Hand Out Word Formation

8/12/2019 Hand Out Word Formation

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San Pedro Technological Institute: MS. CELESTIAL Word Formation

Word Formation

Word formation is the process of creating new words. The following word formation processes result in the creation of new words in

English:

Derivation

Derivation is the word formation process in which a derivational affix attaches to the base form of a word to create a newword.Affixes,which include prefixes and suffixes, are bound morphemes. Morphemesare the smallest linguistic unit of a language

with semantic meaning. ound morphemes, unli!e free morphemes, cannot stand alone but must attach to another morpheme such as

a word. "or example, the following two lists provide examples of some common prefixes and suffixes with definitions in English:

Prefixes

a# $ without, not

co# $ together

de# $ opposite, negative,

removal, separation

dis# $opposite, negative

en# $ cause to be

ex# $ former, previous, from

in# $ negative, not

non# $ absence, not

re# $ again, repeatedl%

un# $ negative, not, opposite,

reversal

Suffixes

#able $ sense of being

#er $ agent

#ful $ characteri&ed b%

#f% $ ma!e, become, cause to

be

#ism $ action or practice,

state or condition

#less $ lac! of

#l% $ #li!e

#olog% $ stud%, science

#ship $ condition, character,

s!ill #% $ characteri&ed b%,

inclination, condition

Derivation ma% result in new words of the same grammatical form, e.g., noun to noun, or of different grammatical forms, e.g., verb to

noun. "or example:

Grammatical Form Retaining eri!ation

verb to verb: appear ' disappear

noun to noun: friend ' friendship

ad(ective to ad(ective: practical ' impractical

Grammatical Form C"anging eri!ation

verb to noun: preserve ' preservation verb to ad(ective: bore ' boring

noun to verb: code ' codif%

noun to ad(ective: nature ' natural

ad(ective to noun: ugl% ' ugliness

ad(ective to verb: sweet ' sweeten

ad(ective to adverb: )uic! ' )uic!l%

*ote that, although both processes involve the affixation of suffixes, derivation differs from inflection in that inflection results in the

creation of a new form of the same word rather than a new word. "or example, the addition of the third person singular -sinflectional

suffix to verbs creates thethird person singular form of verbs, e.g., eatand eats, and the addition of the plural -sinflectional suffix tonouns creates theplural form of nouns, e.g., dogand dogs. oth eatsand dogsare new forms of the same word, eatand dog, rather

than new words.Back-Formation

ac!#formation is the word formation process in which an actual or supposed derivational affix detaches from the base form of a word

to create a new word. "or example, the following list provides examples of some common bac!#formations in English:

#riginal $ %ac&'formation

bab%sitter $ bab%sit

donation $ donate

gambler $ gamble

ha&% $ ha&e

moonlighter $ moonlight

obsessive $ obsess

procession $ process

resurrection $ resurrect

sass% $ sass

television $ televise

ac!#formation is often the result of an overgenerali&ation of derivation suffixes. "or example, the noun back-formationentered the

English lexiconfirst, but the assumption that the -(at)ionon the end of the word is the -ionderivational suffix results in the creation of

the verb back-form. ac!#formation, therefore, is the opposite of derivation.

Conversion

+onversion is the word formation process in which a word of one grammatical form becomes a word of another grammatical formwithout an% changes to spelling or pronunciation. "or example, the noun emailappeared in English before the verb: a decade ago

would have sent %ou an email -noun whereas now can either send %ou an email -noun or simpl% email -verb %ou. The original

nounemailexperienced conversion, thus resulting in the new verb email. +onversion is also referred to as &ero derivation or null

derivation with the assumption that the formal change between words results in the addition of an invisible morpheme./owever,

man% linguistics argue for a clear distinction between the word formation processes of derivation and conversion.

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Noun to Ver Conversion

The most productive form of conversion in English is noun to verbconversion. The following list provides examples of verbs

converted from nouns:

(oun $ )er*

access $ to access

bottle $ to bottle

can $ to can

closet $ to closet

email $ to email

e%e $ to e%e

fiddle $ to fiddle

fool $ to fool

3oogle $ to google

host $ to host

!nife $ to !nife

microwave $ to microwave

name $ to name

poc!et $ to poc!et

salt $ to salt

shape $ to shape

ship $ to ship

spear $ to spear

torch $ to torch

verb $ to verb

"or example:

M% grandmother bottled -verb the (uice and canned -verb the pic!les.

M% grandmother put the (uice in a bottle -noun and the pic!les in a can -noun.

4he microwaved -verb her lunch.

4he heated her lunch in the microwave -noun.

The doctor e%ed -verb m% swollen e%e -noun.

*oun to verb conversion is also referred to as verbification or verbing, as humorousl% discussed b%+alvin and /obbes.

