SMC

Food Technology HSC NOTES

Reem Hadaya

9/10/2013

AUSTRALIAN FOOD INDUSTRY SUMMARY NOTES:

SECTORS OF THE AFI:

● The AFI involves the organized production, processing, storage and marketing of food products of mostly a very high standard.

● The Agri-food chain is the production and supply of food to the customer. Sectors of the industry include:

Agriculture & Fisheries:

● Agriculture is the cultivation of land to produce crops or animals. ● Plant production involves: preparation of the soil, seed selection, sowing, fertilizing, irrigation,

harvesting, storage and transportation. ● Animal production involves: production/supply of food and water, breeding, treatment of

illnesses/disease, transportation. ● Fisheries involve the cultivation of various cold blooded aquatic species. ● Key features of agriculture and fisheries:

- Production of plants and animals. - Technological developments have compensated for harsh climates. - Primary industries contribute significantly to the Aussie economy.

Food Processing/Manufacture:

● The value-added area is a major area within the AFI. Most primary produce (R.M’s) passes through this sector. Key features include:

- Value adding V.A foods provide employment and increased revenue stays in Australia. - Processing must compete with o/s labour a market, processing has become mechanized

to ensure economic viability. - Many F.M industries are multi-national and the industry is diverse.

Food Service & Catering:

● This sector prepares food so it is ready to eat, referred to as the hospitality industry (e.g. restaurants, take out joints, hotels etc.) and it can either be commercial or non-commercial through institutions e.g. hospital/prison. The following trends have emerged:

- Australians are eating away from home more often. - Other organizations exist for the sole purpose of providing meals e.g. restaurants. - There has been an increase in the use of caterers. - Multinational retail chains aggressively compete for the ‘fast food dollar’ in which home

delivery is an important feature.

Food Retail:

● Involves the selling of foods at all levels. The selling of food depends on the actual food and the distribution channels. The following trends have emerged:

- Decrease in corner stores due to increased supermarkets (1-stop shop). - Speciality stores e.g. butchers and bakers are a feature.

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- Lifestyle changes leave less time to shop and increase demand for convenience foods. - Bulk purchases have increased and so has internet shopping. - Growth in ready to eat meals and renewed interest in fresh food due to

health-conscious consumers.

Recent Developments In The AFI:

● Advances in technology e.g. purchase online and packaging. ● World and local developments i.e. war in Iraq or drought in Aust. increasing prices. ● Consumer expectations i.e. health conscious, low fat. ● A key issue facing the Australian food industry is globalisation.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a modern form of biotechnology - a processes such as cross-breeding, plant hybridization and fermentation. Genetic engineering is a relatively new and rapidly developing technology that is raising public concern. Genetic engineering focuses on the manipulation (blocking, adding, or scrambling) of the genetic material (the DNA) inside the cells of living organisms to block or add desired traits.

Examples of these are

● Anti-sense technology: A gene controlling a trait is blocked. Example tomato with delayed ripening for fresher flavour.

● Recombinant DNA: microorganism to plant: Transfer of genetic material from a bacterium into cells of plants. Example: Insect resistant corn plants and pesticide resistant soybeans.

● Recombinant DNA: human to animal: Human genes inserted into pigs to produce human hemoglobin.

● Recombinant DNA: animal to plant: Fish genes inserted into plants to increase tolerance to cold.

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Advantages Potential Risks Reduced use of pesticides Lack of long term studies on food safety.

Reduced use of herbicides Lack of long term studies on environmental impact.

Reduced use of fertilizers Diminished opportunity for organic/sustainable agriculture

Enhanced nutrition Potential life threatening danger for individuals with food allergies or sensitivities who might unknowingly ingest altered foods to which they are allergic, sensitive, or intolerant.

Drought resistance New genetic structure of foods might result in new allergens.

ASPECTS OF THE AFI:

Levels Of Operation And Mechanization:

● This refers to the scale of food production, as well as the amount and sophistication of technology used. The following table compares the various levels:

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Better appearance Toxicity levels of naturally occurring food toxins might result in new allergens.

Longer shelf-life Toxicity levels of naturally occurring food toxins might inadvertently be altered.

Disease resistance Cruelty to animals.

Temperature resistance Pesticide tolerance.

Reduced use of pesticides Herbicide tolerance

Increase in food supply. Decrease in world hunger.

Ethical and spiritual concerns.

Better flavour Lack of long term studies on food safety.

LEVEL ADVANTAGES FEATURES DISADVANTAGES

HOUSEHOLD

Examples:

1. Verusca’s Cakes 2. Home cooks

making foods at home (e.g. Jam) and selling it at local markets

● Can specialise, often producing gourmet items

● May be able to satisfy niche markets leading to greater opportunities if item is successful in the market

● Can allow person to work from home and work more flexible hours

● Operating costs are reduced because no rental of factory premises required

Always small

scale with low

levels of

technology.

● Cannot take advantage of state-of-the-art production equipment

● Low yield or output ● May not be financially viable ● Hard to maintain consistency and quality of

produce ● Production affected by seasonal nature of

supplies

SMALL BUSINESS

Examples:

1. Fernando’s Pizza

2. Boutique Cake shops

3. Ross’s Deli

● Greater flexibility to diversify and switch making different products

● Access to small-scale commercial equipment

● Good local customer base

Tends to be

local e.g. local

Chinese

restaurant.

● Unable to store large quantities of ingredients ● Limited opportunity to source different

suppliers due to small scale ● Must be profitable to remain competitive

with larger companies ● Need to be in an ideal location

LARGE BUSINESS

Examples:

● Large-scale production possible

● Provides employment to many ● Large profit

Often a number

of owners

servicing a

broad

community.

● Less Likely to produce boutique, specialised items

● Higher likelihood of technical problems given large-scale production methods used

● High cost of machinery and maintenance

Research And Development:

● R & D is the process used to create new products and services. Competition drives manufacturer’s to create new products to increase mkt. share. Features include:

- Expanding marketplace. - Continual consumer pressure to innovate. - CSIRO conducts food related research. - Research creates understanding of the market place.

● The long term benefit of R&D include increase in exports, production of healthier and safer food products and improved farm profitability

Quality Assurance:

● Quality is the ability to meet requirements. ● Quality control is the process where characteristics are measured, compared to a standard and

acting on the differences if there are any. Q.C consists of economically developing, designing, producing, marketing and servicing products.

● Q.C aims to achieve quality assurance (Q.A), which is all parts of the company working together to maintain quality of products.

● H.A.C.C.P is an international approach to Q.A it involves: H.A.C.C.P assesses risks/hazards while identifying C.C.P’s. H.A.C.C.P then monitors theses C.C.P’s and records the information with continual supervision.

Consumer Influences:

● The demographics and geographic location of the Australian population is always changing, many trends occur which includes:

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1. Greens Packet Mixes

2. McCain’s Frozen foods

3. Baker’s Delight

● Enjoys the benefits of automation

● Can run continually, often ‘24/7’

● Exerts greater influence in food sector, with larger voice dealing with government

● Lead the way in technology, quality assurance, research and development and career opportunities

Medium to

Large scale

equipment.

● Open to extortion attempts ● More removed from the customer ● Possibility of industrial action and

intervention of unions during disputes ● Expensive to buy into company

MULTINATIONAL

Examples:

1. The Coca-Cola Company

2. Nestle 3. Cadbury-Schw

eppes

● High volume of produce ● Provides employment to many ● Potential for higher profit

given advantages of large-scale production

● Consistent quality of product and standards worldwide

● High degree of computerisation and technology

● Often run 24 hours a day, 7 days a week

Large scale on

all fronts and

global.

● Open to extortion attempts ● Negative media felt worldwide ● Must adhere to standards set by

multinational company ● No opportunity to diversify or to create

unique products due to corporate nature of

company

- Increase in working hours and a decrease in time spent on food. - Old population. - Increase in health/food awareness. - Increase in convenience foods, single serve and microwavable foods.

● Changes in food production reflect changing consumer tastes and behaviours, advances in technology, changing food legislation and regulations, environmental concerns, globalisation issues and political decisions.

Impact On The Environment:

● Conventional farming has a large effect on environment which includes: - Use of chemicals decreases land fertility, creates salinity and increases soil degradation. - Manufacturing and processing causes the emission of fossil fuels. - Waste from packaging.

● In response to this organic farming is becoming more popular. Organic farming improves soil fertility and increases organic matter in the soil without chemicals. Organic products are now becoming very popular as people are more health conscious about the effect of chemicals.

Impact On Society:

● Due to migration food choices have increased and Australian cuisine has become very multicultural.

● Food is an important factor in celebrations i.e. Christmas, B-days etc. ● Australians spend only a fraction of time purchasing food and as little as 20% of their income on

food.

Impact On The Economy:

● The AFI is Australia’s largest manufacturing industry. ● AFI is vitial to Aust. Economy accounting for 46% of the country’s total retail turn over (2003-04) ● Export market of over $19 Billion. ● Largest employer in Australia.

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mer Trends on the Food Industry les

Trend towards home meal replacement and convenient food products that save the consumer time

More convenience product Microwavable meals Pasta packs to which you just add water

Ageing population Increased promotion of products for older people

Chewing gum for people with dentures

Consumers eating out more and ‘eating on the run’

Longer opening hours; increase in takeaway food

Crackers packaged with dip Coffee in a can (can trigger heating mechanism)

Greater concern for environmental issues

More environmentally friendly production methods; recyclable packaging

‘Dolphin-free’ tuna Organic fruit and vegetables Free range eggs and chickens

Increased concern for special dietary needs

More food for individuals with special dietary needs; also dietary options on menus

Gluten-free flour Chocolate for diabetics

● Expanding due to tourism.

Career Opportunities & Working Conditions:

● The AFI employs a large number of people. Unskilled workers are decreasing while skilled workers are increasing.

● There has been increased mechanization, automation and computerization which has meant workers have decreased.

● Working conditions vary from business to business, enterprise bargaining is popular. There are standards for working conditions i.e. butchers work at 10oC.

● Employees work shift work and work on public holidays. Usually casual/part-time work. ● There are gender issues within the AFI including: EEO, AA, maternity leave etc

POLICY AND LEGISLATION:

Advisory Groups & Legislation:

● Food industry legislation is administered on 3 levels: - Federal. - State. - Local.

● Federal legislation includes: - H.A.C.C.P. - FSANZ. - AQIS. - TPA. - Export Control (processed foods).

● State legislation includes: - Protection Of The Environment Act (noise pollution act, clean water act and the clean air

act). - Health Act. - O.H&S. - Trade Measurement Act. - NSW Food Act.

● Local legislation includes: - Food surveillance officers. - Codes for construction & alteration of food premises. - Codes for inspection of food and food premises.

● Governments are advised by independent organizations on the development of policies and legislation. Each sector of the AFI has a different representative organization:

− Business groups within a sector e.g. Australia Dairy Corporation. − A group that advises on specific issues e.g. National Heart Foundation. − An independent body able to make/change laws relating to food e.g. FSANZ. − A group that prevents local food supply from contaminants e.g. AQIS.

