H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsVolume6,No.6(2016)https://networks.h-net.org/h-environment

Publicationdate:July5,2016RoundtableReviewEditor:ChristopherF.Jones

FinisDunaway,SeeingGreen:TheUseandAbuseofAmericanEnvironmentalImages(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2015).ISBN:9780226169903ContentsIntroductionbyChristopherF.Jones,ArizonaStateUniversity 2CommentsbyKeithWoodhouse,NorthwesternUniversity 4CommentsbyLoriVermaas,IndependentScholar 10 CommentsbyFinnArneJørgensen,UmeaUniversity 13 CommentsbyMargueriteS.Shaffer,MiamiUniversity 18Author’sResponsebyFinisDunaway,TrentUniversity 24AbouttheContributors 35Copyright©2016H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.

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IntroductionbyChristopherF.Jones,ArizonaStateUniversitypicture,accordingtoapopularproverb,isworthathousandwords.Andinthecaseofthemodernenvironmentalmovement,thereisnodoubtthatcertainimageshavespokenfarlouderthanwords.Oil-soakedbirds,theCryingIndian,andmenacingcoolingtowersatnuclearpowerplantshave

strucknerveswithmillionsofAmericansandraisedenvironmentalawareness(duetocopyrightrestrictions,mostoftheseimagescannotbereproducedinthisforum,soIencourageyoutoopenanewbrowserandsearchfortermssuchas“CryingIndianad”;“Pogowehavemettheenemy”;“ExxonValdezbirds”;“ThreeMileIslandcoolingtowers”;and/or“polarbearclimatechange”togetasenseofsomeofthevisualizationsdiscussedinthebook).Butbeyondtheiremotionalpotency,whatdothoseproverbialthousandwordsconvey?Notasmuchaswemighthope,FinisDunawayarguesinSeeingGreen.Analyzingiconicenvironmentalimagesfromthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,hedemonstratesthatwidelycirculatedmediarepresentationshavetypicallyofferedanoverlysimplisticexplanationofenvironmentalproblems.Inparticular,theyhaveprivilegedtheroleofindividualactionsasbothcauseandsolutiontoissuessuchaspollutionwhileunderstatinglong-termsystemicfactorssuchasconsumercultureandcorporatepower.Atthesametimethatenvironmentalimageshaveoftenreducedcomplexenvironmentalquestionstoindividualdecisions,Dunawayarguesthatmanyimagesencouragedtheperceptionthatweareallinthistogether.Whiletrueinanabstractsense,thissentimentignoresenormousvariationinwhichgroupscauseenvironmentalharmandwhichgroupspaythepriceofexposure.Asenvironmentaljusticescholarshaveamplydemonstrated,wealthierandwhitercommunitiesthatliveresource-intensivelivesaretypicallyabletoprotectthemselvesfromtheworsteffectsofpollutionwhilepoorercommunitiesofcolorusuallybearthebruntofenvironmentalburdens.Therecurrentvisualmotifofuniversalresponsibilityandvulnerability,frequentlydepictedwithwhitebodies,hasmaskedtheextenttowhichtherealitiesofenvironmentalchallengesareshapedbyraceandclass.Handsomelyillustrated,concise,andseekingtoaddressseveralsubfieldsincludingenvironmentalhistory,visualstudies,andpublicculture,SeeingGreentacklesabigsubjectinarelativelysmallpackage.Theresulthasbeenahostofawards,includingtheJohnG.CaweltiAwardforthebestscholarlybookinpopularcultureandAmericanculturefromthePopularCultureAssociation/AmericanCultureAssociationandtheAEJMCHistoryDivisionBookAwardforthebestbookinjournalismandmasscommunicationhistoryfromtheAssociationforEducationinJournalismandMassCommunication.ThebookalsoreceivedanHonorableMentiondesignationforthePROSEAwardinMediaandCulturalStudiesfromtheAssociationofAmericanPublishersandwasshortlistedfortheWallaceK.FergusonPrizeoftheCanadianHistoricalAssociation.

