffort

to

pro\'ide

or different

levels

of

instruction.

The drill

that follows

each

major

prin-iple

is

arranged

in

two

sections.

The

first

begins

with

easy

sentences

and

moves

on

to

the

kind

of

sentences

that

nor-ally

appear

in

careful

student

writing.

he second

section

provides

entences

of

greater

maturity.

hese

may

be used

for

superior

students

or

for

review

with

students

who

have

mastered the

simpler

sentences.

Thus,

the

teacher

who

wishes

to

use

homogeneous

grouping

can

readily

o

so.

In

recognition

of

the

fact that

language

changes,

the

authors

of the

McGraw-Hill

Handbook of

English,

Second

Edition,

have

scrutinized

every

explanation,

llustrative

example,

and

practice

sentence to

ensure

its

appropriate-ess

in

a

handbook

reflecting

odern

American

usage.

While

making

clear

that the standards

of

Enghsh

change

with the

needs of those who

use

it,

the authors

are

careful

to

remind the

student that

at

any

given

time

there

are

standards. This book describes

fully

and

accurately

he

standards

of

written

Englishtoday.

VIRGINIA

SHAFFER

HARRY

SHAW

viii


17/521

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For

assistance in

preparing

the

manuscript,

the

authors

are

indebted

to

a

number of

people.

Miss

EHzabeth Con-elly,

former Head

of the

English

Department

at

the

Patter-on

Park

High

School

in

Baltimore,

and

Mrs.

Thea

Hodes,

former teacher

of

superior

children

at

School

No. 49

in

Bal-imore,

read

parts

of

the

manuscript

and offered valuable

advice

on

the

adjustment

of

the material

to

suit

the

needs of

students of

varying

ability.

Mrs.

Philip

Edwards,

Director

of

Young

People's

Work

at

the Enoch

Pratt

Free

Library,

and

her

assistants

gave

invaluable

help

in

locating

illus-rative

paragraphs

in

books

popular

with

young

people.

Miss

Bernice

Wiese,

Supervisor

of School Libraries

in

Balti-ore,

examined the

section

on

the

use

of

the

library.

Sug-estion

from

Mr.

Simeon

Round,

Mrs.

Anna

Bloom,

and

Mr.

Ellis

Newton

on

The

Theme and The

Research

Paper

have been

incorporated

in

the

revision.

The authors

are

grateful

to

all

these

people

and

to

the students

at

the

Forest Park

High

School and

at

McCoy

College

of The

Johns

Hopkins

University,

who have made

helpful

suggestions

while

using

the

materials

in

this

book.

IX


18/521

GUIDE

TO EXERCISES

Asterisks indicate

key

exercises

and achievement

tests.

Grammar

adjectives,

recognition

of, 25;

adverbs,

recog-ition

of, 26; clauses,

*

achievement

test

on

kinds

of,

44-45;

recognition

of

adjective,

39-40;

recognition

of

adverbial,

41-42;

recognition

of

noun,

43-44;

nouns,

capitahzing,

2;

feminine

of,

3;

nominative

and

objective

case

of,

7;

plurals,

3;

phrases,

âchievement

test

on

kinds

of,

36-37;

recogni-ion

of

adjective,

33-34;

recognition

of

adverbial, 34-35;

function

and

recognition

of

noun,

31-32;

sentences,

choppy,

51-52;

combining simple,

51-52;

kinds

of, 49-50;

^variety

in,

51-52;

verbs,

principal

parts

of,

14;

verbals

and,

17.

USAGE

'âchievement

tests

in,

146-151;

adjectives

and

adverbs,

135-136, 141-143;

âgreement,

pronoun

and

an-ecedent,

87-90;

subject

and verb

review,

80-84;

verb

and

single

subject,

72-73,

76-77;

verb and

compound subject,

78-79; case,

of

personal

pronouns,

99-102,

104-105;

of

relative

pronouns,

108-112;

diagnostic

tests,

64-69;

lie

and

lay,

121-122;

like

and

as,

145;

prepositions

and

conjunctions,

145;

pronoun,

reference

of,

94-97;

sit

and

set,

122;

'^

tense,

sequence

of,

126-128;

verbs,

past

tense

and

past

participle,

118-120;

review,

128-129;

subjunctive,

132-133.

CAPITALIZATION

*capitoZzzafion,

157-159.

PUNCTUATION

flbbreDiaiions, 227;

âchievement

tests

in,

212-215;

âpostrophe,

205-207;

capital

letter

and

comma

review,

176-177;

colon,

and

review

with

semicolon,

198-


19/521

GUIDE TO

EXERCISES

201;

comma,

with

appositives

nd

limiting

xpressions,

88-

189;

before coordinate

conjunction,

165-168;

after

intro-uctory

element, 170-172;

with

nonrestrictive

expressions,

183-184;

with

parenthetical

xpressions

nd

terms

of

ad-ress,

178-180;

review,

186, 187, 190-92;

in

series, 174-176;

dash,

219;

diagnostic

ests,

161-164; end,

220;

hyphen,

222;

italics,

25; numbers,

228-229;

parentheses

nd

brackets,

223-224;

quotation

marks,

211-212;

semicolon,

194-196,

WORD

diction,

alliteration and

rhyme,

290-291;

choice

of,

276-277;

*review

of

choice,

287,

302-4306;

simple,

284-

285;

specific

ords,

281, 282;

dictionary,

43^247;

fine

writing,

284-285;

idiom,

271-272;

prgon,

279-280;

pro-unciati

243-244;

spelling,

45-248;

adding

suffixes,

56-

258;

of

plurals,

54;

spelling

ists,48-251;

vocabulary,

f

business

words,

261-262;

of

foreign

words,

263;

growth,

260-261;

matching

exercises,

265-267;

of medical

terms,

264;

of

musical

terms,

264;

of scientific

terms,

264;

words

that

are

similar,

246,

247;

^wordiness,

and

wordy,

286-289.