FSANZ (Food Standards Australia and New Zealand):

● FSANZ was set up by an act of parliament in 1991. ● It is an independent legislative body, so it is able to draw up legislation free from political

influence. ● The objectives of FSANZ are to:

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− Promote the supply of safe and wholesome food for the community. − Promote fair trade and commerce in food, both nationally and internationally. − Provide adequate information relating to food for consumers.

● FSANZ works with a council of health ministers from all states and territories and with AQIS. Also helped set up the safe food policy 1998 by instigating HACCP.

● FSANZ develops the F.S (labelling, date of mfg, additives and residues/foreign objects in food) for Aust. & N.Z and other regulations. Approved F.S are published in the F.S.C, which was reviewed in 1999, as some codes were 20 years old and out of date.

● FSANZ carries out the following tasks: − Updates and enforces the Australian Food Standards Code. − Co-ordinates food product recalls (the removal from sale, distribution and consumption

of foods that may pose a safety hazard to consumers) in co-operation with the states and territories. There are two reasons for recalls: A quality defect that presents a risk or a quality defect that is safety hazard.

− Conducts research on matters regarding food standards. − Takes part in food safety education undertaken by the states and territories. − Develops codes of practice for industry, regarding food standards. − Develops risk assessment policies for food imported into Australia.

Australian Food Standards Code:

● The A.F.S.C outlines a general list of standards which food producers must adhere to regarding: − Labelling & advertising. − Date of manufacture. − Food additives including identification & purity e.g. Preservatives, colourings,

anti-oxidants & modifying agents. − Foreign objects in food. − Residues in food.

AQIS (Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service):

● AQIS is part of the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. It works with the Australian Customs Service and Australia Post to protect Australian agriculture from contamination. AQIS is responsible for:

− Protecting Australian primary producers/the community from exotic pests. − Inspecting legal imports. − Checking quarantine status of o/s travellers. − Providing export certification for agricultural produce/V.A goods. − Negotiating national and international agreements.

● To protect Australia from exotic pests and disease, AQIS runs: − An airport program. − An international mail program with dogs and x-ray. − A seaport program. − A ballast water program, where ships identify where/when they have exchanged ballast

water. − A post-entry plant quarantine station, where exotic plants are inspected. − Quarantine stations for imported animals. − Random sampling of imported foods for contraband and correct labelling/additive use.

Government And Legislation:

Federal Government Policies:

1) Health And Nutrition Policy:

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● The main aim is to educate the public on wise food choices, to restrict the number of diet related disease and reduce the cost of health care.

● The Aust. Guide To Healthy Eating is a recent tool in the campaign. The food safety campaign conducts public education in an attempt to raise awareness amongst consumers and food handlers of the need for safe food handling practices.

2) Trade Policy: ● Australia’s trade policy has instituted the removal of trade barriers affecting both the import

and export of food. ● Tools used include: reducing tariffs, raising quotas, eliminating subsidies and establishing

free trade. 3) Trade Practices Act 1974:

● Controls trade in the form of: misuse of power, resale price maintenance, protection of competition, exclusive dealings and price discrimination.

● It also provides protection from: misleading conduct, bait advertising and offering gifts/prizes.

State Government Policies:

1) Clean Air Act: ● Controls the output of odours and smoke from processing plan and is enforced by the NSW

EPA. 2) Clean Water Act:

● The EPA controls water pollution by monitoring any gas, liquid or solid discharge into the water so it is safe for fish colonies and human consumption e.g. Wallace Creek contaminated Oysters.

3) Noise Pollution Act: ● Controls noise, sound and vibration from food processing plants.

4) Trade Measurements Act 1989: ● Ensures accurate measurement of equipment used for weighing and how equipment is used

in front of customers. 5) N.S.W Food Act 1989:

● Enforces food standards and hygiene regulations in the food industry. It deals with: − Adulteration: Reducing nutritive value, adding illegal substances and concealing

damage. − False Description: The food not meeting standards or incorrect labelling info. − Unlawful Practices: Products must meet content and packaging requirements. − False Advertising: False description on the label.

6) OH&S: ● Helps to protect the health, safety and welfare of people at work.

Local Government Policies:

1) Appointment Of Food Surveillance Officers: ● Carries out the Food Act by routine inspection. This is the major way the Food Act is carried

out. 2) Codes For Inspection Of Food & Food Premises:

● Cover the regularity of inspections and exemptions through acting on complaints and illnesses.

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3) Codes For Construction And Alteration Of Food Premises: ● Covers building materials and installation guidelines for fixtures, equipment, toilets and

window displays.

FOOD MANUFACTURE

PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING OF FOOD:

● Food is processed to: 1) Prevent/control food spoilage and extend the shelf-life. 2) Convenience. 3) Increase variety. 4) Make safe for human consumption. 5) Increase profits and employment.

● F.M is the largest manufacturing industry in Australia and it provides employment from all levels. ● Food processing reduces food waste while ensuring a year-round consistent food supply. ● There are two methods of processing:

1) Processes which hardly change the physical form of the RM e.g. canned vegetables. 2) Processes which drastically change the physical form and texture e.g. bread.

● Processing today increasingly uses automation and computerization which reduces manpower, saves energy, increases consistency and reduces waste.

Raw Materials (R.M’S):

● R.M’s are products produced @ the primary level which can include product ingredients, processing materials, food additives and packaging materials.

● R.M’s must meet strict guidelines to ensure safety of the product as one contaminated material can mean the rejection of an entire production run.

● Q.C of R.M’s is done in Q.C labs by technicians and food technologists. ● R.M’s deliveries are tested (chemical and microbiological (C.C.P), pH, nutrient, colour, flavour,

shape etc.) to company specs. before they are accepted by a F.M. ● If R.M’s don’t meet the specs. they are rejected and returned to the supplier. ● Inferior R.M’s lead to inferior end products, which result in dissatisfied customers and damage to

the company’s reputation. ● Q.C labs must set up specs. for each R.M, which includes: A description, a sampling method, tests

for characteristics, action taken upon results.

Food Additives:

● Food additives are intentionally added to V.A foods to: − Preserve.

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− Modify. − Enhance nutrition.

● Additives are necessary for modern food production. ● Additives are a necessary evil. There is a danger that a cocktail of additives can have a negative

effect. Additives can be: − Natural. − Nature-identical (synthetic, but identical). − Synthetic.

● Additives are permitted when they disguise faulty processing, deceive the consumer and reduce nutrient value.

● Additives must satisfy technological needs, consumer demand and be toxicologically acceptable. ● There are five classifications of additives:

− Colourings (100 – 180) improve appearance, replace colour lost in preservation and are used because of consumer demand e.g. Natural - Caramel (150) and Synthetic - Tartrazine (102).

− Preservatives (200 – 290) prevent/retard microbial growth, prevent enzymes action, prevent oxidation, increase food safety, prolong shelf-life and reduce waste e.g. Natural – Sugar or Salt and Synthetic – Sorbic acid (200). Antioxidants react with oxygen and delay oxidation e.g. Natural - Vitamin C (300) and Synthetic – BHA (321).

− Dietary Supplements replace nutrients lost in processing and increase the food value e.g. Iron and Vitamin C.

− Flavourings improve the flavour of the food e.g. Natural – Herbs/spices and Synthetic – Maltol (636). Flavour enhancers intensify the natural flavours, but they don’t have a flavour of their own e.g. MSG (621). There are also synthetic sweeteners like Nutrasweet.

− Physical Conditioning Agents that consist of Emulsifiers (force oil/water to mix w/o separating and maintain consistency) like Lecithin (322) and Stabilizers (prevent droplets thickening emulsions) like Citric Acid (330). Others include: anti-caking agents and anti- foaming agents etc.

● Advantages of food additives: − Provide food choice. − Improve food colour and flavour. − Ensure consistency. − Prevent food poisoning. − Increase shelf-life.

● Disadvantages of food additives: − Have side effects like hyperactivity and allergies. − May have a cumulative effect reaching toxic levels. − Deceive the consumer.

Production Equipment:

● Equipment should be designed to facilitate with cleaning, maintenance and inspection. ● All surfaces in contact with food must be inert, smooth and non-porous to prevent any food

particles, microbes or any other unwanted substances getting caught. Stainless Steel is commonly used.

● Surfaces must be visible for inspection and readily available for C.I.P (hot water & sanitizer). ● A unit operation is a step in processing that’s incapable of being divided into smaller units. Each

unit operation requires a separate & specialized piece of equipment.

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● Equipment should be self-draining and be free of recesses or any areas where microbes can grow due to entrapped food.

● Surfaces should be Stainless Steel, Iron or Mild Steel, Plastics, Copper for heating and Rubber. Glass and wood shouldn’t be anywhere near food.

● Separation Processes can either be physical separation of food parts e.g. peel from the orange or chemical separation of food parts e.g. whey from the fat in cheese. Physical separations processes include: Filtration involves passing liquids through a filter to remove solids. Sedimentation involves using gravitational/centrifugal forces which remove solids from liquids. Centrifuging involves rotating liquid at a high speed to separate liquids at different densities.

● Grinding and Milling reduces the size of the food to make the R.M’s easier to handle and increase product suitability. The type of the mill depends on the batch size and the standard for the final product. Products include flour and bran.

● Mixing ensures that all ingredients are evenly distributed throughout a product. The type of the mixer depends on the size of the batch and the materials being mixed.

● Heating equipment can be used to heat food by three ways. The type of equipment used depends on the R.M’s and the intensity of the heat.

1) Conduction: Heat is directly transferred through contact e.g. pikelets on a hot plate. 2) Convection: Heating is done through circulation of hot air, water or steam e.g.

pasteurization of milk through a heat exchanger. 3) Radiation: Heat is radiated from walls/ other hot surfaces i.e. an oven.

● Cooling equipment reduces the temp. of food to slow down microbe and enzyme activity which reduces spoilage. Cooling is done through either convection or conduction. Refrigerators are commonly used to cool products.

● Freezing equipment is used to freeze products to retard enzyme activity and render microbes dormant. The rate of freeze is related to the products properties/qualities and it determines the size of the ice crystals. There are three main types of freezing equipment:

1) Air blast freezers. 2) Plate freezers. 3) Immersion freezers.

● Evaporation is used to concentrate/ increase the solids of a liquid food. It’s done by raising the temp. to boiling point until the desired concentration is reached.

● Dehydration is used to preserve foods for prolonged storage. It reduces moisture content by heating the product to a level that prevents microbe activity.

Production Systems:

● Production systems are the way the processes of food production are organized and applied. Classifications:

- Large Scale – used by large companies to mass product products involving automation and computerization.

- Small Scale – used by small companies or at home. - Manual – used for small scale production. - Automated – used for highly advanced large scale production. - Computerized - used for highly advanced large scale production.

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ITEM LARGE SCALE SMALL SCALE

Large stockpile, warehoused under controlled

temp. conditions

1 to 2 days supply

FLOW PROCESS CHARTS

A flow process chart is a diagrammatic representation of production processes involved in the

manufacture of a specific product.

Symbols used:

Quality Management:

● Q.C is the process where characteristics are measured and compare to a standard and action taken if differences occur. Q.A is the co-operation to achieve Q.D by all departments. Q.A is the ultimate goal of Q.C

● F.M’s must have quality mgmt systems which involves planning and managing activities that ensure a products quality meets customer demand. Guidelines must be set which include:

- A clear final product specification statement of the level of quality. - Methods for assessing/measuring the quality to the specifications. - Specifications for the processing areas involved.