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IaskedKeithWoodhousetoparticipateinthisroundtablebecauseofhisexpertiseinthehistoryofthemodernenvironmentalmovement.Hiscommentsemphasizethevalueofbringingimagesandemotionsintoenvironmentalhistorywhilealsoraisingquestionsabouttherigidityofthedividebetweenindividualactionandsystematicchange.LoriVermaasisascholarofAmericanvisualculturewithaparticularinterestinperceptionsofthenaturalworld.Herreviewexploresthelinksbetweenimagesandenvironmentalaction,discussingamongothertopicstheproperbalanceofvisualanalysisversushistoricalcontextandthedegreetowhichitisappropriatetojudgethelimitationsofmediarepresentations.FinnArneJørgensenbringsabackgroundinhistoryoftechnologyandscienceandscienceandtechnologystudiestoenvironmentalhistory.Hisremarksemphasizethecategoriesofagencyandhope,asking,forexample,abouthowmuchagencywecanattributetoimagesthemselvesversustheconditionsoftheircreationanddistribution.Healsoraisescriticalquestionsabouttheroleofhopeversuspessimisminthewritingofenvironmentalhistory,andhowweassessthemeritsandlimitationsofindividualaction.MargueriteS.Shaffercompletesourroundtable,lendingherexpertiseinAmericanstudies,publicculture,andpopularenvironmentalism.Herresponseusestherecent“NatureisSpeaking”campaignofConservationInternationaltohighlighttherelevanceofDunaway’shistoricalworkaswellastoexploretheconceptofslowviolenceandthelimitationsofenlightenmentepistemology.Beforeturningtothefirstsetofcomments,Iwouldliketopausehereandthankalltheroundtableparticipantsfortakingpart.Inaddition,Iwouldliketoremindreadersthatasanopen-accessforum,H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsisavailabletoscholarsandnon-scholarsalike,aroundtheworld,freeofcharge.Pleasecirculate.

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CommentsbyKeithWoodhouse,NorthwesternUniversityhatdoesenvironmentalismlooklike?FinisDunawayhasbeenaskingthatquestionforyears,firstinNaturalVisions:ThePowerofImagesinAmericanEnvironmentalReformandrecentlyinSeeingGreen:TheUseandAbuseofAmericanEnvironmentalImages.NaturalVisionsconsidersfilm(both

photographyandmovies)intheearlyandmid-twentiethcenturyconservationmovement,whileSeeingGreenexaminesthevisualcultureofthelate-twentiethcenturyenvironmentalmovementacrossavarietyofmedia.Bothbooksshowhowtheseeminglystraightforwardwaysinwhichenvironmentalistsdepictedtheirconcerns–ontelevisionandincomicstrips,throughphotographsandsymbols–wereinfactfreightedwithcomplicatedmeanings.Inanimage’scarefuldesignandeagerconsumption,environmentalnarrativeswerebuilt.Inmanyways,though,SeeingGreenismoreconcernedwithhowimageslimitedthosenarrativesthanwithhowtheybuiltthem.Startingfromthestraightforwardpremisethatgraphicrepresentationswereacrucialmeansofcallingattentiontoenvironmentalissues,DunawaypaysmuchgreaterattentiontohowsuchrepresentationsboundedthoseissuesandAmericans’understandingofthem.Justasphotographsleavemoreoutoftheframethantheyincludeinit,environmentalimagerypresentedaradicallysimplifiedviewofscale,socialinequality,andpossiblealternatives.ThisamountedtoaspecificdefinitionofwhatDunawaycalls“environmentalcitizenship.”VisualculturehelpedtodefinewhatrightsAmericanshadtobesafefromenvironmentalharmandwhatresponsibilitiesAmericansheldtowardseachotherandtheplanet.Thatdefinitionofcitizenshipwasalwaysanarrowone,evenasitmadepowerfulnewclaims.Theimmediacyandclarityofgraphicrepresentations,andthespeedwithwhichpeopleperceivedthem,meantthattheyoftenoperatedatahighemotionalregister.Thatdidnotputimagesatoddswithreasoneddiscussionandconventionalpolitics,Dunawaymakesclear.SeeingGreeninsistsonthecrucialroleofemotionsinpubliclifeandsothedirectconnectionbetweenpowerfulimagesandpoliticaldiscourse.Emotionalcontent,infact,becameapoliticalstanceinitselfafterWorldWarII,when“governmentofficialsandscientificexpertssoughttodiscreditfearandanxietyasillegitimateemotions,especiallyinrelationtotechnology,theenvironment,andhumanhealth”(p.12).Inthefamiliarstoryof1960senvironmentalism,concernsaboutnuclearfalloutandpesticidesledtoamoreecologicalunderstandingoftheworld,blurringthelinebetweenhumancommunitiesandnaturalsystems.TothisstoryDunawayaddstheuseofemotionsinpolitics,oftenthroughimagesfeaturingchildren,likeanti-nuclearadvertisementswarningofstrontium-90inchildren’steeth;photographsofsuburbanyouthplayingincloudsofthepesticideDDT;andtheLyndonJohnsoncampaign’sinfamous“DaisyGirl”adjuxtaposingayounggirlandanucleardetonation.AsenvironmentalimagestaughtAmericansabouttheinterconnectednessoftheworld,theyalsomadeacaseforthelegitimacyofvisceralresponsestotechnicalconcerns.“Avibrantdemocratic