SENTENCE

achievement

test

on

elective

sentences,

360-

363;

analysis

nd

diagraming,

489^90;

comparison,

340-

342;

clauses,

errors

in

the

use

of,

315;

emphasis,

354-355;

illogical

onstructions,

338-339;

modifier,

dangling,

30-

332,

333,

334-336;

'misplaced,

24-327;

'parallel

tructure,

344-348;

sentences,

balanced,

355;

choppy,

319;

effective,

352; fused,

312;

incomplete,

09,

321-322;

loose

and

peri-dic,

354;

review

(incomplete,

run-on,

fused),

312-314;

run-on,

311;

unity

in,

317,

318,

319;

variety

in,

358-360;

shifts

n

construction,

in

verb

tense,

349-350;

split

onstruc-ions,

329;

word

order,

324-327.

PARAGRAPH

^coherence,

through

order of

ideas,

375-

377;

through

transitional

expressions,

80-381;

letters,

n-oherent

377;

topic

sentence,

367, 373-374;

^

unity

in,

368.

xi


20/521

GUIDE TO EXERCISES

WHOLE THEME

*^^^^'^^^

92-395.

RESEARCH

PAPER

*^^^^ ^ /.

se

of card

catalogue,

01;

use

of Readers'

Guide,

406; use

of reference

books,

402;

limiting

opic,

409;

note

taking,

12,

414.

PRECIS

AND THE

PARAPHRASE

F^cfs

and

para-hrase,

423-424.

WRITING

FOR

SPECIAL

VURVOSES

betters,

bread-

and-butter,

450;

formal

invitations

and

replies,

47;

friendly,

452;

'informal

invitations

and

replies,

50;

order,

438-439;

*request

for

adjustment,

39;

sympathy,

450;

*thank-you,

450;

report

writing,

445.

LISTENING

AND

THINKING

listening,

ackground

of

speakers

or

writers,

454-455;

propaganda techniques,

464;

name-calling,

64;

thinking,

bout

advertisements,464;

logic

in,

459^61,

466-467;

in

reading

tatistics,

66.

TESTS

achievement

in

effective

sentences,

360-363;

achievement

in

punctuation,

212-215;

achievement

in

us-ge,

146-151;

College

Entrance,

476-479;

completing

anal-gies,

474-476;

kinds

of

clauses,44-45;

kinds of

phrases,

36-37;

punctuation

diagnostic,

61-164;

usage

diagnostic,

64-69;

vocabulary,

70-473.

xu


21/521

Grammar

Grammar

is

not

a

static

thing.

It

changes

and

grows

as

men

put

new

life

into

it,

and

it

has

different levels for

different

occasions.

In

the

casual

English

of informal

con-ersation,

many

people

today

are

using

It's

me,

or

Drive

slow ;

but these forms would not, of

course,

appear

in

formal

writing.

Grammar

is

for

use.

The

definitions and

explanations

given

in

this

part

of the

book

are

valuable

only

when

they

help

the student

to

write

and

speak

more

effectively.

e-ause

the

types

of words

defined here function

in

many

different kinds of

sentences,

it is

important

to

remember

that

a

given

word

is

not

always

used

as

the

same

part

of

speech.

It

may

be

a noun

in

one

sentence,

a

verb

in

another,

an

adjective

in

a

third. How

a

word

is

used

determines what

part

of

speech

it

is.

Sailing

is

my

favorite

sport.

(Noun)

We were

sailing

across

the

bay.

(Verb)

Far

off

we

could

see a

small

sailing

vessel.

(Adjective)

In

the

pages

that

follow,

the

essential

principles

of

gram-ar

are

reviewed.

If

there has been

some

tendency

to

permit

variations

of the forms

commonly accepted

as

correct,

these

variations

are

presented.

A

glossary

of

grammatical

terms

appears

on

pages

52-

61.

If

any

grammatical

terms

used

in

this

book

are un-amiliar

to

you,

turn to

the

glossary.

1


22/521

CI^IS

NOUNS

1. NOUNS

la.

Definition.

A

noun

is

the

name

of

a

person,

place,

r

thing.

man,

officer,

homas

Jefferson,

ark,

street,

desk,

team,

courage

lb.

Kinds

of

nouns.

A

common noun

is

the

name

of any

one

of

a

class of

persons,

places,

r

things.

t

is

not

written

with

a

capital

letter.

horse,child,

garden,alley,

ub,

book,

engineer

A

proper

noun

is the

name

of

a

particular

erson,

place,

or

thing.

t

is written

with

a

capital

etter.

(

See Section

21g.

)

General

Grant,

President

Lincoln,

Patterson

Park,

Linden

Avenue,

Soil

Conservation

Service

An abstract

noun

is

the

name

of

an

idea

or a

quality

part

from

any

object.

honesty,intelligence,race

A

collective

noun

names

a

group

of

persons

or

objects.

class,

crowd,

army,

fleet,

family

Note: Abstract

nouns

and

collective

nouns

are

usually

common

nouns.

EXERCISE

1

Identify

he

proper

nouns

in

the

following

istand

write

them

with

a

capital

etter

on a

separate

sheet of

paper.

company

maryland

southern

high

high

school

north

school

secretary

english

l^ir^g

2


23/521

NOUNS

Ic-d

tuesday

junior

1c.