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Raw Materials

Quality Control

Q.C managers, F.T’s & lab technicians. Comp.

controlled systems w/ $$ H.A.C.C.P control/

documentation.

Little/no technical equip., Q.C

done by visual inspection, no lab

and less documentation.

Equipment

Hi-tech, continuous flow, computer/robotic

systems. Industrial cleaning/sanitization.

Stainless Steel.

Domestic style/size, hand-held

mechanical appliances e.g.

blenders.

Staff

Extensive & high qualified to lesser skilled range

e.g. mgmt, F.T’s to shift workers

Multi-skilling of fewer people e.g.

mgmt also do shift work.

V.A Products

Fast. Large production in batches, 24/7 incl. 1-2

processing stages and hi-tech packaging.

Small product range, produced

over 1 wk., novelty/niche

products, less unit operations

and basic packaging.

Distribution Own logistics system & truck fleet w/ cold

chain.

Small delivery vans.

Delay D Operation

Inspection

Transportation

Storage

Inspection AND processing – when two operations occur at the same time

- Sampling/testing of the finished product after packaging and labeling. ● Q.C technicians must constantly check product lines to ensure specifications are met. All workers

must be aware of the importance of Q.C. ● To maximize food safety F.M’s should:

- Identify possible points where contamination can occur or where microbes can grow easily.

- Set up preventative measure for these points. ● H.A.C.C.P deals with food production hazards. H.A.C.C.P assesses risks/hazards while identifying

C.C.P’s. H.A.C.C.P then monitors theses C.C.P’s and records the information. ● F.M’s must ensure a safe workplace by providing:

- Training on safety issues. - Equipment that operates correctly. - A safe work environment according to OH&S.

● F.M’s must also provide a workplace that goes by all OH&S regulations and the workplace must be hygienic and safe for the workers.

HACCP

HACCP codex has twelve steps, making it suitable for large, complex food service operations

requiring a HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) system. The twelve steps of HACCP

incorporate the seven key principles of HACCP. It is these key principles which form the basis of

hazard analysis for simpler food safety programs.

Principles of HACCP

Critical Control Points (CCP)

Critical control points are the points or procedures, within the food safety program, where loss of

control has been assessed as being an unacceptable food safety risk. The assessment of hazards and

the associated risk analysis will identify the key points (CCP’s) which must be controlled every time

and every batch, to ensure a reliable safe food system.

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Principle Action taken

1 Conduct a hazard analysis Identify all possible food safety hazards (chemical, physical and biological) which can occur at each stage of processing.

2 Determine the critical control points (CCPs)

Establish the points where control is critical to managing the food safety of the food item.

3 Establish critical limit(s) Set limits to identify when a critical control point is out of control.

4 Monitor control of the CCP Specific monitoring of each CCP, as well as documenting the frequency and responsibility for monitoring.

5 Corrective actions Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates a particular CCP is not under control.

6 Documentation Establish procedures for verification to confirm the HACCP system is working effectively.

7 Verification Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles and their application.

Every food business has different procedures and equipment, and will have different critical points

which need to be controlled. Common steps in food processing which are often identified as critical

control points are:

● purchasing and receipt of food

● storage of food

● preparation of food

● cooking

● chilling

● reheating

● holding or display

After critical control points have been analysed and identified, control measures can be put in place.

The critical control points will be monitored to ensure the food is processed within the critical limits,

and corrective actions are written to document what action is taken if the controls are breached.

PRESERVATION:

Reasons For Preserving Food:

● Raw foods will spoil easily unless they are preserved in some way to stop or slow the progress of spoilage. The main reasons for preserving food are:

1) Safety – Increases shelf-life of the food making it safer to eat. 2) Acceptability – Raw foods can’t be eaten, preserving them makes the acceptable to eat.

Preserving increases eating ability of foods. 3) Nutritive Value – Foods lose nutritive value over time and preserving them helps

maintain the nutrition. 4) Availability – Not all food is avail. All year round, preserving makes it avail. all year

round. 5) Economic Viability – It’s more cost effective to produce a large amount, which can be

preserved and sold than a small amount (costs don’t vary but revenue does).

Causes Of Food Deterioration/Spoilage:

● Food spoilage is anything that renders food unsuitable for consumption. ● Environmental Factors:

- Infestation: An infestation of ants, weevils or any other insect can get into foods. This spoils the food causing it to be unsuitable for consumption. Flys also land on food and contaminate it. Rodents such as rats or mice can nibble and spoil food. These are all spoilage agents.

- Oxygen: Oxidant reactions can spoil food. 1) Enzymatic browning occurs when cut surfaces are exposed to oxygen

and they turn brown e.g. Pears. 2) Rancidity occurs when oxygen reacts with fats to create a “ranc” smell

and the fat structure deteriorates. 3) Souring of milk occurs when oxygen or heat react with the lactose (milk

sugar) and it’s converted into lactic acid which sours the milk and creates a curd texture. i.e. pH decreases.

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- Light: Can spoil food by changing the colour of the food or the texture. Light can also break down the cell structure of food.

- Water: Food spoilage can be caused either by the addition or the removal of water. Water gain causes some food to become inedible and it will attract microbes. Water loss causes food to become stale which makes the food spoiled thus inedible. Although the foods can still be eaten water loss/gain makes them undesirable to eat.

- Impact damage: Foods can be either crushed or bruised due to poor handling, which makes the food spoiled.

- Freezer burn: Caused by exposure to cold air dehydrates foods leaving the spoiled. ● Enzymatic Activity: Is involved in the ripening and eventual breakdown of fruits and vegetables, and the decomposition

of meats. Enzymes naturally exist in all both plants and animals and have important functions

while the organism is still alive. Once the organism is dead the enzymes continue to work which

causes spoilage.

● Microbial Contamination – Highly important C.C.P: - Bacteria: Are pathogenic (cause food poisoning) and they’re the main enemy of F.M’s.

Different strains of bacteria thrive at different temps and different pH levels. F.M’s must ensure that all precautions are taken to deny bacteria a suitable environment for growth. Flesh foods are extremely vulnerable to bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria don’t require O2 for growth so F.M’s must be very careful. Bacteria grow best in the danger zone between 5oC and 60oC.

- Moulds: Grow in warm moist conditions and create a green/gray mass over the surface of the food. Moulds aren’t usually pathogenic but AFGOTOXIN mould is an exception. Mould spores spread easily from one food to another e.g. bread, cheese etc. High temps. Deactivate/kill mould.

- Yeast: Wild yeast lands on sweet liquids and causes undesirable fermentation of the liquid e.g. OJ. Characteristic ‘gas’ bubbles appear in the liquid and a strong/undesirable alcohol taste develops.

Microbial spoilage can be air borne, it is constantly around us and can land on open or uncovered

food. Microbes can also be present in soil, on animals and their faeces, insects and bodily fluids

i.e. viruses. Cross-contamination can cause microbial spoilage. Conditions for microbe growth:

- H2O - O2 - Sufficient nutrients in food - Temperature (above 70oC for pasteurization) - TIME AND TEMP. ARE CRITICAL

● Other Spoilage Agents: - Addition of contaminants wither intentionally or accidentally e.g. farm chemicals. - Intentional adulteration of foods may occur illegally e.g. adding water to milk. - Deliberate sabotage of food for extortion threats e.g. poisoning of Arnott’s biscuits

Principles Of Food Preservation:

● The aim of food preservation is to render microbes inactive i.e. kill or control the conditions. The principles of food preservation are to control:

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1) Temperature – Increase above 100o and kill microbes or decrease below 4oC (refrigeration) which slows/retards growth or -18oC (freezing) and microbes lay dormant.

2) Water Availability – Microbes can’t multiply w/o water, they cease to grow. 3) Oxygen Levels – Microbes and enzymes can’t exist w/o O2. No oxidation reactions either. 4) pH Levels – With pH<4 it is impossible for microbes to grow. 5) Addition of Chemicals – It is impossible for microbes to grow by adding salt, sugar or

other additives. ● Food preservation techniques include:

- Freezing (Snap Freezing): Happens at -40oC with liquid nitrogen in a couple of seconds. Only small ice crystals form which reduces cell damage. Domestic freezing has large which damages food cells. Microbes lay dormant and can’t access the liquid but enzymes are still active.

- Accelerate Freeze Drying (AFD): The product is snap frozen then dried through sublimation.

- Cook-Chill (Sous Vide): Used in hospitals, hotels and restaurants. Food is pasteurized and crash cooled via blast chilling, then vacuum packed and refrigerated. Cold chain is imperative of C.C.P.

- Dehydration/Drying: Involves the partial or complete removal of H2O from food e.g. semi dried tomatoes have 25% moisture content while dried milk has no moisture content. 100% moisture removal means a long stable shelf life. Barrier packaging is critical to prevent H2O entry into the V.A product.

- Pasteurization: Liquids are heated to 72oC for 15 seconds to kill some of the harmful pathogens e.g. milk and juice. Cold chain storage is essential as the product IS NOT STERILE/GERM-FREE.

- Ultra-Heat Treatment (UHT): Liquids are heated to 1300C to 140oC for 2 – 3 seconds. This renders the product ASEPTIC and with an aseptic package the product has a 1 – 2 year shelf-life e.g. Berri juices. Doesn’t need cold chain so it’s cheaper to store/distribute.

- Canning: Food is placed in a laminated triplated can with a liquid (syrup, brine, oil, vinegar or springwater) and then it hermetically sealed and heat sterilized above 100oC. This creates a vacuum seal on the lid. Cans have got thinner and cheaper to transport.

- Salting/Curing/Corning: Salt is added in a solid or liquid form to create an environment unsuitable for microbes. Osmosis occurs as moisture is removed. H2O and pH<4

- Irradiation: Food is passed by Gamma Rays which sterilizes any spoilage agents. It’s not permitted in Australia.

- Smoking: Food can be exposed to smoke which permeates the cells and reduces the pH as well as partially drying the food. H2O and pH<4

- Fermentation: The controlled use of yeast to create alcohol to preserve food. The eventual build-up of alcohol stops the yeast, common in Salami and alcohol.

PACKAGING:

Functions of Packaging & Types of Material Available:

● There are 7 functions of packaging: 1) Protect: The food must be protected, it acts as a barrier to O2, microbes, H2O and light.

This increases the shelf-life.

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2) Inform: It informs the consumers about the foods nutritional value, use by date, weight, company name/address etc.

3) Convenience: Convenient for customers – portioned to serving size i.e. indiv. or family packs. Easy carry handles, stackable, convenient size e.g. 1L So Good w/ convenience pour lid.

4) Preserves Food: The package can be an integral part of the V.A products e.g. UHT & Sous Vide.

5) Safety: Tamper evident seals can be incorporated to detect pre-opening of a product e.g. pop-up lids, shrink wrap etc.