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culture,”anti-nuclearactivistsbelieved,restedon“theinfusionofemotionsintopolitics”(p.16).ByApril22,1970,thefirstEarthDay,thenascentenvironmentalmovementbroughttogetherdisparateissueslikenuclearfallout,smog,pollutedwaterways,solidwaste,andoilspillsintoaplanetwidephenomenonknownas“theenvironmentalcrisis.”Thatexpansionofgeographicscalefarbeyondlocalcommunitiesledtoauniversalizingofwhotheenvironmentalcrisisaffected,asenvironmentalistscasuallyreferredtoanundifferentiated“we”and“us.”Everyone,environmentalistsimplied,contributedtoandsufferedfromenvironmentalillsinequalmeasure.“Wehavemettheenemyandheisus,”WaltKelly’scomic-stripopossumPogofamouslydeclaredonposterafterpostercirculatedduringEarthDay.Butenvironmentalimagesdepictedsupposedlyuniversalvictimsofpollutioninhighlyspecificways.ThehumanbodiesthatproducedDDT-taintedmilkorthatworegasmasks-aubiquitoussymbolofenvironmentalthreatsduringEarthDay-werealwayswhite.PhotographafterphotographshowedwhiteAmericanssubjectedtoenvironmentalharm,anunintentionalreflectionofhowtheenvironmentalmovementignoredthedisproportionateeffectssufferedbycommunitiesofcolor.FordecadesafterEarthDayenvironmentalimagesoverwhelminglyfeaturedwhitepeople,andtherareappearanceofnon-whiteAmericanswasalmostneveraccompaniedbyadiscussionofenvironmentalinequities.Thevisualcultureofenvironmentalismreinforcedthemovement’snarrowframeofreference.ForDunaway,Pogo’sdeclarationofuniversalresponsibilitynotonlyflattenedunevensocialrelationshipsbutlimitedpoliticalunderstandingsofpollution.Bydeclaringthatthecauseofenvironmentalharmwas“us”–acollectivehumanity–Pogoequatedanindividualtossingawayaplasticcupwithacorporationdumpingwasteintoanearbyriver.Thatuncomplicatedfinger-pointingapportionedguiltequallyandsuggestedthatindividualsshouldcleanuptheirownactsbeforeblaminglargerinstitutionsorsystems.Thebusinesscommunitytookthisideaandranwithit.IfthereisavillaininSeeingGreenitiscertainlytheAdCouncil,thelargestproducerofpublicserviceadvertisementsintheUnitedStates.Againandagain,Dunawayargues,theAdCouncilofferedindividualactionasthebestsolutiontocollectiveproblems,leavingoutanydiscussionofcorporateresponsibilityorsystemicchange.In1971theAdCouncilreleasedits“CryingIndian”ad,depictinganAmericanIndiancanoeingthroughapollutedlandscapeandsheddingatearatapieceoftrashcasuallytossedfromacarwindow.Heretheemotionalcontentwasexplicitbutthenatureoftheproblemobscured.The“CryingIndian”adanchoredatelevisionandprintcampaigncalledKeepAmericaBeautifulthatadmonishedAmericanstostoplittering.Individualswereatfault,andindividualscouldprovidethesolution.NowheredidKeepAmericaBeautifulsuggestchangeatthelevelofpolicy,likerequiringbeveragecompaniestoselltheirproductinreusablecontainersor,forthatmatter,holdingcompaniesinanywayresponsibleforthewastetheygenerated.Thiswasnotsimplyablinkeredpointofview,Dunawayargues,butamessagebydesign;thebeverageandbeveragecontainercompanies