Number.

general

electric

company

house of

repre-

sentatives

automobile

lincoln

park

doctor

Nouns

may

be

singular

r

plural.

f

a

noun names one

person,

place,

r

thing,

t is

singular

n

number. If

it

means

more

than

one,

it

is

plural

n

number.

Field

is

singular;

fields

s

plural.

EXERCISE

2

Study

Section

39d. Then

on a

sheet

of

paper

write

the

correct

plural

orm

of each of the

following

ords:

tomato

lady

sister-in-law

phenomenon

James

Id.

Gender.

Nouns

have

four

genders:

asculine

(man,

boy),

feminine

(

woman,

girl

,

and

neuter

(

desk,

road

)

When

a noun

may

be

either

masculine

or

feminine,

it

has

common

gender

(person,

playmate,

companion).

EXERCISE

3

Write

on

your paper

the

feminine

form

(or

equivalent)

of

each

of these

nouns:


24/521

^B

NOUNS

1e.

Case.

Nouns

have tliree

cases:

nominative,

objective,

ossessive.

Nouns

in

the

nominative

and

objective

ases

have the

same

form:

boy

(nominative),

boy

(objective).

he

possessive

case

requires

n

apostrophe

(

boys'

)

or an

apostrophe

and

5

(boy's).

See

Section

26.)

If.

Uses

of

nouns

in

the

nominative

case.

The

most

important

uses

of

nouns

in

the

nominative

case

are

the

following:

1.

Subject

of

a

verb.

(See

Section

3.)

S.

V.

The

storm

caught

the

ship

in

mid-ocean.

s. V.

Suddenly

the winds roared

in

a

great

blast

of

fury.

V.

s.

Across

the

deck

swept

huge

waves.

S.

V.

s.

The

passengers

rushed

to

their cabins when

the

waves

V.

rolled

over

the deck.

2.

Predicate

noun,

also called

predicatecomplement,

predicate

nominative,

or

subjective

complement.

(See

Section

14b.)

A

predicate

oun

is

a

noun

used

in

the

predicate

(see

Glossary

of

Grammatical

Terms)

to

point

back

to

the

sub-ect.

It

follows the verb be

(

am,

is,

are,

was,

been, be,

were

)

or some

other

linking

erb

(

become,

seem).

s.

V.

p.n.

Jerry

is

the

hoy

to

play

halfback.

s.

V.

p.n.

The

Anwricans

are

the

people

who have led

the

struggle

for

liberty.

s. V.

p.n.

Those

girls

ere

the

winners

of

the basketball

tourna-ent.


25/521

NOUNS

19

s. V.

p.n.

The

man on

the

witness

stand

seemed

a

person

of hon-sty.

3.

Noun in direct address.

(

See

Section 23f

.

)

Bruce,

will

you

ride

to

the

canyon

with

me?

4. Noun

in

an

absolute

expression.

See Section 72e.

)

Nighthaving

fallen,e

camped

near

the trail.

5.

Appositive

with

a

noun

in

the

nominative

case.

(See

Section

14j.)

Melody,

my

horse,

saw me

from

the

corral.

1g.

Uses

of

nouns

in

the

objective

ase.

The

most

important

uses

of

nouns

in

the

objective

ase

follow.

(For

further

explanation,

ee

Section 14. See

also

Section

4d for adverbial

objective.)

1. Direct

object

of

a

verb.

We

won

the

game.

(Game

is

the

direct

object

f the

verb

won.)

Jean

gave

a

party.

(Party

is

the direct

object

f

the

verb

gave.

)

2.

Indirect

object

of

a

verb

(object

f

to

or

for

under-tood

)

Shall

I

give

Ted

a

sweater

at

Christmas?

{Ted

is

the

in-irect

object

f the

verb.

Sweater

is

the direct

object.)

3.

Object

of

a

preposition.

Mother

brought

some

souvenirs

from Atlantic

City.

{At-antic

City

is

the

object

f the

preposition

from.)

4.

Appositive

with

a noun

in the

objective

ase.

(See

Section

14j.)

We

met

Mr.

Townley,

the

sheriff.


26/521

1h

NOUNS

5.

Objective

complement,

r

predicate

bjective.

See

Section 14i.

)

We

elected Walter

president.

I consider

her

a

good

player.

6.

Subject

of

an

infinitive.

See

Section

14g.

)

I

wanted

John

to

go

to

the

movies.

Sally

asked the

chairman

to

take

a

walk with

her.

7.

Object

of

an

infinitive.

See Sections

3g

and 14h.

)

His

desire

to

please

the

voters

was

great.

The

ship

was

anchored

to

save

fuel.

8.

Object

of

a

participle.

See Sections

3g

and 14h.

)

Waving

his

hat.

Rusty

galloped

own Main

Street.

Emily

is

the

girlriving

he

car.

9.

Object

of

a

gerund.

(

See Sections

3g

and 14h.

)

Catching

mustang

is

not an

easy

job.

Playing

ennis

is

good

exercise.

10.

Adverbial

objective

noun

used

as

adverb).

The ranch

was

sold

last

year.

We

stayed

home all

day.

1h.

Uses

of

nouns

in

the

possessive

case.

There

are

two

important

uses

of

nouns

in

the

possessive

case:

1.

Before

a

noun,

to

show

ownership

r some

other close

relationship

hat

might

be

expressedy

of

or

for

the

use

of.

The child's

ball,

his

mother,

a

days

journey,

members

lounge

2.