6) Portable: Food can be transported easily without physical damage or spoilage. 7) Competition: Promotes competition, bus. image & reputation, recognition (label &

image). ● Packaging means ensuring safe delivery of a processed food, in prime conditions to the

consumer at minimum cost. ● Materials used: Glass (clear, brown or green), Plastics, Paper (thin sheets, laminates &

cardboard) Metals (aluminium, tin & steel). ● These R.M’s are mined, refined and transported which creates pollution and uses finite energy.

Recycling uses more energy and can cause increased pollution but it saves R.M’s ● Packaging innovations:

- M.A.P w/ plastics. - TETRA packs w/ laminations of paper, foil & plastic. - Thinner metals. - Tamper evident seals & convenience features. - Recyclable.

● Glass: - Made from oil, natural gas, coal, salt & sand. - An old form of packaging. - Glass is inert (doesn’t react) to food. - Can be transparent so the contents can be readily seen. - Can be sterilized and made ASEPTIC. - Can be re-used and recycled by smelting. - Technology has allowed glass to be printed on, but before it wasn’t possible. - Glass can shatter, splinter and it is undetectable if it is in food. - It isn’t a barrier to light. - It is very heavy which increases freight costs. - It must be sealed with another packaging material e.g. cork.

● Plastics: - Made from sand, limestone & soda ash e.g. Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene

and Polyethylene Terephthalate (P.E.T). These are synthetic substances made from a variety of chemicals.

- Forms of plastics: High Density and moulded into shapes e.g. Yoghurt tubs. Low Density and extruded as a film e.g. Chip packets. Laminates: Polyethylene film can be fused to cardboard and aluminum. Metallised: Polypropylene looks like foil but has the strength of plastic e.g. Chip packets.

- P.E.T can be recycled (3 arrows in a triangle w/ a # in the middle. - P.E.T is often used for furniture, folders and pens etc. - If P.E.T is recycled for food containers it must be sterilized and pass H.A.C.C.P tests to

avoid cross-contamination into new foods, this is expensive. - Non-recyclable plastics contribute to landfill and pollution. - Plastics packages have gained enormous popularity over the last 40-50 years and has

overtaken glass containers.

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- Plastics is an excellent barrier from light, H2O, O2 and are flexible to many food packaging solutions.

- Plastics can be coloured and printed on easily and heated sealed efficiently. - Co-extrusions are multi-layer plastic films. - Laminations consist of two or more layers of different materials bonded together, one

material is usually plastic.

● Metals: - Bauxite & coal are used to make Steel, Tinplate and Aluminium. - Steel cans have been used for centuries to hold food. - Cans must be laminated (Polyethylene film) inside to prevent corrosion, rust and

contamination of food. - Tinplate is extruded steel, which is thin and pliable. - Today, Aluminium is used extensively to package foods. Used in Solid Form e.g. drink

containers with ring pull ends. Film Form e.g. foil laminates in Tetra packs. - Aluminium is recyclable (melted), it doesn’t rust, it is lightweight, cheaper to transport,

it’s an excellent barrier to H2O, O2, and light, it can be easily printed on, easily stacked on shelves & chilled for consumer convenience.

- Aluminium is safer than glass for beverage packaging.

● Paper: - Made from either trees or forests and is used extensively in the food industry in the

form of paperboard e.g. Cardboard - Cardboard is waxed or plastic coated to render it waterproof. - Paper is also used extensively for labels to be printed on. - Thin paper is used on low margin staple foods, but it is a poor barrier against moisture

and it’s easily torn. - Paper is fully recyclable, inert, ordourless, non-toxic and cheap.

Current Developments In Packaging:

● Active Packaging: - Controls or reacts with the internal environment of the packaging. - O2 inside the package is controlled by the addition of scavenger sachets inside a sealed

package e.g. Burrito’s or Taco’s. - The sachets absorb O2 in the package and helps control the spoilage agents which could

deteriorate the food i.e. it enhances the shelf-life of the food. ● Modified Atmosphere Packaging (M.A.P):

- Only possible w/ the advent of plastics and polymers. - There are two types of M.A.P:

1) Gas Flushing: - The air/atmosphere inside a package is modified to increase the shelf-life. - O2 is removed and replaced with Carbon, Hydrogen or Nitrogen (or even combinations

of the gases). - The type of gas used depends on the product e.g. Fresh Broccoli relies on O2 to respire,

but it is replaced with CO2 which keeps the vegetable fresher and increases the self-life. - Specific semi-permeable plastic films are used to control the balance of gases inside. - Foods can go lengthier transportation and distribution.

2) Vacuum Packaging:

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- No O2 is present as the air/atmosphere is totally removed. - Food doesn’t undergo oxidation, respiration (aging due to enzymes), rancidity,

enzymatic browning or microbial action. This increases the shelf-life. - The removal of O2 is a preservation principle. - Vacuum packaging is essential for Sous Vide and foods commonly packaged are smoked

salmon, cheese, noodles and deli meats. ● Sous Vide:

- Perishable food is cooked, rapidly chilled, vacuum packed and stored at a low temperature (00C - 30C). This extends the shelf-life for several days or it’s frozen until needed.

- Uses materials like Polypropylene, Nylon and laminates which now can help to extend the shelf-life to 6 weeks. However, these materials aren’t bio-degradable.

Legislative Requirements For Packaging/Labelling:

● There are 5 different concerns for manufacturers when packaging foods: 1) Cost (Profitability): The cost of the package must be relative to the cost of the product to

maximize the profit. R & D is important. It must contain the product and support legislation. Packaging machinery must also be cost effective.

2) Efficiency: Packages must serve the purpose of the specific food i.e. containing, preserving, protecting (barrier to spoilage), portability and maintaining the shelf-life.

3) Safety: Maintaining H.A.C.C.P w/ secure and safe packaging to make it ASEPTIC. 4) Consumer Appeal: Visually appealing, consumer convenience w/ marketing success. 5) Environmental: Recycled materials and recycled packs for consumer appeal. Ensure

environmental sustainability. ● Concerns for packaging have turned towards environmental in today’s society. ● The consumption of packaging has an annual value of $4.5 billion and employs over 29,00

people. ● Packaging testing ensures that consumers get the product in prime condition, the product safety

and prevents package deterioration. If packaging isn’t tested the mfg. risks failed packaging. Tests include:

1) Load Testing – how much weight can go on top. 2) Torque Testing – pressure when opening. 3) Pierce Testing – durability.

● The following have happened to packaging: - Packaging is 22% of domestic waste. - The weight of a 375ml glass beer bottle has been reduced by 35% since 1980. - Tetra packs since 1979 have been reduced in weight by 15%. - The weight of P.E.T soft drink bottles has been reduced by 35% since the late 70’s.

● Manufacturers must comply with the follow packaging laws: 1) The Trade Measurement Act: Stated content weight on the label must be accurate. Void

space in the package must not exceed 20% i.e. gas flushing. 2) The Trade Practices Act: Ensures the label information is accurate and not misleading or

deceptive. 3) Food Standards Australia And New Zealand: Controls food labelling information. All food

labels must contain: a list of ingredients in descending order (including additives & E.Code #’s), name of the product, use by date, nutritional panel (kJ, fat, C.H.O’s, vitamins), weights, mfg’s name and address, country of origin and a barcode. Labels must not contain: No nutritional claims e.g. weight reduction (folate is an exception).

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Storage Conditions And Distribution Systems:

● Storage in F.M takes place: - After R.M’s arrive at the factory. - When a product is held while it changes e.g. bread fermenting. - After the final product is packaged but not distributed.

● Cold storage: 0o to 5oC. ● Freezer storage: -18oC to –30oC. ● Dry storage: below 24oC with humidity controlled. ● Wasted space costs money, packaging must consider space. ● Transport is also important and must consider packaging as well as the product. e.g. cold chain.

Food Product Development:

Factors which impact on food product development

❖ External factors (macro environment) that impact on food product development, including the:

- economic environment - political environment - ecological environment - technological environment - social environment

● All business organisations are affected by external forces which are outside their control. Success depends on the way you understand and manage the impact of these external factors, to allow you to prepare for any threats to your business, and to make the most of any opportunities.

External factors include:

1) Economic environment: Relates to the local economy where your business operates. If you are an exporter you have to consider economic factors in the country where you aim to sell your product. The state of the economy, such as growth or recession affects employment and wages, and consequently consumer confidence and willingness to spend. Interest rates are part of the economic environment. Low interest rates encourage growth and investment; high interest rates mean that it will cost you more if you need to borrow money to develop your product e.g. new machinery. The value of the Australian dollar in relation to overseas currency has an effect on imports and exports. A low currency exchange rate for the $A adds to the cost of imported ingredients and machinery, but it also means that Australian products are less expensive for overseas consumers so that you have an advantage on the export market.

2) Commercial environment:

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The world of commerce is the marketplace where goods and services are exchanged for money. The commercial environment is where your new product will be put to the test. To succeed you need to know your competitors, who they are, their products, prices and marketing strategies. Analysing the competition could help you to: come up with a new, more competitive image for your product, recognise a marketing opportunity e.g. a high quality product for the top end of the market, develop a product with additional features to compete against one that is already successful.

3) Political environment: All companies are affected by the laws and policies of local, state and federal governments, and, increasingly, by worldwide regulations governing the food industry. Factors in the political environment which can influence food product development include:

- Policies or incentives such as tax concessions or grants, to help manufacturers gain access to export markets or for R&D.

- Tariffs on imports, which affect the cost of imported machinery needed for a new product.

- Food laws such as the Australian Food Standards Code and the Trade Practices Act 1974.

- Food quality management and food hygiene regulations such as HASCP. - Competition and consumer laws e.g. the Trade Practices Act 1974, and

codes of conduct e.g. not making false or misleading claims about a product.

- Industry codes of conduct, while not legally binding, still oblige businesses to conform to particular standards. Generally cover ethical issues, to establish a good image for the food industry by addressing consumer concerns about food safety, quality, service and value for money.

4) Social environment: Includes changes in lifestyles, incomes or family structures which affect the needs and wants of consumers. Generally, changes in the social environment create opportunities for new products, but can also affect the demand for existing products.

5) Ecological environment: Ecology refers to the relationship between living things and their environment. Food manufacturers have ethical and legal responsibilities to ensure their activities, products and packaging have a minimal impact on resource depletion or pollution. Planning for a new food product can be influenced by the ecological environment at every stage of development, from the selection of the types and sources of raw materials through to transportation, processing and packaging. There are legal controls on the use of natural resources but are mostly concerned with outputs. The Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency (CEPA) administers laws to protect our land, air and water systems from pollution, to minimise waste and encourage recycling. State and local governments also administer laws and regulations e.g. recycling programs. High penalty rates are imposed for exceeding legal standards for emissions into the air and effluent which flows into the sewerage system or waterways.

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Some organisations have found creative ways to minimise waste to save them money and benefit the ecology e.g. recycling, organic gardens etc. Development: genetically modified (GM) food products. For a new product you have to decide whether advantages will outweigh any potential effects of GM foods on the ecology and consumers’ anxieties about the environment & their own heath.

6) Technological environment: New equipment, processes or packaging may lead to the development of a new product, or an existing product may be improved or produced at a lower cost. A new technological development can lead to a rush of new products e.g. tetra-packs and aseptic packaging resulted in a flood of shelf-stable products with better flavour and nutrient retention. This also led to reduced transport costs because of the lighter weight and the export market was also advantaged. When new products are developed because new technology is available, it’s is referred to as technology-stimulated development. New technology in the home provides a market opportunity for a new products e.g. domestic fridges/freezers and microwaves.