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thatfundedKeepAmericaBeautifulsoughtto“countertheclaimsofapoliticalmovementwithout[themselves]seemingpolitical”(p.88).Duringthe1970sthelimitedviewsofwhosufferedenvironmentalharmandhowenvironmentalproblemsmightbesolvedcametogetherinasingularunderstandingofenvironmentalpoliticsbestrepresentedbytheM.C.Escher-inspiredrecyclinglogo.Recyclingwasthebattlecryofindividualisticenvironmentalismandyetitwasbuttressedbymunicipalrecyclingprograms.Environmentalisminthe1970s,Dunawaysays,waslessamatterofshiftingfromliberalreformtoindividualsolutionsthanofcombiningthetwo.Americanscouldmitigatepollutionbyrecyclingtheiremptybottlesandbypassingrelevantlegislation.“Inbothcases,”Dunawaywrites,“environmentalismwasportrayedasamovementdevotedtoaspecificentity–‘theenvironment’–andnotabroad-basedefforttobringaboutsocialjustice.”Builtonimagesofuniversalharmthatignoredtheunequaldistributionofthatharm,andonimagesofindividualactionthatignoredsystemiccriticismsofcapitalismorevenparticularindustries,theenvironmentalmovementusedpowerfulemotionalappealstopromotesimpleandtechnicalfixes.Evenwhenenvironmentalimageswerenotcartoons,theyofferedcartoonishviews.Thevisualcultureofenvironmentalismheightenedawarenessandlimitedthetermsofthatawarenessatthesametime.Theenergycrisesofthe1970sforcedAmericanstoconfrontthenation’srelianceonfossilfuelsandenvironmentaliststriedtoencouragethisintrospectionwitheventslike1978’s“SunDay.”TheSunDaylogofeaturedpeopleholdinghands,justastheeventitselftriedtobringtogetherenvironmentalists,organizedlabor,andmunicipalleaderstoformabroad-basedcoalitionforalternativeenergy.TheAdCouncil,ontheotherhand,respondedtolinesatgasstationswitha“Don’tBeFuelish”campaignencouragingindividualAmericansnottowasteenergywhilecarefullyavoidinganydiscussionoffederalpolicy,corporateresponsibility,oralternativeenergyregimes.Bythe1980sand1990s,theenvironmentalmovementhadaccommodateditselftowhatDunawaycalls“aneoliberalage.”IntimeforthetwentiethanniversaryofEarthDay,theAdCouncilconcoctedyetanotherenvironmentalcampaignfocusingonindividualaction,thisoneencouragingrecycling.ButwhereenvironmentalgroupshadoncecriticizedtheAdCouncil’soverlysimplisticmessages,nowtheysignedon.Manyenvironmentalistsfinallycametoembracemarket-basedsolutionstoenvironmentalissues,Dunawayexplains,convincedthatpeoplecouldbuytheirwaytosustainabilitybyputtingtherightlightbulbsandorganicproduceintotheirshoppingbaskets.Notonlydidthisconsumer-friendlyapproachlimitthediscussionofalternatives,itnormalizedwhatmightotherwisehavebeencriticized.AlthoughtheoutcryovertheExxonValdezoilspillin1989waswelldeserved,themostfamiliarimages–ofoil-slickedbirdsandcoastline–focusedexclusivelyontheimmediatethreattoAlaskanwilderness.Oilleakingfromtheshiptotheshorewasanobviouscrisis;lessobvious,asBillMcKibbenpointedoutatthetime,wastheslow-rollingcrisisofunspilledoilthatfueledcarsandcontributedtoglobalwarming.Anenvironmentalmovementthatcalledattentiononlytounmistakable