Before

a

gerund.

(

See Sections

3g

and 26h.

)

Have

you

heard

about

Ruth's

winning

the contest?

6


27/521

NOUNS

EXERCISE

4

Arrange

the

nouns

in

these

sentences

in two

columns.

Put

those

in

the

nominative

case

in

one

column

and those

in the

objective

ase

in

another column. Beside

each

noun,

write

the

reason

why

you

have listed

it

as

nominative

or

objective.

Example:

NOMINATIVE

OBJECTIVE

leopard

subject

zoo

object

of

preposition

Recently leopard

escaped

from

a

zoo

in

Ohio.

Some

hunt-rs

had

caught

the animal

on

Christmas and

shipped

it

to

the

United

States

for

display

n

a

new

zoo

where the

animals

were

not

confined

in

cages

but

were

allowed

to

roam

at

will

over

a

wide

territory

urrounded

by deep

moats.

The

animals could

not

escape

because

the

moats

were

too

broad for

even

the

leopard

o

leap.

Or

so

thought

the

keepers

of

the

zoo.

But

this

leopard

as a

wily

beast.

He

apparentlyigured

he distance

carefully

nd with

a

great

bound

jumped

across

the

moat.

From

one

end of

the

country

to

another,

the

newspapers

carried

big

headlines that

told

of

the

chase.

Armed

groups

sought

him

in

the

park

near

the

zoo

and

in

the

surrounding

eighborhood.

t

firstthe

superintendent

f the

zoo

wanted the beast

to

be

caught

alive,

but

after

a

few

hours,

the

danger

seemed

so

great

that

hunters

were

told

to

shoot the animal

at

sight.

ecause

the

keepers

considered the

leopard

to

be

a

very

dangerous

beast,

they

warned the

peoplenearby

to

keep

their children

inside

and

to

look for any evidence that would lead

to

the

capture.

For

two

days

the whole

country

read the

news

avidly.

hen the

headlines

announced that the

zoo

would

try

to

trap

the

animal

with food.

By

this

time

some

people

had

begun

to

consider

the

zoo

and the

police

o

be

very

ineffectual. Then

huge

pieces

of

drugged

meat

were

placed

on

the

ground

near

a

cage

in

which

the

leopard's

ate

was

held,

and the

next

morning

the

hungry

animal

was

found

hardly

able

to

stand

up

because the

drug

was

so

strong.

He

was

seized,

and the

country

relaxed.

7


28/521

2a-b

2a. Definition.

PRONOUNS

2. PRONOUNS

A

pronoun

is

a

word used

in

place

of

a

noun,

2b. Kinds

of

pronouns.

There

are

several kinds

of

pronouns:

personal,

elative,

demonstrative,

interrogative,

eflexive,

ntensive,

indefinite,

and

reciprocal.

1. A

personal

ronoun

is

a

direct substitute for

a

noun.

Like

a

noun,

it

has

number,

gender,

nd

case.

It

also

has

person.

Person

is

shown

in

pronouns

by

a

change

of form

to

indicate the

person

speaking

(first

erson),

the

person

spoken

to

(

second

person

)

,

or

a

person

or

thing

other than

the

speaker

and the

one

spoken

to

(third

person).

ee the

following

able of forms of

personal

ronouns:

Singular

Grammatical

problemsfrequently

rise

from

the fact

that,

unlike

nouns,

personal,

elative,

and

interrogative

pronouns

have

distinct

case

forms.

These

problems

are

discussed

in

Section 14.

2. A

relative pronoun relates

or

connects

a

clause

to

its

antecedent

the

noun

to

which

it

refers.

The

most

often

8


29/521

PRONOUNS

used relative

pronouns

are

who,

which,

and

that.

Who-ver,

whichever,

and

whatever

are

less

frequently

m-loyed

compound

forms;

whosoever,

whichsoever,

and

whatsoever

have almost

entirely

one

out

of

current

use.

Who

and

whoever

are

the

only

relative

pronouns

with

complete

ase

forms.

Relative

pronouns

do

not

show

changes

in form

for

person,

gender,

r

number. See

the

following

table of

case

forms for

who

and

whoever:

The choice

of

a

relative

pronoun

is

determined

by

its

antecedent;

the

case

form

for who and whoever

is

deter-ined

by

the

way

the

pronoun

is

used in

the

relative

clause.

(See

Section

14.)

Who

is

used

to

refer

only

to

persons;

which

is

used

to

refer

to

things

(inanimate

objects

nd

animals),

and

to

persons

considered

as a

group;

that

may

be

used

to

refer

to

either

persons

or

things.

The

flier

who served

in

World

War

II

is

now an

airline

oflBcial.

Radar

equipment

which

is

to

be used for small

ships

must

be installed

carefully.

The

crew

which

won

the

race was

excused

from

classes.

The hat that

I

bought

last

summer

is

now

out

of fashion.

The

man

that

I

saw

was

named

Mortimer

Taylor.

3.

A

demonstrative

pronoun

points

out

and

identifies.

It

has number but

no

gender

or case.

The demonstrative

pronouns

are

this,that,these,

those.

This is

the

way

to

kick

a

spiral.

That

is

my

new

television

set.

These

are

your

books;

those

on

the

desk

are

mine.

4. An

interrogative

ronoun

(who,

whom,

whose,

which,

what,

occasionally

hoever,

whichever,

whatever)

intro-

9


30/521

PRONOUNS

duces

a

question.

he

case

forms for the

interrogative

ro-oun

who

and

the

relative

pronoun

who

are

the

same.