❖ Internal factors (micro-environment) that impact on food product development, including: - personnel expertise - production facilities - financial position - company image

● Conditions inside your organisation. These internal factors are largely controllable and help you to decide whether you have the ability and resources to develop new products at any given time.

1) Personnel expertise: Personnel are the people employed by your organisation. Personnel most involved in the development of a new product are those in R&D and in marketing. These two departments work together to design, test, package and label a new product. May also conduct sensory testing, marketing research & an advertising campaign. Home economists devise and trail new recipes, production staff advise on the use of existing or new machinery and quality control personnel also advise. An assessment of personnel may lead to retraining or the hiring of new staff with specific skills. The cost employing new staff would then be added to production staff.

2) Production facilities: The need for production facilities will depend on the food product and the volume of production When assessing production facilities you need to consider capabilities and costs. Faculties include space, storage and machinery. It is usually less expensive to use existing facilities. Small volume and one-off operations: have limited production facilities and domestic resources can be utilised.

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Batch production: includes larger runs of a particular product; sometimes variations in production occur as a result of relatively minor changes in the facilities used e.g. flavour changes, single-serve packaging. Mass production: uses automation and computerisation to ensure production volumes meet a large target market. Equipment used is often single purpose and in continual operation e.g. Coca Cola At all levels of production and sales, storage costs are an expense that the food industry must control carefully. To avoid the need for larger storage facilities, the most efficient process is ‘just in time; deliveries and movement in stock.

3) Financial position: The success of an operation is usually judged by how well it manages expenditure and the margin of profit. Influences on the financial success of a business include:

- investment capital - resource management - the quality of the product - the market share > competition

The greater the financial commitment, the greater the risk. Company executives need to balance possible financial gain against potential loss if the product fails. Companies with a strong financial base are better able to recover from product failures. Risks can be minimised by assessing the macro and micro environments and the use of market research.

4) Company image: Corporate image is influenced by:

- reputation - quality - marketing strategies - packaging - price

Some companies align themselves with ‘politically correct’ philosophies that improve their image (environment, health, ‘clean green’) to potentially enhance sales. Negative images can be formed by adverse media reports or personal experience with poor quality products.

SWOT Analysis:

Looks at a business’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to its competitors & identifies opportunities & threats arising from the external environment. S: strengths refer to what a business does better than its competitors. W: weaknesses are what the business does not do as well as its competitors. O: opportunities are potentially advantageous factors in the external environment. T: threats are potentially disadvantageous factors in the external environment. A SWOT analysis helps a company to plan for the future. The company can set sales targets, plan the type and cost of advertising & determine the most effective pricing strategy. The company possibly changes 4 specific areas:

1. Available personnel & qualifications,

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2. Production facilities 3. Company’s financial position 4. Company image. 5.

Reasons for and types of food product development:

❖ Drivers of the development of food products - market concerns such as health & the environment - consumer demands such as convenience & cost - technological developments such as processing equipment & packaging

materials - company profitability such increasing market share & entering new &

non-traditional markets e.g. Asia. - specialised applications such as military purposes & space missions.

● Target market: the group of people to whom a manufacturer/retailer wants to seel products. ● Market segmentation: dividing the total number of people who purchase a product (whole

market) into smaller groups or segments. ● Concentrated marketing approach: when a product is designed to see to one segment of a

specific market. ● Differentiated marketing approach: when several different segments of a amrekt are

targeted. ● Niche marketing approach: targeting a small segment of a market because of their needs &

wants are very specific.

1) Market concerns: ● Health:

In Australia there are a variety of diet-related problems that cause concern for an enormous number of people. Food products developed to address these disorders will have a significant audience (target market) e.g. wholegrain breads & cereals cater for people wishing to increase their fibre intake. Nutrition education programs have alerted consumers to the relationship between diet & health therefore increasing the demand of health-conscious foods which appeal to people who value good nutrition.

● Environment: Methods used to better the environment:

- New packaging that reduces waste & uses recyclable materials. - Making cans & bottles lighter in weight. - Use of fewer raw materials & needing less energy to make the

same quantity of containers. - Organic methods of farming > effects of fertilisers, antibiotics,

pesticides & herbicides used on fruit, vegetables & farm animals. - Organic methods include applying natural fertilisers, using insects

to destroy other insects that are harmful to crops & using natural products to ward off fungi

Sustainable development: achieving a balance between using resources for immediate consumption & preserving resources for future generations. An article in a national newspaper recently reported that 75% of Australian consumers had brought products purely because of environmental concerns.

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Food manufacturers are required to comply with legislation in relation to clean air, water & noise pollution. Wise energy use & recycling waste materials are not only cost effective but also environmentally responsible. Reduce, reuse and recycle.

2) Consumer demands: ● Convenience and cost:

Changing lifestyles have led to increasing demand for quick, easy & economical solutions to food decisions e.g. more single families, both parents working full time, busier lifestyles, decrease in food preparations skills etc. Value adding increases costs but often reduces the time taken in food preparation. As costs increase, many consumers will be forced to make economic decisions about the food products they consume. Name brands & generic products compete in the marketplace. At times a consumer will value a brand name but economically find a generic alternative very attractive. Other consumers who are very brand loyal are prepared to pay a premium price for what they consider to be s superior product.

3) Technological developments: ● Processing equipment:

Manual labour is increasingly being replaced by machinery that is quicker, more reliable, less demanding & more cost effective. The technology is often automated, giving consistent quality & is often computerised, providing quality control checks as part of the production process. New processes in manufacture refers to:

- Modification to existing equipment that allow manufacturers to produce different shapes.

- Adaptations of an existing machine to do something new. - New commercial processes based on laboratory research, such

as modified atmosphere packaging & the UHT process. The need to be competitive in the global market had meant that we must produce better & more innovative products more quickly & cheaper than ever. A food company needs to consider:

- The welfare & safety of its workers - The upfront cost of new technology - The operating & maintenance costs of the technology - The quality of the resulting food.

● Food ingredients: Foods are enhanced by the use of food additives, genetic engineering is improving qualities of raw materials & functional foods are being developed to address specific dietary needs. These all serve to provide a food supply that is responding to consumer demand. Genetic engineering has already:

- Made plants easier to grow & harvest - Produced animals with lower fat-to-muscle ratio

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- Made delicate fresh foods easier to transport. ● Packaging materials:

There are now a variety of convenient packages which assist the dispensing of food & reduce food wastage. Tubes, taps (e.g. on juice casks), single serve portions, blister packs, cook/heat-in packs, easy opening devices & so on all increase the appeal of food and the opportunity to consume it in a variety of circumstances.

4) Consumer profitability: In order to be profitable over time, the company must:

- Provide products which meet market needs better than their competitors.

- Operate efficiently (meet costs + profit). - Secure supplies of appropriate raw materials that are

reasonably priced. - Keep ahead of changing market needs (research). - Utilise promotion strategies that ensure a profile in the

appropriate marketplace. - Think & operate globally.

The aim of a food company is to make a profit. First, the company must cover the expenses of:

- New product development and product promotion. - Wages and training of employees. - Rent and basic services. - Environmental protection procedures. - Payments to suppliers. - Retailer trading costs.

Product sales after meeting the expenses they should provide a profit. Part of the profit goes to shareholders but the manufacturer could set aside some of the remainder for improvements to equipment, new technology & expansion. Strategies to increase profits:

- Use more effective equipment, quicker processes & computerised manufacturing.

- Cut costs by reducing the amount &.or quality of raw materials used & packaging materials.

- Add value to a product, - Undertake an extensive promotional campaign to encourage

national pride. - Increase market share by coaxing people away from

competitors’ products. - Target a new segment of the market with a new product. - Enter non-traditional overseas markets.

5) Specialised applications: ● Military purposes:

The needs of military groups have led to the development of foods that are: - Light in weight & easily transported. - Non-perishable. - Nutritious.

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- Appealing & varied. - Easily prepared & consumed.

The most common combat meals are: - MRE’s: these are ready-to-eat meals. Individual rations are packaged in

plastic & foil pouches, & last up to 7 years. They don’t require refrigeration or any special tool for opening. They include an eating utensil & moist towelette. Heating occurs with the addition of a small amount of water.

● Space missions: Gallery kitchens in spaceships include a pantry, refrigerator, freezer, microwave, fan-forced convection oven, dehydration station, slide-out work surfaces & a company terminal to display menus & locate food items. Water is in short supply so most food is frozen, refrigerated or aseptically packaged. Because of the long periods n space, the food products will be trialled beforehand & menus selected which resemble as far a s possible ‘earth food’.

❖ Types of food product development: - Line extensions - Me toos - New to world

1) Line extensions:

They are essentially direct copies, or within minor modifications, of existing products available

on the markets and manufactured by other companies.

Manufactures attempt to exploit a successful product with established markets

The manufacture of this type of me-too products will generally seek to compete with the

original product head on.

For second class of me –too products, manufactures may try to exploit a market currently filled

by another companies range, usually with a cheaper, or generic product

The development of these products are generally easy and inexpensive- its only necessary to

‘fine tune’ the basic recipe.

The greatest challenge for manufactures of me-too products is that of marketing them against

established successful ‘originals’.

2) Me too products:

Line extensions involve relative minor changes to extend the range of a company’s existing

products by incorporating features such as new flavours, colours, health and dieting related

variations, new form packaging and different serving sizes

Reasons for line extensions:

− The market share of existing products declining over time, and changes to their

characteristics may address this issue

− As a result to market place trends

− In recognition of new consumers segment for the products

− The emergence of new processing technology and packaging

− The availability of new ingredients such as flavours , colours and health-related additives

− Value adding strategies for exiting products

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Manufactures usually already have the appropriate equipment’s and staff expertise for

manufacturing the line extension

3) New-to-the-world products:

These are completely new and different to pre-existing products and have not been on the

market before

They are far less common than me-too and line extensions

These days, new-to-the – world food products arise mainly from new technologies and new

ingredients

Once developed, new –to –the-world foods products are more likely to be successful in the

marketplace than me-too products or line extensions, simply on the basis of their novelty to

consumers

However , there developments and promotional cost can be much greater than those of me

to or line extensions

Also manufactures may need new processing equipment , provide up to date staff and

development and training and any new ingredients must be identified and sourced

Steps in food product development:

❖ Design brief based on project aims and development criteria: - Idea generation and screening - Market research - Product specifications - Feasibility study - Production process development - Development of a prototype - Testing product prototype e.g. sensory evaluation, consumer testing, packaging tests,

storage trails.

● Steps in food product development: 1. Design brief:

Description of the food product.

2. Idea generation: Possible solutions to the design brief.

3. Market research: Identification of consumer needs is gathered:

Primary & secondary sources. Product mapping Quantitative research. Qualitative research.