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problemslikeoilspillsandpackedlandfillswasanenvironmentalmovementthatlackedanysystemiccritique.SeeingGreenisaboutmuchmorethanthevisualcultureofenvironmentalism;itisaboutthetrajectoryoftheenvironmentalmovementafterEarthDay,asurprisinglyunder-narratedstory.WhileDunaway’smostimmediatecontributionistobringspecificimagesintothestoryofaninherentlyvisualmovement,hisgreatercontributionistomorefullycontextualizeenvironmentalideas.SeeingGreenprovidesasenseofhowenvironmentalismrespondedtothecrisesandlimitsofthe1970s,themarketfixationsofthe1980s,andtheimportanceofclimatechangeinthe1990sand2000s.It’snotalwaysclearwhatexactly“environmentalism”is–Dunawaytendstojumpfromgrouptogroupandissuetoissuewithoutdiscussingthemanydifferencesbetweenthem–butwhatisclearisthatcommunitiesofcolorandsystemiccritiquestendedtoremaininthebackground,whilewhite,middleclassAmericansandindividualisticsolutionsoccupiedtheforeground.SeeingGreenhelpstoexplainhowDenisHayescouldgofromcriticizingcorporationsandoverconsumptionduringEarthDay,1970tostartingaguidetogreenshoppingsoonafterEarthDay,1990.SeeingGreenalsotakesseriouslytheroleofemotionsinenvironmentalpolitics,somethingthatfewbookshavedone.Emotionalappealscanbemisleadingorlimiting,asDunawaydemonstrates,buttheycanalsobeeffectiveandimportant.Toooftenenvironmentalists,sousedtobeinglabeledsentimentalists,downplaytheemotionalcontentofenvironmentalpoliticsdespiteitsclearimportance.Dunawayacknowledgesboththepowerandthepitfallsofplayingonemotionsforpoliticalends,andshowsconvincinglyhowunderstandingbothiscrucialtounderstandingenvironmentalism.Oneofthebook’smostsignificantcontributionsisalsoaconceptuallimit,however.DunawaystructuresthenarrativeofSeeingGreenaroundtheriseofapoliticsofindividualisminthe1970sand1980s.Market-basedunderstandingsofsocialproblemshidtherolesofcorporationsandindustriesandfrustratedsystemicsolutions.Environmentalpoliciesmovedfromthepublicspheretotheprivate,fromregulationtoconsumerchoice.Thistrend,whichDunawaynarrateswithgreatinsight,isanespeciallyvitaltopicatatimewhen“Prometheanenvironmentalists”haveturnedtotechnologicalfixesandthepowerofthemarkettoaddressclimatechange.Toolittlehasbeenwrittenonmarket-basedenvironmentalism,andSeeingGreenhasmuchtoteachscholarsnowtakingupthesubject.ItoffersarichcounterpointtoThomasJundt’srecentGreeningTheRed,White,AndBlue:TheBomb,BigBusiness,andConsumerResistanceinPostwarAmerica,amuchmorecelebratorytakeongreenconsumerism.Attimes,though,thedistinctionbetweenindividualbehaviorandsystemicsolutionsisoverstated.Dunawaycriticizesanyeffortstopoliceeverydayactionsasdistractionsfrommoremeaningfulreform,anddrawsalinefromanti-littercampaignstomarket-basedgreenconsumerism.Pogo’s“focusonpersonal