Who

shall demand that

a

pardon

be

granted?

Which

is

the

route

we

should take from

Hammond?

What

do

you

have

in

mind?

Whom

do

you

recognize?

5.

A

reflexive

ronoun

is

used

for

reference

to

the

sub-ect

of

the

sentence.

It is

composed

of

one

of the

personal

pronouns

plus

self

or

selves:

myself,yourself,

imself,

her-elf,

itself,

urselves,

yourselves,

hemselves. These

pronouns

are

also called

compound

personal

pronouns.

In

formal

speech

or

writing,

hese

pronouns

are

not

used

as

subjects.

Wrong:

Helen, Sue,

and

myself

went

on

a

hike.

Right:

His

laboratory

ssistant

burned

himself.

Right:

They

appointed

themselves

as

cheer leaders.

6. An

intensive

pronoun

is

used

for

emphasis.

Intensive

pronouns

and reflexive

pronouns

have

the

same

form.

Right:

The

nurse

herselfas

at

fault.

Right:

We

students ourselves

are

whollyresponsible.

7.

Indefinite

ronouns

are

somewhat

less

exact

in

meaning

than other pronouns.

Among

the

more

frequently

sed

in-efinit

pronouns

are

another,

any, anyone,

anything,

very-ody,

everyone,

everything,

ew,

many,

nobody,

none, one,

several,

some,

each.

The

pronoun

one

and its

compound

forms,

and

compound

forms built

on

the element

-body

form

the

possessive

ase

in

the

same

way

as

nouns

(anyone's,

everybody's).

Indefinite pronouns involve

grammatical

problems

which

are

discussed

in

Section

lid.

8.

A

reciprocal

ronoun

indicates

an

interchange

f

action

suggestedby

the verb. This

interchange

ay

be

seen

in

the

following

entences

involving

he

only

two

reciprocal

ro-ouns

in

English:

The

two teams

complimented

each other.

The

members of the

squad

shouted

at

one

another.

10


31/521

3a-b

ASSERTING WORDS:

VERBS

AND

VERBALS

3.

ASSERTING

WORDS:

VERBS AND

VERBALS

3a.

Definition.

A verb

expresses

action

or

state

of

being,

Morgan

kicked

the

ball with all his

strength.

Be

ready

at

eight

o'clock.

Howard

became

a

statesman

and

wrote

a

number

of

books.

3b.

Kinds of

verbs.

Verbs

are

classified

as

transitive,

intransitive,r

linking.

A

transitive

verb

is

regularly

ccompanied

by

a

direct

object.

V. o.

The

engineers

threw

a

bridge

across

the

river.

V.

o.

The

refugees

te

bits

of bread found

on

the

road.

V. o.

An

old

woman

seized

a

squawking

goose

and

ran

into

the house.

An

intransitive

verb

requires

o

object.

Automobiles from

Paris

crept

along

the roads.

People

ran

wildly

in

every

direction.

Many

verbs

can

be used

in

either

a

transitive

or

an

in-ransit

sense.

We

read the

news

with

great

care. (Transitive)

We read until

late

at

night.

(Intransitive)

I

won

the

first

set.

(Transitive)

I

won

easily.

Intransitive)

A

linking,

r

copulative,

erb

shows

the

relationship

f

the

subject

o

the

predicate

oun.

Washington

was our

first

president.

My

favorite color

is

green.

11


32/521

^^

ASSERTING WORDS:

VERBS

AND

VERBALS

3c.

Auxiliary

verbs.

Auxiliary,

r

helping,

erbs,

such

as

may,

can,

must,

would,

should,

do,

did,

shall,

will,

and

all forms of

be

and

have,

are

often used with other verbs

to

express

particular

shades of

meaning

usually

of

time

(see

Section

3f)

or

voice

(see

Section

3d).

Such combinations

are

called verb

phrases.

I

have known

Jerry

since

the

first

grade.

(Time)

This theme

was

rewritten

three

times.

(Voice)

Sd.

Voice.

Transitive

verbs

are

further classified

as

to

voice

active

or

passive.

A

verb

is in

the

active

voice

when

its

subject

performs

the

action.

We

built

a

large

house

in

the

country.

The

engineers

Jiave

developed

new

types

of

electrical

refrigerators.

The

Marshall Plan

helps

the

reconstruction

of

Europe.

A verb

is

in

the

passive

voice

when

its

subject

eceives

the

action.

Notice

that

some

form of the verb be

(am,

is,

are,

was,

were,

been,

be)

is

used with

another verb in the

passive

voice.

A

large

house

was

built

in

the

country.

The

doors

were

bolted

from the inside.

3e.-

Mood.

The mood of

a

verb shows the mood

or

manner

in

which

the

speaker

thinks

of the action.

A

verb

in

the

indicative mood

states

a

fact

or

asks

a

question

of

fact.

The farmer

planted

his

crop

early.

What

time

is

it?

12


33/521

ASSERTING

WORDS:

VERBS

AND VERBALS

A

verb

in

the

imperative

mood

expresses

a

command.

Clean

your

room.

Open

your

books

to

page

10.

A verb in

the

subjunctive

ood

indicates

a

condition

contrary

to

fact

or

a

wish. The

subjunctive

s

discussed

in

Section

17c-g.

If

you

were

in

Europe,

you

would

iind

life

very

different.

I

wish

I

were

in

the South where

it

is

always

warm.

3f.

Tense

Tense

indicates

the

time

of

the

action

or

state

expressed

by

a

verb.