4. Product specifications: Requirements. Target market

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Packaging Pricing

5. Feasibility study: Analysis of resources & anticipated return.

6. Prototype: Product the product to trial & test the consumer response.

7. Test the prototype: Evaluate the trial.

1) The design brief:

This is the identification of a food problem & description of the situation that requires a solution. Design briefs relate to:

− Packaging − Lifestyle − Health − Economic situations − Religious or cultural issues − Aesthetic appeal

Design brief for breakfast bars: - Project aim: Develop a batch of bars with your choice of ingredients. You

must meet the criteria. - Development criteria (objectives/constraints):

1) The bar must be nutritious & use ingredients that encourage healthy choices.

2) The bar must be cooked fresh & stored in plastic wrap in an individual paper bag.

3) The bar should appeal to target audience. 4) The cost of raw materials is no more than $0.30 for a single serve (1

muffin).

2) Generate ideas:

Ideas are then generated to identify possible solutions to the design brief. Solutions must fit the company’s goals & recognise the company facilities (or potential facilities). When the possibilities are identified they should be narrowed down to a smaller number of feasible solutions. Idea generation for muffins:

- Sweet: blueberry, coconut, orange and chocolate, berried and yoghurt. - Savoury: pumpkin, crunchy muffin.

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- Creative method: Orange and Chocolate muffins > interesting mix of ingredients, low amount of cocoa (still healthy), almonds and orange juice and peel balance out cocoa, almonds for people who like nuts.

3) Market research:

Is an organised way of asking consumers what they need & want, as well as what existing products they like. Needs to be conducted to confirm consumer needs & wants. Without consumer support, the solution (product development) will fail. Research can be:

- Primary: involves gathering original data > data from observations, surveys, sales data & market shares.

- Secondary: investigating what others have done in a certain area > research information & publications e.g. Australian Bureau of Statistics.

Can be gathered in a variety of ways: - Product mapping: identifies gaps in the market place, demonstrating where

there is potential to launch a new product. - Qualitative research: involved checks on consumer responses to quality,

performance, presentation, pricing & usability. This allows for modifications if necessary.

- Quantitative research: involves checks on a large sample of consumers, often using a questionnaire to seek consumer opinion on 5 or 6 items although only 1 or 2 will be of interest to the company.

Success relies on clear information about: - The size of the potential market. - An understanding of market competition. - Available expertise in relation to the product. - Resources/facilities required to develop the product.

Market research for muffins: - Survey - Class testing - Storyboard concept

4) Product specifications:

Requires: - A detailed & accurate description of the product & all requirements for

production. - Identification of the target market. - Packaging specifications, including sourcing materials. - A pricing strategy.

5) Feasibility study:

The development of a feasibility study with a product analysis that includes: - Anticipated financial return on the projected investment - A technical assessment of resources available in relation to the anticipated

requirements.

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Seeks to answer the question: will this product make a profit for the company?

6) Production process development:

Involves the coordination of all aspects of industrial production including: - Raw materials - Tasks - Equipment - Processing - Quality management. There are 2 aspects: 1) Define and maintain standards

of physical & chemical attributes & sensory appeal of the product. 2) Ensure food safety & hygiene.

7) Development of a prototype:

A prototype is a trial product. Commercial production will not commence until the product has undergone careful screening. This may involve:

- Sensory evaluations - Market tests - Packaging tests - Storage tests

8) Testing product prototype

Packaging tests are also conducted to determine the exact shelf-life of the product under various storage conditions, package strength & other characteristics specific to the product inside. Small groups of consumers in focus groups conduct a full range of sensory evaluations. Another type of consumer testing: select a small sample of potential customers in a limited geographic area & give them free samples.

Marketing plans:

❖ Product planning ❖ Price structure ❖ Place and distribution system ❖ Promotional program

Market plans are about increasing sales. A marketing mix integrates four issues to establish a strategy. The strategy attempts to increase market share. Success relies on developing a market plan that reflects the needs of the target market. Marketing is often described as the four P’s.

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1) Product:

Includes all aspects of the product – ingredients, quantity, flavours, size, packing and so on. Products have life cycles which are a graph of product sales over time. the cycle graph helps to determine strategies to give the product the longest & most financially rewarding life. Introduction & growth stages:

- Slow sales & non-existent profits at launch or introduction of product = no competition.

- Growth: customers start to accept product; company develops line extensions; create more brand exposure in supermarkets cater for different market segments.

- Expenses involved with introduction & growth phases eat into the eventual profits. Maturity phase:

- Demand for the profit is at its peak, sales level off & the competition is high. - The longer the product can stay in the maturity phase, the more profit the

company will make. - To extend the maturity phase, the company can use rejuvenation strategies

to boost sales. Decline phase:

- Sales fall, profits become losses, competition is less, & less money & effort is spent on promotion.

- If a food company wants to continue to grow, it must not only monitor the sales of existing products but also inject money & effort into new products to replace those in the decline phase.

2) Price:

Price can be calculated as unit price or include price variations based on quantity purchased. Prices are often compared to similar products available in the marketplace (competition). If pricing is not competitive the product will fail. Price will fluctuate depending on quality. At times consumers are willing to pay a higher price for a product that they believe to be of premium quality. The product price depends on what the target market is willing to pay. Characteristics of the target market include: age, gender, socioeconomic level, family size & education. Marketers have a shorthand way of identifying target markets based on these demographics:

Pricing strategies: - Penetration pricing: when the price is set lower than those of its competitors

to make it more attractive & allow it to penetrate the market. When the product has won a market shard, the price may be raised to allow for a more realistic profit margin. However it there is a strong demand with high volume sales, the low introductory price could be maintained.

- Price skimming: a new to the world product with no competition can attempt to ‘skim the cream’ from the top of the market with a relatively high price. This strategy attempts to get as much as it can from each sale to cover production costs more quickly, while consumers have no other product choice. The price can be reduced to maintain sales when me too products appear on the market. Also applies to higher status, prestige products aimed at the top end of the market.

- Meet-the competition pricing: prices may be set at the same level as the nearest competing product & other means used to attract customer such as packaging or added benefits.

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3) Place:

This is the availability of the product in the marketplace, including: - Where it is sold - How accessible it is for consumers.

Food items are available from a wide variety of outlets. The important requirement is that the item is readily available to the target market. Type of distribution:

- Intensive: when products are available at every possible outlet e.g. chocolate bars.

- Selective: when there is a wide but not intensive distribution. - Exclusive: when a limited supply of a product is sold in only a few retail

outlets, usually because the product is expensive & has an elite image in the consumer’s minds e.g. hand-made chocolates.

Distribution systems: how the product flows from the producer to the consumer. - Direct selling: there are no intermediaries handling the product between the

manufacturer & the consumer. - Indirect selling: involves 1 or more intermediaries. The most common

intermediaries are wholesalers & retailers. Distribution:

- Warehousing: the correct storage of goods means the consumer receives the product in the best & safest possible condition. Depending on location of customers warehouse can be located at 1 central place of in different parts of the state &/or country.

- Material handling: refers to forklifts, conveyor belts & other method that move the cartons of product from the storage areas to pallets ready for shipping.

- Inventory control: this is essential because it ensures the quality of the product & quick filling of orders.

- Order processing: this involves the handling & filling of orders, processing of accounts & collection of credit payments.

- Transportation: the type of transportation used – in water, rail or road- depends on the type of product, the urgency of the delivery, the distances to be covered & the nature of the product.

4) Promotion:

Used to increase consumer awareness of the product & encourage changed consumer behaviour to make initial & then repeat purchases. A company has several important considerations:

- The promotion budget - The size of the target market - The stage of the product’s life cycle.

4 main aspects of promotion: advertising, sales promotion (sales & demonstrations), publicity (& public relations), personal selling

1) Advertising:

Most popular media used are print & electronic media. Choosing magazines:

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- Consumer e.g. Australian Women’s Weekly - Class e.g. magazine for a select group interested in a particular item - Trade e.g. hospitality industry such as Open House - Technical & professional e.g. the monthly publications by the Australian

Institute of Food Science & Technology. Advertising & product positioning

- E.g. orange juice is a breakfast drink. Sales promotions & demonstrations:

- Contests, samples, coupons, cash-back - Sales

2) Sales promotion:

Gives the buyer an incentive to buy or trial the product e.g. price reductions, free samples, competitions. Incentives can be offered by the manufacturer to an intermediary in the distribution chain as well as to consumers.

3) Publicity:

Is the unpaid use of the media to broaden the public’s knowledge & recognition of a product. To gain publicity, a company may sponsor a sports team or event, donate money to a charity, fund a community project etc. Public relations are a communication tool to build or maintain a favourable image with the public.

4) Personal selling:

Sales person who come into direct contact with the buyer, wither face to face or over the phone, are able to promote the product & persuade the buyer by answering questions or objections on the spot. Major promotional tool. Effective but very expensive. E.g. retails salesperson assisting customer choice, travelling salespersons who deal with wholesalers & large retailers, drivers delivering to retail outlets.

NUTRITION SUMMARY NOTES:

DIET AND HEALTH IN AUSTRALIA:

Physical Effects and Economic Costs of Malnutrition/Diet Related Disorders: Physical Effects and Economic Costs of Malnutrition/Diet Related Disorders • Good health: is the state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the

absence of disease and infirmity • Health is affected by

Nutrition Self-care behaviour (hygiene, safety, habits, use/misuse of medication and spiritual practices) Physical and social functioning Level of social support Amount and regularity of physical activity Balance between stresses and relaxation/recreation Socioeconomic status

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• Maintain a healthy weight, good nutrition is essential for the body and all its systems to function optimally for a lifetime

• Provides energy, promotes good sleep and gives the body what it needs to stay healthy • Deterioration in the condition of your skin, hair, nails and teeth • Long term, a poor diet could increase your chance of developing a condition that threatens your

wellbeing or even your life, such as high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, anaemia, diverticulitis or osteoporosis

Malnutrition

• Malnutrition is one or more nutrients aren’t supplied to the body in correct amounts • Over Nutrition: when the diet contains an excess amount of one or more nutrients. The most

common forms of over nutrition are the result of an energy imbalance that causes weight gain, where energy intake is higher that energy used through activity.

• Under Nutrition: when the diet contain too little of one or more nutrients. Inadequate energy intake due to the poverty is rare in Australia; however eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa also result in under nutrition. The most common form of under nutrition intake of specific nutrients, such as dietary fibre, iron, calcium or thiamine.

• 1) Over Nutrition (Diet contains an excess of 1 or more nutrients e.g. fats, protein and C.H.O’s

(sugar or starches): ● Overweight And Obesity: Generally caused by kJ intake exceeding energy expenditure.

Excess kJs are stored in adipose tissue or fat cells. Over consumption of macronutrients i.e. fats, C.H.O’s and proteins contribute to overweight problems. Obesity triggers other dietary diseases e.g. C.V.D, diabetes. Men are more likely to become obsess than women as 70% men over 50 are obese and there is increased childhood obesity. Obesity places pressure on the heart, strain on muscles and joints and creates fatigue. Factors that influence obesity are: environmental (values, attitudes and beliefs), psychological (pleasurable nature of eating), heredity (genes), endocrine (defective hormone production) and decreased physical activity.