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responsibilityprecededtheindividualistturninAmericanpubliccultureandthesubsequenttriumphofneoliberalvaluesandstructures”(pp.65-67).The“CryingIndian”presentedenvironmentalismaslittlemorethan“amoralisticcleanupcrusade”(p.95).Bythe1980s,“Theprivatespherebecamethemainsiteofenvironmentalaction,theplacewherevirtuousconsumerscouldatonefortheirecologicalsinsthroughrecyclingandotherindividualacts”(p.191).SeeingGreenpitsindividualisticenvironmentalismagainstthepossibilityofmorecomplicatedandnuancedviews,presentingthetwosidesasmutuallyexclusive.Surelyenvironmentalismshouldinvolveboth.Aseasyasitmaybeforenvironmentaliststopatthemselvesonthebackforbuyinghybridcars,recyclednapkins,andlow-flowshowerheadsandtothennaivelyconsidertheirworkdone,individualbehaviorstillmatters.RecentlyBillMcKibben–whoDunawaycelebratesasanadvocateforsystemicchange–wroteinTheNewYorkeraboutvisitingaVermontcouplethatlettheirlocalutilityswitchtheirlightbulbstoL.E.D.s,placesolarpanelsontheirgarage,andinstallseveralheatpumpsinordertosavemoney.“I’vetravelledtheworldwritingaboutandorganizingagainstclimatechange,”McKibbensaid,“but,standingintheBorkowskis’kitchenandlookingattheirelectricbill,Ifeltafairlyrareemotion:hope.”1Afocusonindividualbehaviordoesnothavetofrustratesystemicunderstandings.Onemayevencontributetotheother.Californiahasbeenmuchcriticizedforregulatingcarwashingandlawnwateringtocombatayears-longdroughtwhilethelion’sshareofwatergoestoagricultureintheCentralValley.Butaslongasagriculturalwateruseisreduced,isn’titbetterthatmunicipalwateruseistoo?AnAngelenooraSanFranciscantakingshortershowersandusinggreywaterforplantsisfarmorelikelytothinkaboutthestatewidewatersystemeveryday.Dunawaysuggestsvirtuousindividualbehaviorcanhavegreateremotionalthanpoliticalconsequences.ButitcanalsogiveAmericansanemotionalstakeinmattersthatoftenseemoutoftheirreach.It’shardtobelievethatconsumerswhoareadmonishedtoturnofflightsinemptyrooms,reuseplasticbags,andwalktoworkaretoomyopictodrawconnectionsbetweenthoseeverydayactivitiesandthesystemstheyconnectto.TheExxonboycottthatfollowedtheValdezspilltargetedasinglecompanyratherthananindustryorawayoflife.“Inthisframingofenvironmentalpolitics,”Dunawaywrites,“thestructuraldimensionsofenergypolicyrecededbehindappealstovirtuousconsumption”(p.233).Maybe.Butmarket-basedstrategiescanbeeffectivepartsofmuchlargerwholes.Oneoftheturningpointsinthecivilrightsmovement,afterall,wasaboycott.Anyseismicshiftinenergypolicyisgoingtobebuiltfromcountlessmomentsofspecificandlimitedfrustrationandoutrage,buildingtoapointwherewholesalechangebecomestheonlyoption.

1McKibben,Bill,“PowerToThePeople”TheNewYorker(June29,2015),p.30.

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Wheredoindividualactionsandsystemicchangedepartfromeachother?Areconsumerchoicesandbroadpoliticalreformsalwaysdistinctorcantheyoperateintandem?Whichismorelikelytoinfluencetheother?ThesearedifficultandimportantquestionsthatsocialmovementsfromPopulismtofeminismhavewrestledwith.Theyareparticularlycomplicatedwhenitcomestoenvironmentalism–amovementfundamentallytiedupwithmattersofproductionandconsumption.SeeingGreenraisesthesequestionsinawaythatshouldinfluencemuchscholarshiptocome.Dunawayhasframedthemodernenvironmentalmovementinurgentandcompellingways.Hetellsastorythatmustbeintegratedintoabroadernarrativeofenvironmentalisminthetwentiethcentury.Afterreadinghisbookitbecomesdifficulttoutterthefamiliarslogan“Thinkglobally,actlocally”withoutanewfoundintrospectionandthoughtfulness,ortogazeatenvironmentalimageswithoutthinkingharderaboutthecomplicatedideasandimplicationsatwork.

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CommentsbyLoriVermaas,IndependentScholarfeellikeabitofanoutlierasoneofthereviewersofFinisDunaway’sSeeingGreen:TheUseandAbuseofAmericanEnvironmentalImages,giventhatmytrainingprimarilyfocusesonpre–WorldWarIAmericanvisualculture.Asaresult,theimagesofenvironmentalconcernI’mmostfamiliarwithare