Every

verb has three

principal

arts

which

are

used

as

a

basis for the formation of

tenses.

Many

mistakes

are

made

in

usage because

people

do

not

understand how

to

form these

tenses

or

how

to

use

them.

(

See

Sections

15 and

16.)

The

principal

arts

of

a

verb

are

the

present,past,past

participle.''^

If

the second

and third

principal

arts

of

a

verb

add

-d,-ed,

or

-t,

the verb

is

called

a

regular

erb. Otherwise

it is

an

irregular

erb,

and

its

parts

should be memorized. Notice

the

irregular

erbs in

the

preceding

list.

*

A

fourth

principal

part,

the

present

participle,

s

sometimes

also

given.

The

present

participle

is

made

by adding

-ing

to

the

present

tense

form of

a

verb:

talk,

talking.

The

four

principal

parts

are

given

in

this order:

talk,

talked,talked,

talking.

13


34/521

ASSERTING WORDS:

VERBS AND

VERBALS

EXERCISE

5

Write

the

principal

arts

of each of the

following

erbs.

Then

write

sentences

using

each

of

these verbs

in

the

past

tense.

(

For

a

discussion

of

tenses

and their

use,

see

Section

16.)

Understanding

he difference

between verbs and

verbals

will

help

you

to

avoid

one

of the

most

serious

errors

in

writing,

the

half

sentence

or

fragment.

A

verb

is

used

as

the

simple

predicate

f

a

sentence;

with the

subject,

he

verb

may

make

a

complete

statement.

A

verbal

cannot

be

used

as

a

simplepredicate

f

a

sentence.

(

See Section

55.

)

He

kicked

the ball.

(Verb)

Kicking

the

ball

(Verbal)

To

kick

the ball

(Verbal)

There

are

three

types

of

verbals:

participles,

erunds,

nd

infinitives.For

help

in

using

verbals,

ee

Sections

14k,

16i

and

j,

and 65.

)

1. A

participle

s

a

word

which has the

function

of both

verb and

adjective.

he

present

participle

lways

ends

in

-ing

{speaking,

inging).

he

past

participle

s the

third

principal

art

of the verb. The

perfect

participle

onsists

of

having

or

having

been

plus

the

past

participlehaving

spoken,

having

been

driven).

14


35/521

ASSERTING

WORDS: VERBS AND VERBALS

Notice

the

past

participles

n

the

following

ist

of

principal

parts

PAST PARTICIPLE

walk walked walked

smile smiled smiled

drive

drove driven

draw drew drawn

see

saw

seen

sing

sang

sung

bring brought brought

Notice that

some

of

the

past participles

nd in

-ed

and

some

in

-n;

others

change

the vowel

(sung);

and

still

others

change

their

form

completely

(

brought

)

The

participle

an

take

an

object

and be modified

by

an

adverb. When it

does,

the

group

of words

taken

together

s

called

a

participia

phrase.

(

See

Section

6b.

)

The

ball kicked

by

the

player

ent into

the

stand.

(Parti-iple

used

as an

adjective)

1 2

The

crowd

cheering

he

team

could be heard

a

mile

away.

(1:

participle

sed

as

an

adjective

n

a

participia

phrase;

2:

object

of

participle)

1

2

We

followed

the

crowd,

cheering

lustily.

1:

participle

used

as

an

adjective

n

a

participialhrase;

:

adverb

modifyingparticiple)

2.

A

gerund

is

a

verbal

noun.

Gerunds

have

the

same

form

as

present

or

perfect

participles,

ut

are

used

as nouns

instead of

adjectives.

gerund

may

take

an

object

and be

modified

by

an

adverb

or an

adjective.

1 2

Discovering

he

plans

of the

enemy

was

the

job

of the

intelligence

ervice.

(1:

gerund;

2:

object

of

gerund)

15


36/521

ASSERTING WORDS:

VERBS AND

VERBALS

1

2

Working intelligently

s

no

easy

task.

(1:

gerund;

2:

ad-erb

modifier)

2 1

Our

music

teacher dislikes loud

singing.

(1:

gerund;

2:

adjective

modifier)

3.

An

infinitiue

s

the

form of

the verb

usually

preceded

by

to.

to

walk

to

observe

to

have

enjoyed

An

infinitive

may

be

used

as

a

noun,

an

adjective,

r

an

adverb.

My

greatest

pleasure

s

to

travel.

(Infinitive

sed

as

noun)

We

have four

days

to

spend

in

Billings.

Infinitive

sed

as

adjective)

Bruce

was

glad

to

have

come.

(Infinitive

sed

as

adverb)

Sometimes the

word

to

is

omitted from the infinitive.

Let

me

go

with

you.

Will

you

help

me

pack?

The infinitive

may

take

an

object

and be modified

by

an

adverb or an adverbial

phrase

or

clause.

1

2

To reach

the

mountain

we

walked

twenty

miles.

(1:

in-initive

2:

object

of

infinitive)

1

2

George

and

I tried

to

walk

faster.

(1:

infinitive;

:

adverb

modifier)

1

2

The

snow

began

to

drift

along

the

slope.

(1:

infinitive;

2:

adverbial

phrase

modifying

infinitive)

1

2

I

intend

to

stay

here until you

arrive.

(1:

infinitive;

:

adverbial

clause

modifying

infinitive)

16


37/521

ASSERTING

WORDS: VERBS

AND

VERBALS

9

EXERCISE 6

From

the

followingparagraph,

list

in

one

column

all

verbs that

are

used

as

simplepredicates;

n

another

column,

listall verbals.

The

listing

as been made for the first

two

sentences.