● Cardiovascular Disease (C.V.D): Responsible for the number of deaths in both

males/females. This includes both Atherosclerosis (blockage in arteries by cholesterol) and Arteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries by salt). A high dietary intake of saturated animal fats can contribute to C.V.D e.g. dairy, meat, salty foods and nicotine contribute to C.V.D. Heart attacks cost Australians $450 million. Related to obesity.

● Hypertension: High blood pressure which affects may Australians. Affects blood circulation and can contribute to a STROKE (in the brain). Costs Australians $250 million and strokes cost about $200 million.

● Type 2 Diabetes: The pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin to metabolize C.H.O’s – sugars and starches. Blood sugar levels must remain stable i.e. avoid hyper (increased) or hypo (decreased) levels. Diabetes costs Australians $200 million. Can be caused by obesity, need to maintain high CHO intake.

● Dental Caries: Dental decay will happen when tooth enamel weakens. Due to high sugar intake, low fluoride and poor dental hygiene. Costs $520 million.

● Some Cancers: Can be caused by hazardous substances & creates irregular production of cells. Common cancers are breast, colon, testicular and stomach. Antioxidant consumption can help prevent cancer cell creation.

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● Cirrhosis of The Liver: This relates directly to overuse of alcohol. ● Gall Stones: Due to too much saturated fat, crystallized stones develop in the gall bladder. ● Kidney/Renal Disease: Caused by the consumption of too much salt in the diet.

2) Under Nutrition (Diet is deficient in 1 or more nutrients e.g. fibre, iron and calcium):

● Osteoporosis: A deficiency of calcium, bones lose density and become brittle and lose

strength and break easily. Menopause in women over 50 year’s increase the incidence of osteoporosis due to a decrease in estrogen, which assists calcium absorption into bones. Can be stopped but not corrected. Costs Australians $50 million. Women over 60 have a 1 in 2 chance of getting osteoporosis and men have a 1 in 3 chance.

● Anaemia: A deficiency of iron, espec. In females, haemoglobin in the red blood cells decrease and causes lethargy & paleness.

● Anorexia: A psychological eating disorder in which self-induced weight loss gets out of control. Results in extremely low B.M.I, muscle wasting, internal organ dysfunction and other problems.

● Bulimia: An eating disorder of binge eating. An uncomfortable urge to eat and then vomit to prevent kilojoules absorption.

● Dietary Diseases: These are link to diet and lifestyle and hereditary e.g. Allergies, food sensitivity and food allergies.

Dietary Disease in Aust. Costs to the Community: 1) $5 billion spent in healthcare/medicare for hospitals beds, medicine, therapy, dieticians, surgery

and ambulance. 2) Disability pensions, special equipment, prosthesis & dependency on carers. 3) Loss of employment affecting national economy & individual incomes. 4) Shorter life span, people are eating their way to the grave. Obese children as young as 10 have

been diagnosed with hypertension, adult onset diabetes and high cholesterol & skin fold rashes. Sedentary or snacking lifestyle where kJ intake increase and energy use decrease. Psychological problems are a result of obesity. TV is a - influence.

5) Alcoholism – Road deaths, domestic violence, social & employment programs. Alcoholism costs $1.2 billion. Causes liver cancer and cirrhosis.

6) Psychological therapy for decreased self-esteem from obesity, anorexia and disabled people. 7) Government research grants for designing preventative strategies for dietary disease,

development of government legislation/programs to prevent obesity and dietary diseases, promotional campaigns for optimum nutrition and monitoring percentage of the population with dietary diseases.

Nutritional Considerations for Specific Groups: Nutrition for Coeliacs: ● Coeliac disease is a permanent intestinal intolerance to dietary gluten. In untreated coeliac

disease, the lining of the small intestine is damaged. This then causes a flattening of the villi which causes problems with the absorption of gluten.

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● The cause of coeliac disease is unknown. Research has indicated that coeliac disease is associated with a group of genes responsible for the regulation of the body's immune response to the gluten.

● The causes of Coeliac disease for some people is hereditary but it is not established why this is so. Approximately 10% of family members of a person diagnosed with coeliac disease will also have the disease.

● Normal villi assist in breaking down and absorbing nutrients in food. In untreated coeliac disease, the lining of the intestine becomes swollen and has a flat appearance. The surface area of the villi is reduced, which decreases the ability to absorb nutrients and minerals from food. This then leads to deficiencies in vitamins, minerals and sometimes proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Gluten (the protein portion of wheat, rye, barley, triticale and possibly oats) then becomes toxic to the sufferer.

● There are long term effects linked to coeliac disease which includes: anaemia, osteoporosis, vitamin and mineral deficiencies, central nervous system disorders, intestinal lymphoma, other food sensitivities (even lactose intolerance) and pancreatic insufficiency.

● There are no definite groups in society that are at risk of getting Coeliac disease but if anyone in your family has had the disease the chances of getting the disease does increase.

● The most effective way to treat coeliac disease by a lifelong gluten free diet. There are no methods of prevention, as at the moment there is no definite cause of the disease except actually eating gluten. By removing gluten from the diet, all abnormalities can recover completely. Today at supermarkets, many foods are labelled as gluten free for the coeliac market. In order to help the body recover from deficiencies supplements may be taken to assist in the speed of the recovery. Sufferers should be monitored by their physician to ensure they are carrying out their gluten free diet.

● A gluten free diet will decrease this risk of osteoporosis, lymphoma and other diseases. Sufferers of the coeliac disease must carefully read food labels and learn how to identify ingredients that may contain hidden gluten.

● To make sure all Coeliacs can have gluten-free diets a continually updating website containing all foods that are gluten free should be available. This would educate Coeliacs into proper dietary choices to maintain a healthy lifestyle.

The Production/Manufacture of Nutritionally Modified Foods to Meet Consumer Demand: ● Foods that have been modified to meet consumer demand are called functional foods (natural,

modified or processed). These foods are perceived to have a preventative and curative role for the health of the body.

● Manufacturers try to produce FF’s to promote sales, satisfy nutrition policies and create consumer demand e.g. fortifying breakfast cereal (Kellogg’s) with folate help to prevent spina bifida in unborn infants, enriching OJ (Berri) with calcium to prevent osteoporosis, fortifying bread with fibre (Buttercup’s Wonder White to prevent constipation), enriching foods with iron helps to prevent anaemia.

● Other nutritionally modified foods or line extensions from standard lines include: lowered cholesterol e.g. butter, lowered saturated fats or substitution of vegetable fats e.g. farmer’s best milk, lowered salt e.g. peanut butter, lowered sugar or no added sugar e.g. OJ, increased omega 3 fatty acids (decreases cholesterol, and increased brain/eye function) e.g. pro-active margarine. Naturally occurring F.F’s are fruits and vege’s and cereal products all contain phytochemicals, fibre, antioxidants.

● Functional foods can fit into three categories: foods that have naturally occurring substances which have preventative/curative characteristics e.g. anti-oxidants, modified processed foods

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e.g. fortified OJ and foods that contain active non-nutrients like probiotics, phytochemicals and modified starches.

The Role of Active Non-Nutrients in the Diet: There are five types of active non-nutrients: There are five types of active non-nutrients: 1) Anti-oxidants:

● Anti-oxidants are used to preserve foo by retarding oxidative reaction which can result in destruction of lipids, colour and vitamins

● Control blood cholesterol levels; prevent low density Lipoproteins (L.D.L) from depositing cholesterol in veins. This means decreasing the incidence of atherscolrosis. It can also reduce incidence of cancers.

● Sources of anti-oxidants: There are 600 naturally occurring antioxidants in fruits and vegetables.

o Most common antioxidants are: o Vitamin A – beta-carotene and carotenoids found in carrots, pumpkin, apricots and

spinach. Carotenoids are the pre-cursors to vitamin A. o Vitamin E – vegetable oils, margarine, wheat germ, nuts. o Vitamin C – oranges, blackcurrants, kiwi fruit, strawberry. o Carotenoids – Are the chemicals that contribute to yellow, orange and some red

colours of fruit and vegetable o Flavonoids –

1. Anthocyanins – Contribute most of the red, purple and blue colours of fruit and vegetable

2. Anthoxanthins – Are the pale yellow fruits and vegetable 2) Phyto-oestrogen:

Compound which give food its flavor, or colour pigments in tomatoes, carrots and beetroot Benefits are: helps the cardiovascular system, delays aging process including blindness and arthritis, helps prevent cancers and reduces hot flushes for woman in menopause The most significant sources of phyto-oestrogens are: ▪ Isoflavonoids – which are found in fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts and legumes. The

most powerful source is the soya bean, which contains the strongest oestrogen-like substances, genistein and daidzein.

▪ Lignans – which are found in grains and seeds. The single richest source of lignans is linseeds.

3) Probiotics: ● These are a functional food and a non-nutrients including lactobacillus, acidophilus, bifiolus.

Probiotics destroy negative (bad) bacteria that builds-up in the gastric juices of the stomach. The body naturally has a balance of good and bad bacteria.

● Probiotics help prevent disease, maintain the immune system and help contribute to the production of vit. K and B. When this balance is disturbed through illness or antibiotics then probiotics assist health e.g. Yakult, Vaalia and Yoghurts. Yakult came out from Japan in 1994; the F.S.C had to be altered, as it was a new product.

4) Dietary Fibre: ● Found naturally in plant foods and includes a variety of gum, gels and indigestible

carbohydrates that absorb the moisture in your gut, swelling to create a larger and softer faecal mass. It helps with digestion as reduces the time that digested matter passes through

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the colon. It also helps produce vit. K and B, reduce the incidence of polyps in the colon and colon cancer.

● Good sources of fibre are fruit, vege’s, nuts, seeds and legumes but it can also be obtained from processed foods like bread/cereals and fiber supplements.

● Fiber is classified into two categories: o Soluble Fiber – it is the type that dissolves into a gel in the gut, and is digested by

bacteria in the colon. It helps increase the feeling of fullness after eating, and slow the rate that the feeling of fullness after eating slowing the rate that the stomach empties. It also reduces cholesterol.

o Insoluble Fiber- is the type often called ‘Roughage’ that remains mostly unchanged while passing through the gut. It is main promoter of movement through the gut, protecting cells from damage.

5) Omega 3 Fatty Acids: ● Omega 3 fatty acids are a type of unsaturated fatty acids e.g. linolenic acid. Omega 3 acids

can be converted to hormones- like substances called prostaglandins that are directly involved with the correct functioning of the cardiovascular systems.

● Omega 3 fatty acids help to reduce C.V.D disease by: decrease formation of blood clots, decrease heart rhythm disorders i.e. heart fibulations, helps correct impaired blood vessel function, helps reduce memory loss and depression.

● Sources of Omega 3 Fatty Acids: fish oils, canola oil, flaxseed oil, soyabeans and linseeds. Mfg’s enrich V.A products with Omega 3 fatty acids e.g. eggs, muffins, bread and margarine. Beef and eggs can have increased omega 3 when stick is fed with enriched. Omega 3 functions best with phyto-oestrogens.

● Also important for the brain development in children and infants. The Role of Supplements in the Diet: ● Advantages of supplements:

− Vitamin and mineral supplements can boost depleted levels within the body, due to illness, stress or surgery.

− Help to obtain optimum nutrition. − Replace missing nutrients in the diet e.g. people who don’t eat fish taking an omega 3

supplement. − Food supply doesn’t always satisfy vitamins and minerals after cooking and storage.