Ver to Noun Conversion

Another productive form of conversion in English is verb to nounconversion. The following list provides examples of nouns

converted from verbs:

)er* $ (oun

to alert $ alert

to attac! $ attac!

to call $ call

to clone $ clone

to command $ command

to cover $ cover

to cr% $ cr%

to experience $ experience

to fear $ fear

to feel $ feel

to hope $ hope

to increase $ increase

to (udge $ (udge

to laugh $ laugh

to rise $ rise

to run $ run

to sleep $ sleep

to start $ start

to turn $ turn

to visit $ visit

"or example:

The guard alerted -verb the general to the attac! -noun.

The enem% attac!ed -verb before an alert -noun could be sounded.

4ometimes one (ust needs a good cr% -noun.

The bab% cried -verb all night.

We need to increase -verb our productivit% to see an increase -noun in profits.

5erb to noun conversion is also referred to as nominali&ation.

!ther Conversions

+onversion also occurs, although less fre)uentl%, to and from other grammatical forms. "or example: ad(ective to verb: green ' to green -to ma!e environmentall% friendl%

preposition to noun: up, down ' the ups and downs of life

con(unction to noun: if, and, but ' no ifs, ands, or buts

inter(ection to noun: ho ho ho ' love the ho ho hos of +hristmastime.

Com"ounding

+ompounding is the word formation process in which two or more lexemes combine into a single new word. +ompound words ma%

be written as one word or as two words (oined with ah%phen. "or example:

noun#noun compound: note 6 boo! ' noteboo!

ad(ective#noun compound: blue 6 berr% ' blueberr%

verb#noun compound: wor! 6 room ' wor!room

noun#verb compound: breast 6 feed ' breastfeed

verb#verb compound: stir 6 fr% ' stir#fr%

ad(ective#verb compound: high 6 light ' highlight

verb#preposition compound: brea! 6 up ' brea!up

preposition#verb compound: out 6 run ' outrun

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ad(ective#ad(ective compound: bitter 6 sweet ' bittersweet

preposition#preposition compound: in 6 to ' into

+ompounds ma% be compositional, meaning that the meaning of the new word is determined b% combining the meanings of the parts,

or non#compositional, meaning that the meaning of the new word cannot be determined b% combining the meanings of the parts. "or

example, a blueberryis a berr% that is blue. /owever, a breakupis not a relationship that was severed into pieces in an upward

direction.

+ompound nouns should not be confused withnouns modified b% ad(ectives, verbs, and other nouns. "or example, the

ad(ective blackof the noun phrase black birdis different than the ad(ective blackof the compound noun blackbirdinthat blackof black birdfunctions as a noun phrase modifier while the blackof blackbirdis an inseparable part of the noun: a blac!

bird also refers to an% bird that is blac! in color while a blac!bird is a specific t%pe of bird.

Cli""ing

+lipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or shortened without changing the meaning of the word. +lipping

differs frombac!#formationin that the new word retains the meaning of the original word. "or example:

advertisement $ ad

alligator $ gator

examination $ exam

gasoline $ gas

g%mnasium $ g%m

influen&a $ flu

laborator% $ lab

mathematics $ math

memorandum $ memo

photograph $ photo

public house $ pub

raccoon $ coon

reputation $ rep

situation comed% $ sitcom

telephone $ phone

The four t%pes of clipping are bac! clipping, fore#clipping, middle clipping, and complex clipping. ac! clipping is removing the endof a word as ingasfromgasoline. "ore#clipping is removing the beginning of a word as ingatorfrom alligator. Middle clipping is

retaining onl% the middle of a word as influfrom influenza. +omplex clipping is removing multiple parts from multiple words asinsitcomfromsituation comedy.

Blending

lending is the word formation process in which parts of two or more words combine to create a new word whose meaning is often a

combination of the original words. "or example:

advertisement 6

entertainment '

advertainment

biographical 6 picture '

biopic

brea!fast 6 lunch ' brunch

chuc!le 6 snort ' chortle

c%bernetic 6 organism '

c%borg

guess 6 estimate '

guesstimate

ha&ardous 6 material '

ha&mat

motor 6 hotel ' motel

prim 6 siss% ' priss%

simultaneous 6 broadcast '

simulcast

smo!e 6 fog ' smog

4panish 6 English '

4panglish

spoon 6 for! ' spor!

telephone 6 marathon '

telethon

web 6 seminar ' webinar

lended words are also referred to as portmanteaus.

#reviations

Abbreviation is the word formation process in which a word or phrase is shortened. ntialisms are a t%pe of abbreviation formed b% the

initial letters of a word or phrase. Although abbreviation is largel% a convention of written language, sometimes abbreviations carr%

over into spo!en language. "or example:

Written A**re!iations

Apr. $ April

cm $ centimeter-s

d. $ died, died in

dept. $ department

Dr. $ doctor

8r. $ 8unior

Mr. $ Mister

o& $ ounce-s

4un. $ 4unda%

%d $ %ard-s

S+o&en'Written A**re!iations

A.M. $ ante meridiem 9in the morning

.+.E. $ efore +ommon Era

3;0 $ 3rand ;ld 0art% -


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laser # light amplification b% stimulated emission of radiation

*A4A $ *ational Aeronautics and 4pace Administration

*A4DAB # *ational Association of 4ecurities Dealers Automated Buotations

0* $ personal identification number

radar # radio detection and ranging

scuba # self#contained underwater breathing apparatus

TE4;@ $ Teachers of English to 4pea!ers of ;ther @anguages

WA40 $ White Anglo#4axon 0rotestant

Acron%ms are related to the word formation process of abbreviation.