harbingerslikeThomasCole’s“blastedtree”orworksbyotherHudsonSchoolartistswhodepictedlandscapesdottedwithtreestumps,likeGeorgeInness’sTheLackawannaValley(c.1855)orSanfordGifford’sHunterMountain,Twilight(1866).Yet,theenvironmentalcommentaryseeminglyapparenttousintheseworksishighlydubious.Innesslikelyintendedtocelebratetechnologicalorsettlementprogressratherthancondemntherapingoftheland.Indeed,inalaterperiodsomeofDorotheaLange’sFSAphotographsofnorthernIdahohomesteads(studdedwithdenuded,branchlesstrees)dramatizedimpoverishedfarmers’challengestoestablishtheirnewholdingsratherthanmadesomelargestatementaboutquestionableAmericanland-usepractices.Inotherwords,imagesexpressiveofanenvironmentalethosinAmericatendtoqualifyasecologicalstatementsretrospectively,informedbysubsequentconcerns,notreallytheartist’s. Thatisn’tthecasewithDunaway’sSeeingGreen.Theimageshestudieswereintendedbytheircreators(manyintherealmsofadvertisingorthenewsmedia)toforegroundenvironmentalconcernsand/orpushanagenda.Bytracingoutahistoryofwhathehasidentifiedasthemosticonicenvironmentalimages,Dunawaynotonlyestablishesalistforscholarstoquibbleover(IvotefortheCryingIndian,nuclearcoolingtowers,polarbears,andAlGoreonamechanicalcherrypickertospotlightrisingcarbondioxidelevels),butalsoraisesintriguingquestionsabouttheroleofimagesintheenvironmentalmovementandthelimitsofmediarepresentation.Canimagesactuallygeneratechangesinenvironmentalpracticesandpolicy?Cantheyimprovehowweperceiveenvironmentalproblems?GivenDunaway’scontention,withwhichIheartilyagree,thatthemediaorartworldstruggleswithdepictingthesubjecteffectively,I’mnotsosuretheycan.Ashefrequentlynotes,theissueoftimeisvexingforimagemakers—theyhabituallyavoiddepictinglong-termconsequences,optinginsteadtohighlightthespectacular(oilspillsspreadingacrosstheocean,forexample)orthepoignantvictims(oil-soakedotters)ofacurrentdisaster.Imageslikethese,whichfocusondisastersandtheirvictims,arecompellingandharder-hitting—thesepicturessellbetter,theyattractusbecausetheyallowustoseeactualenvironmentaldamageoccurringinrealtime.Buttheypullupshortofspotlightingtheunderlyingcausesofthedamage:alltheconsumer-basedsystemsthatsupportenvironmentallyhazardouspractices(likeindustrialagricultureorfossil-fueldependence).Anotherofhiscritiquesinvolvestheimages’strongtendencytopromoteaconsumerist(orindividualist)ethosasaviablesolution—thateachofuscanhelpto

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“solve”theseproblemsbyvotingwithourwallets.Someoftheexampleshenotesincludenotpurchasingproductsfromcompaniesorindustrieswhosepracticesareenvironmentallydestructive(likeExxonorapplesellersusingAlar),purchasingrecyclablecontainers,orbuyingcarbonpoints(tomitigateone’scarbonfootprint).Iagreethatthesearen’tultimatelysolutionstoharmfulenvironmentalpractices.ButsincetheadvertisingindustrycreatedmanyoftheimagesinwhichDunawaylocatesthisattitude,whydoeshefinditsosurprisingthattheytendtostressaconsumeristethos?Whywouldn’taculturethatismarket-driven,acapitalistcountry,relyonconsumeristrhetorictoproposeasolution?WhileIappreciatedhiscritiques,Ibegantotireofthemafterawhile.Infact,Istartedsmilingtomyselfwitheachreadingsession,becauseIbeganthinkingthatitwouldbemoreaccuratetoalt-titlethebookas“SeeingRed.”Isaythis,notwithdeepcriticism,butwithjustincreasingannoyance,becauseasIkeptworkingthroughthebook,Dunaway’sapproachseemednotonlytotracethehistoryofenvironmentalimagesinAmerica,butalsohowtheycameupshort.AndtheyALWAYScameupshort.Heconstantlyjudgestheimages,anapproachnotusuallyemployedinscholarlyanalysis.SomeoftheimagesDunawaydiscussesalsodidn’tseemtomeritanentirechapterthemselves.Inchapters6and10(abouttherecyclinglogoandthelogoforSunDay,a1978eventcelebratingsolarenergy,respectively)hedevotedlesstimetointerpretingthelogosthantodiscussingthecontextualissuessurroundingthem,likeenvironmentalpolicyhistoryorthefestivalitself.Thelatterarerelevant,butbecausethebook’sfocusisoninterpretingimages,itwasjarringwhenheveeredawaysomuchfromclosereadingsofeachofthechapter’svisualheadliner.Inaddition,Dunawaymissedoutonanalyzingmorepotentiallypromisingvisualmaterialwhenhetookabigjumpintimeoverthe1990s.Theleapwasquiteglaringandsurprising,giventhecomprehensivenessandvigilanceofhisanalyticaltimelinethroughouttherestofthebook.Onewayoffillinginthatgapmighthavebeentotouchonthecontroversyconcerningclear-cuttingpracticesduringthatdecade,andtheactivismitinspired,whichultimatelyledtoheavymediacoverageofJuliaButterflyHill’stwo-yearredwoodtreesitinthelate90s.IwaseagertoreadofhistakeonthisconfrontationanditsvisualportrayalandwasabitdisappointedwhenIrealizedhehadskippedoverthistimeperiod.However,whenDunawayfocusesonthecultural/semioticinterconnectionsoftheimages,hisanalysisshines.Forexample,hisexplicationoftheThreeMileIslandtowersassymbols,juxtaposingthemwithothernotoriousimagery,likethemushroomcloud—ornotingthetowers’visualquotationinvariousmedia,likeentertainmentmagazinesandeditorialcartoons—clearlyindicatesthenuclearbehemothsaspartoftheAmericanvisualvernacular,thusexemplifyingamoredurableandsatisfyinginterpretiveapproach.