Verbs

Verbal

had

to

go

liked

had named

Shelley,

he

English

poet,

had

a

tragic

death.

He

liked

to

go

out

on

the

Mediterranean

Sea

in

a

light

sailboat

which

he had

named Ariel.

But

because he

was

very

unskillful

as a

sailor,

ome

of his friends

worried

about

him

constantly.

helley,

however,

loved

the

beauty

of

the

sea

and the

graceful

ashion

in

which the boat

slipped

ver

the

waves.

One

day,

after

visiting

some

friends,

he

set out

for his

home

in

Lerici

in

spite

of

a

warning

of

a

storm.

Wishing

to

protect

Shelley,

is friend

Trelawny,

who

was a

good

sailor,

wanted

to

accompany

the

writer

in

a

larger

oat named

Bolivar;

but he

had

not

obtained

port

clearance

papers,

and the

port

authorities

kept

him

from

leaving.helley

as

in

a

hurry;

o

he

set

out,

leavingTrelawny

fuming

at

the shore. The sailors

on

Trelawny

's

boat,

gready

concerned

about

Shelley,

atched

the black

clouds

gathering.

When

the

storm

finally

roke,

Trelawny,

worried about

his

friend,

tried

to

get

news

of

him.

Meantime,

Shelley's

ife waited

at

Lerici,

feeling

ure

that

Shelley

could

not

have

been

so

foolish

as

to

set out

in the

storm.

Finally

he decided

to

go

to

Leghorn

to

see

what had

happened

to

him.

Reaching

the

city,

he

begged

for

news

and

was

told that

Shelley

ad

indeed

set

out

just

before

the

storm.

Panic-stricken,

Mary

made

inquiries

n

every

direction,

but

getting

news

of her husband

was

difiicult.

At

last she

and

Trelawny

learned that

parts

of

a

wreck

had

been

cast

up

on

the

shore

at

Viareggio.They

stilldid

not

give

up

hope,

but

several

days

later the

body

of

Shelley

as

washed up

on

the shore.

He

was

onlythirty

ears

old when he died.

17


38/521

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44/521

4ci-b

MODIFYING words:

ADJECTIVES

AND

ADVERBS

4.

MODIFYING

WORDS:

ADJECTIVES

AND

ADVERBS

4a, Definition of

adfective.

An

adjective

odifies

a noun

or

a

pronoun.

4b.

Uses

of

adjectives.

By

describing

r

limiting,

n

adjective

akes

more

nearly

exact

the

meaning

of the word

it

modifies.

Adjectives

ell

what

kind

of,

how

many,

ivhich

one.

Adjectives

re

of

two

general

kinds:

1.

Descriptive:

red

convertible,an

easy

job,

broken

window

2.

Limiting:

he

first

ay,

his

former roommate,

five

imes

Note: A

noun

or

pronoun

in

the

possessive

ase

may

be

considered

an

adjective

ince it

limitsthe

meaning

of

another

noun.

The articles

a,

an,

and the

are

adjectives.

is

used before

a

word

beginning

ith

a consonant

sound;

an,

before

a

word

beginning

ith

a

vowel

sound.

Remember that it is

the

sound,

not

the

spelling,

hat determines which article

should

be used.

A

word

beginning

with silent

h

actually

starts

with

a

vowel. The sound of

y

before

a

vowel

is

a

consonant

sound

and

calls for

a,

whether the word

begins

with

y

or

with

a

vowel

having

the sound of

y,

such

as

long

u.

an

apple,

n

hour,

an

opportunity,

hero,

a

European,

a

university

An

adjective

s

called

a

predicatedjective

r

predicate

complement

when it

is related

to

the

subjectby

a

linking

verb

(be,feel,

become,

taste,

seem,

appear,

look, sound,

for

example

)

The

water

felt

warm.

24

The

com

is

green.


45/521

MODIFYING WORDS:

ADJECTIVES

AND ADVERBS

EXERCISE

7

In

one

column,

listeach word

(including

erbals)

used

as

an

adjective

n

this

paragraph.

n

another

column,

list

the

noun

that each

adjective

odifies.

Across

a

sea

that

was

now

turquoise,

ow

emerald,

we

could

watch the Venezuelan

coastline with the

purple

Andes

in the

background.

Flying

fish stood

a

moment

on

their

tails,

flew

a

little

distance,

and

dived

back

into

the

sea.

The

air

was

still.

The

fresh

odor of the

sea

mingled

with

the

heavy

smell

of

sweat

from the

stevedores' bodies.

In

a

few

moments

a

dozen

small boats had

reached the side of

our

ship,

and

their brown-

skinned

occupants

were

slipping

nto

the clear

water to

find

the

money

that the

passengers

had thrown down

for them.

4c.

Definition

of

adverb.

An

adverb

modifies

a

verb,

an

adjective,

r

another adverb

by

describing,imiting,

r

in

some

other

way

making

the

meaning

more

nearly

exact.

4cl.

Uses

of

adverbs.

An adverb

tells

how, when, where,

why,

to

what

extent.

(Adverbs

that tell

why

are

usually

n

the form of

phrases

or

clauses

rather

than

single

ords.

See

Sections

6

and

7.)

We

saw

a

paraderecently.

When)

We

certainly

id

enjoy

the

music

playedby

the bands.

(

To

what

extent

)

Here

we

saw

soldiers from

many

countries.

(Where)

The

taxi

drove

slowly

down

the

street.

(How)

If

we

teU how

slowly

the

taxi

drove,

we

have

an

adverb

modifying

another

adverb.