%"on$ms

Epon%ms are a word form b% the word formation process in which a new word is formed from the name of a real of fictitious person.

"or example:

atlas $ Atlas

bo%cott $ +harles +. o%cott

cardigan $ 8ames Thomas rudnell, Cth Earl of

+ardigan

cereal $ +eres

dunce $ 8ohn Duns 4cotus

guillotine $ 8oseph gnace 3uillotin

(acu&&i $ +andido 8acu&&i

luddite $ *ed @udd

malapropism $ Mrs. Malaprop

mesmeri&e $ "ran& Anton Mesmer

mirandi&e $ Ernesto A. Miranda

narcissistic $ *arcissus

nicotine $ 8ean *icot

pasteuri&ation $ @ouis 0asteur

poinsettia $ *oel sar de +hoiseul, +ount 0lessis$0raslin

sadistic $ Mar)uis de 4ade

salmonella $ Daniel Elmer 4almon

sandwich $ 8ohn Montagu, th Earl of 4andwich

volcano $ 5ulcan

+reating new words in English, covers the related word formation processes of coinages, nonce words, borrowing, and cal)uing.

Coinages

+oinage is the word formation process in which a new word is created either deliberatel% or accidentall% without using the other wordformation processes and often from seemingl% nothing. "or example, the following list of words provides some common coinages

found in ever%da% English:

o aspirin

o escalator

o heroin

o band#aid

o factoid

o "risbee

o 3oogle

o !erosene

o =leenex

o @aundromat

o linoleum

o muggle

o n%lon

o ps%chedelic

o )uar!

o erox

o &ipper

*otice that man% coinages start out as brand names for ever%da% items such asKleenefor a facial tissue. +oinages are also referred

to simpl% as neologisms, the word neologismmeaning Fnew word.F

(once Words

*once words are new words formed through an% number of word formation processes with the resulting word meeting a lexical need

that is not expected to recur. *once words are created for the nonce, the termfor t!e noncemeaning Ffor a single occasion.F "or

example, the follow list of words provides some nonce words with definitions as identified in the "ford #nglis! Dictionary.

o cotton#wool $ to stuff or close -the ears with cotton#wool.

o (abberwoc! $ The name of the fabulous monster in @ewis +arroll?s poem$abber%ocky. /ence in allusive and

extended uses, especiall% Fincoherent or nonsensical expression.F 4o (abberwoc!% is invented language, meaningless

language, nonsensical behaviorG also nonsensical, meaningless, tops%#turv%.o touch#me#not#ishness $ having a Ftouch#me#notF characterG stand#off#ish.

o twi#thought $ an indistinct or vague thought.

o witchcraftical $ The practices of a witch or witchesG the exercise of supernatural power supposed to be possessed b%

persons in league with the devil or evil spirits. 0ower or influence li!e that of a magicianG bewitching or fascinating attraction

or charm.

*ote that although most nonce words come in and out of use ver% )uic!l%, some nonce words catch on and become ever%da% words.

"or example, @ewis +arroll coined the word c!ortle, ablendof c!uckleandsnort, for the poem$abber%ockyin the boo! &!roug! t!e

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'ooking-lass and !at Alice *ound &!ereG unli!e most nonce words, however, c!ortlehas gained acceptance as a legitimate

blended word.

%orro,ing

orrowing is the word formation process in which a word from one language is borrowed directl% into another language. "or example,

the following common English words are borrowed from foreign languages:

o algebra $ Arabic

o bagel $ Hiddish

o cherub $ /ebrew

o chow mein $

+hinese

o f(ord $ *orwegian

o galore $ rish

o hai!u $ 8apanese

o !ielbasa $ 0olish

o murder $ "rench

o near $ 4ans!rit

o papri!a $ /ungarian

o pi&&a $ talian

o smorgasbord $

4wedisho tamale $ 4panish

o %o#%o $ Tagalog

orrowed words are also referred to as loanwords.

Cal-uing

+al)uing is the word formation process in which a borrowed word or phrase is translated from one language to another. "or example,the following common English words are cal)ued from foreign languages:

o beer garden $ 3erman $ iergarten

o blue#blood $ 4panish $ sangre a&ul

o commonplace $ @atin $ locus commInis

o flea mar!et $ "rench $ march> aux puces

o free verse $ "rench $ vers libre

o loanword $ 3erman $ @ehnwort

o long time no see $ +hinese $ hJo (iK bu (iLn

o pineapple $ Dutch $ pi(nappel

o scapegoat $ /ebrew $ e& o&el

o wisdom tooth $ @atin $ dns sapientiae

+al)ues are also referred to as root#for#root or word#for#word translations.


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Hand Out Word Formation