● Disadvantages of supplements: − Over-consuming and not knowing the hyper limits of dosage have been reached. Possible

hyper vitaminosis. − Unnecessary strain on kidneys to excrete surplus water-soluble vitamins i.e. vit. C & B. − Dependency on supplements e.g. anorexics. − Self-prescribing without the need of doctors advice and purchases influenced by

promotional pressure. ● Supplements can be vitamins, minerals or proteins. Vitamins help w/ growth, vision and energy

release. Minerals assist w/ the growth/repair of cells, maintain blood cells/oxygen levels and provide energy. Protein assists w/ cell development and provides energy. Due to busy lifestyle consumption of supplements has increased

● Supplements are needed in some people because the absorption rate of nutrients can vary. This is due to: health status and age e.g. pregnancy or geriatric, stress levels e.g. HSC exams or executive use B12, Antibiotic consumption, consumption of alcohol and drugs e.g. Vit B,

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consumption of caffeine (coffee and tea block Ca levels), radiation & chemo, UV and X rays, presence of interrelated nutrients e.g. ascorbic acid helps iron absorption.

● Other supplements: Anabolic steroids and protein supplements. This is a common phenomenon in star athletes and aspiring fitness fanatics. Steroids boost performance levels and give a competitive advantage for athletes. Side effects: stimulates testosterone, muscle development, strength, speed and better recovery from injuries. Negative effects: Violent and aggressive behaviour, personality changes, permanent organ damage, increase risks of heart disease and increase blood pressure, in men decrease in sperm production and testes size, in women facial hair and ceased menstruation. Abuse of steroids will result in early death. Protein supplements are legal dietary supplements and also offer performance-enhancing qualities. These contain derivatives of dairy foods, eggs, whey and vegetable protein (soy). These are safer to use then steroids and can improve a balanced diet if used wisely. Protein supplements are often bought in powder form and need mixing with water e.g. Creatine

The Role of the Individual, Community Groups, the AFI, Government and Private Agencies in Promoting Health: Many groups influence the nutrition and health of individuals. The complexity of Aust. food supply means many factors influence our health: 1) Individuals: the responsibility of food choice and nutrients lies with EACH CONSUMER not with

F.M’s. Indiv.’s need to be educated and informed about: How to purchase food, what to eat, how to cook, how to read and interpret food labels. Indiv.’s must know what their bodies require to gain maximum/optimum nutrition. Multicultural influences can affect food choices but should remain a positive influence e.g. Olive Oil replacing saturated animal fats. The family is the role model for eating in indiv.’s. Indiv.’s can have their different dietary needs and wants catered for to create a variety of diets in the household e.g. Celica’s or vegetarian.

2) Community Groups & Private Agencies: Have a + influence on gov. and the AFI decisions. Lobby groups can voice opinions on environmental concerns to the EPA, genetic engineering, organic farming and food irradiation. Aust. Consumers Association uses CHOICE magazine to alert consumers to research findings e.g. comparative cholesterol levels in margarines and butters. National Heart Foundation has been a campaign in the Pick-The-Tick Promotion for cholesterol & saturated fats (marketing) done by independent analytical laboratories.

3) AFI: Use of organic farming. Carefully selected, genetically modified stock and crops to produce superior quality products e.g. G.M soybeans & cattle. Stringent safety testing to avoid contamination and HACCP. Ethical marketing of food products i.e. increased fiber, iron, low kJ, Omega 3 as it strips cholesterol and calcium. Implementing nutrition policies into F.P.D’s e.g. Goodman Fielder (Uncle Toby’s, Buttercup & White Wings) and Sanitarium pushing sales. The Aust. Dairy Corp. is very proactive in pushing nutritious foods to sell products and for the good of the nation e.g. reduce Osteoporosis. Fortification and enrichment of products to sell e.g. Folate. Food retailers may also be involved in marketing that can inform consumers about healthy eating e.g. the 7-a-dy program

4) Government: Gov. Policy recognizes that it’s cost effective to promote good health that to treat health problems of long-term poor health choices e.g. high cholesterol foods. As a result health policies like the Aust. Guide to Healthy Eating are developed and Healthy Harold. The gov. is active in the promotion of health through its involvement in legislation related to the AFI e.g. Nutrition Policy and there is also signals (strategic inter-governmental Gov. Nutrition alliance). The Dept. Of Health and Aged Care deals with the nutrition of elderly people and has set

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guidelines for this age group. Gov. Legislation for safe food, safe use of chemicals on farms and additives in F.M as well as quarantine checks on imported foods for safety.

INFLUENCES ON NUTRITIONAL STATUS:

Health and the Effect of Heredity and Role of Diet in the Development Of Conditions: Heredity has a significant impact on the foundation of these dietary diseases/allergies: Diabetes: ● Disease of the pancreas gland which is unable to use sugar properly. Insulin which is produced in

the pancreas and used to regulate sugar by moving it from the blood stream to cells. ● Decrease causes glucose in the blood to increase causing physical side effects to the eyes,

kidney, heart, nerves and blood vessels. ● Diet can play a role in diabetes:

− Obesity can contribute to the likelihood and severity of diabetes. − Some diabetics can control the disease via a balanced diet but others are insulin injection

dependent. − Medicated diabetics need to be aware of their diet as they need to digest enough CHO’s for

the injected insulin to work. If there is a shortage of CHO’s hypoglycemia can occur causing fainting and trembling. This must be treated with a quick CHO injection in the form of sugar based foods.

● Heredity is linked to diabetes. If the disease exists among family members, the person must control weight and consume a balanced diet to avoid getting the disease.

Cardiovascular Disease: ● CVD occurs due to coronary arteries being blocked. Fat especially saturated fat is the main

nutrient which causes the disease. ● As the accumulation of the fatty deposits on the interior lining of the arteries increase

oxygenated blood flow decrease ● If the heart doesn’t receive oxygen via the blood, cardiac arrest will result. ● Diet can play a role in CVD:

− Excess consumption of saturated fats or sugar is stored as fat and increase the blood cholesterol. This increase the risk of CVD.

− A low fat diet and regular exercise will decrease the risk of CVD. ● Heredity risks are evident w/ a family history of CVD; increase care must be taken to avoid

excess fats and sugar. Food Sensitivity, Intolerances & Allergies: ● Occurs when the body’s immune system responds incorrectly to a specific food protein and

identifies the allergen as foreign. Anti-bodies are produced to destroy the allergen. Strict dietary management can decrease the risk.

● The combination of the allergen and anti-bodies brings about the reaction and allergic reactions are more serious than food sensitivities. The most common allergens are found in eggs, cow’s milk, gluten, fish and peanuts.

● Food intolerances are different from allergies as the response doesn’t involve the immune system and the body isn’t responding to a protein but another chemical in the food. Intolerances are a personal response to specific chemicals in food. Common causes of food intolerance are salicylates found in plant foods.

● Lactose intolerance is a common intolerance where the indiv. Can’t digest lactose properly. Coeliacs can digest gluten properly; decrease the absorption of nutrients resulting in malnourishment.

● Intolerances can be hereditary resulting in physical side effects.

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● Ways to test for food allergies: the skin prick, this test is where the skin is pricked and a solution of the suspected food comes in contact with the skin. If a reaction occurs you are able to know because a reaction will happen.

● Ways to test for intolerances; it is far more complicated to identify these because it involves chemicals that are present in a much wider range of foods. To do this the individual is placed on a strict ELIMINATION DIET, were the individual goes on a strict bland diet then a chemical will introduced into the diet if nothing happens after 2 day then a different one will be introduced until all done and the chemical will be identified.

Media and the Impact of Advertising Practices On Food Consumption: ● Advertising tries to persuade consumers to buy food products. ● When the Australian Dietary Guidelines were formed many companies created line extensions

that were lower in fats, sugar and salt while being higher in dietary fibre. These food where then marketed as health foods. There are no legal requirements when defining the term health food so it is up to the consumer to decide if the food is healthy. Fast foods are trying to become healthier due to increase demand e.g. McDonald’s Salads Plus.

● Products can’t make claims that it will cure or prevent a disease. Advertising has influenced consumer purchasing e.g. Milk ads have increased milk sales.

● Advertising promoting fast foods has been extremely successful as fast foods are the dominant feature in food patterns for Australians. Major companies like KFC and McDonald’s have convinced consumers their products are a regular part of life, they devote large amounts of money to advertising.

● The media can have a positive or negative influence on people’s eating habits and food selection.

● The media has had a positive influence through: Sun Herald Eat for Life brochures, the Daily Telegraph “Food to prolong life”, advertising – Weet Bix, Banana, Mushrooms, McDonald’s attempt to sell salads & Osteoporosis education through ads.

● The media has had a negative impact through: Huge $ devoted to advertising poor food choices e.g. snack foods, confectionary fast food and some magazines articles have little credibility of research in nutrition issues e.g. Cleo, Dolly etc.

Lifestyle and the Effect of Cultural and Social Practices:

● Lifestyle choices play a significant part in determining the health status on indiv.’s. Physical

activity, alcohol consumption, cultural practices and social practices play a major part in the health status:

Physical Activity:

● Energy intake must be balanced w/ energy expenditure. Excess energy intake will result in the energy being stored in adipose tissue which will result in the individual becoming overweight and potentially obese.

● Exercise is necessary to maintain muscle tone and fitness while serving as an energy balance. ● Due to machinery the role of workers is now becoming more sedentary as there is less manual

labour needed. ● Due to the increase in techno. many leisure activities are passive e.g. Internet, TV, video games

and today not very many people do the correct amount of exercise needed to balance energy. Exercise must be done in moderation as too much can have negative effects on the body.

● At the moment is decreased physical activity and increase energy consumption leading to an increased in overweight people.

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Alcohol Consumption:

● Moderate alcohol consumption is acceptable and may even be beneficial e.g. anti-oxidants in red wine. However, frequent over consumption is detrimental to the health of the indiv. And can create greater chance of malabsorption of nutrients particularly vitamins and minerals.

● Memory loss and liver damage can also result and there is a social impact on the indiv as well. Cultural Practices:

● Attitudes towards food are reflected in the indiv.’s cultural background including parents, home life, income and historical influences on food.

● The impacts of religion on food practices are diverse and many food taboos mean certain foods are excluded from the diet due to social/religious practices. Food taboos practiced in Aust. include: Christians eating fish on Good Friday, Hindus don’t eat beef and Jews don’t eat pig/pork products.

● Alcohol is toxic to body tissue, damaging the liver, pancreas and brain, over consumption contributes to weight gain due to its high energy content, and metabolising the alcohol depletes the body of important nutrients.

Social Practices:

● Food courts in shopping centres have increased the consumption of fast foods. ● Many social gatherings revolve around food e.g. birthdays, dinner parties and family

celebrations etc. The choice of menu at these occasions influences the nutritional status of the social occasion.

● Food & drink served at social occasions is usually controlled by social expectations and cultural influences.

● Tradition ‘Aussie’ bbqing is changing a more fish, chicken and marinated steaks are being bbqed accompanied by salad. This good as it is reducing consumption of animal fats particularly high in sausages.

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