I

quite

1

The

taxi

drove

-

very

I

slowly

down

the

street.

I

too

25


46/521

4cl

MODIFYING

WORDS:

ADJECTIVES

AND ADVERBS

The

following

xamples

show adverbs

used

to

modify

adjectives

When

the

day

was

over,

our

guide

was

very

tired.

(Very

modifies

the

adjective

ired.

)

He

was

almost

sick with

fatigue.

{

Almost modifies

the

adjective

ick.

)

Occasionally

noun

is

used

as an

adverb.

(The

use

of

a

noun

is

called

the

adverbial

objective.)

After

the

game

we

went

home.

Neither

adjectives

or

adverbs should

be used

profusely..

Overuse

of

either robs

sentences

of

conciseness

and force.

Both

adjectives

nd adverbs

can

help

to

make

Vxriting

pe-ific

and

vi\

id.

but

writing

that

is

heavilv

larded with

them

is

weak and

flabby.

articular

problems

in

the

use

of

ad-ectives

and

adverbs

are

discussed

in

Sections IS

and

63.

EXERCISE 8

In

one

column

on

your paper,

list each

word

(including

verbals)

used

as

an

adverb

in

the

followingparagraph.

n

a

second

column,

list

the

word

that

each adverb modifies.

Have

you

read

Tlie

Ancient

Mariner?

Many

very

interesting,

stories

are

told

about

the author of the

poem,

Samuel

Cole-idge.

Among

them

are some

particularly

ood

tales of the

poet's

love

for

talking.

ne

day

Coleridge

et

Lamb

walking

rapidly

o-

work and

stopped

to

talk

to

liim.

Lamb,

who

was

hurrying

tO'

reach his

job

on

time,

moved

awav;

but

Coleridge

quickly

grabbed

the

button

of liislistener's

coat

and

insisted

upon

finish-ng

his

story.

For

a

few

minutes

Lamb

waited

patiently,

ut

Coleridge

as

apparently

preparing

for

a

long

talk.

Presently

Lamb

took

a

knife

from

his

pocket

and carefullv

cut

ofi:the

button

that

Coleridge

as

holding.

hat

evening

Lamb,

return-ng

from

work,

saw

Coleridge

still

holding

the

button and

still

talking

vigorously.

26


47/521

JOINING

WORDS:

PREPOSITIONS,

CONJUNCTIONS

5ci-b

5.

JOINING

WORDS:

PREPOSITIONS

AND

CONJUNCTIONS

5a.

Definition of

preposition.

A

preposition

s

a

linking

ord used

to

show the relation-hip

of

a noun or

pronoun

to

some

other

word

in

the

sentence.

It

is

usually

ollowed

by

an

object.

5b.

List

of

prepositions.

Here

is

a

listof

common

prepositions:

The

meaning

of

a

sentence

is

sometimes

confused

if

prepositions

re

not

used

correctly

n

combination

with

other words.

(See

Section

43.)

Between

is

used

when

two

are

considered.

Among

is

used

when

more

than

two

are

considered.

I

must

choose between

dancing

and

tennis.

The

money

was

divided

among

six

heirs.

Note: In

casual

speech,

etween

is sometimes

used when

more

than

two

are

considered.

27


48/521

Sc-d

JOINING

WORDS:

PREPOSITIONS,

CONJUNCTIONS

Beside

means

next to.

Besides

means

in

addition

to.

The

most

popular

boy

in

school

sits

beside

me

in

French.

What

are

you

studying

esides

English

nd

math?

5c.

Definition

of

conjunction.

A

conjunction

s

a

linking

ord used

to connect

words

or

groups

of words

in

a

sentence.

Sd. Kinds of

conjunctions.

Coordinating

onjunctions

oin

words

or

groups

of words

of

equal

rank;

for

example,

and,

but,

for,

or,

nor.

Certain

coordinating

onjunctions

sed

in

pairs

are

called

correlative

conjunctions.

ost

frequently

sed

of these

are

either

. . .

or;

neither

. .

.

nor;

both

.

. .

and;

whether

. .

.

or.

Subordinating

conjunctionsjoin

dependent

clauses

to

main

clauses;

for

example,

if,

as,

since,

because,

although,

while,

so

that,

when.

(

See Section

7.

)

Note:

Certain adverbs

are

used

as

connectives.

They

are

called

conjunctive

adverbs.

Examples

are

however,

more-ver,

nevertheless,

herefore.

See

Glossary

f Grammatical

Terms

and

Section

24b.)

In

good

writing,

conjunctions

ust

be

chosen

with

care

in order that

they

may

show the

exact

relationship

e-ween

ideas. Often

a

careless

^^^:iter

will

use

and

where

the

relationship

f

clauses

needs

to

be

more

accurately

expressed,robablyby

use

of subordination.

Notice

how

the

emphasis

and

meaning

differ

in

these

sentences:

The

search

for the chemical formula has been

rewarding,

and further

investigation

ill

make

the

rewards

even

greater.

Although

the

search

for the chemical

formula has been

28


49/521

PHRASES

V9d

rewarding,

urther

investigation

ill make

the

rewards

even

greater.

Common

errors

in

the

use

of

conjunctions

re

discussed

in Sections

19a-c,

23a-c,

and

70.

The

conjunction

s

the

seventh

kind

of

word,

or

part

of

speech,

that

you

have studied

so

far.

There

are

eight

parts

of

speechaltogether.

he

seven

parts

of

speech

that

you

have

studied

are

nouns,

pronouns,

verb

Documents

Handbook of English Mcgraw Hill