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MyaforementionedimpatiencewithDunaway’swritingstyleultimatelyprovokedmetogobackandconsiderthechallengeofcapturingprocessesinimagery(whichDunawayquotesjournalistJackNewfieldraisingasanewsmediaweaknesswaybackin1969).Indeed,whydowetendtoignoreoravoidcreatingcompellingenvironmentalimagerythatemphasizessystemic,long-termissues,the“accretivehazards”or“institutionalizedinjustices”[58]thatinevitablyleadtoecologicalproblems?Furthermore,howdowelearntoperceivethelongview,andthenembraceit?Whydowestrugglesowithdepictingsystems,orlargerenvironmentalconcepts?Doothernationalcultureshavethisproblemtoo?Iwonderhowmuchvisualculturalhistorians,andalsomembersofthemedia,areimplicatedinpromotingthislackofvision.Thatis,howcanweteach,usingimagery,toencouragethedevelopmentofthistypeofperception,anappreciationofecologicaltime? Idon’thaveanswersforthis;alas,Idon’tthinkimagescan“school”onetoperceiveenvironmentalissues/solutionsinalonger-viewway,thoughtheycanprovokeanawakening.TheonlywayI’vestartedorbeenabletoevenconsideralongerviewandresiststatusquoideasistodoalotofreadingandlisteningto“experts”discusstheseissues.Inotherwords,long-termperceptiontakesorrequiresaslow,long-termbuildup.That’sreallywhatI’vetakenawayfromDunaway’sproject—thatnomatterhowcleverwethinkareabouttheseissues,westilldon’tknowhowtopromotethe“proper”solutionwithimagesasourprimaryguide.Asembarrassingasitistoadmit,weseemtoonlypaycloseattentionwhenwe’reinthemidstofsufferingthebrutalconsequencesofenvironmentallydestructivehabits.Ifearthatourlackof“proactive”visionwhenitcomestomaintaininghealthyecosystemswillforeverbeourAchillesheel.

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CommentsbyFinnArneJørgensen,UmeåUniversity henenvironmentalismgainedmomentumasamainstreammovementinthe1960sand1970s,mediaimagesplayedakeyrole,butatahighcost.ThisisthecentralargumentinFinisDunaway’sSeeingGreen:TheUseandAbuseofAmericanEnvironmentalImages,aforceful,intriguing,andwell-

writtenstudyofhow“mediaimagesdonotsimplyillustrateenvironmentalpolitics,butalsoshapetheboundsofpublicdebatebynaturalizingparticularmeaningsofenvironmentalism.”(p.1)Arguingthathistoriesofenvironmentalismhavelargelyignoredtherolemediaimageshaveplayedinframingandpopularizingenvironmentalissues,Dunawayseekstowriteahistoryofmodernenvironmentalismthattreatsmediaimagesasactiverhetoricalagentsthathavehadrealsignificanceintheworld.Morespecifically,thebookexaminesthehistoricaldevelopmentofapost-1960sdiscoursewhere,overaveryshortperiodoftime,environmentalconcernswerecatapultedtotheforefrontofpublicdiscoursethroughadvertising,comics,andimages.Throughthisprocess,keyactorspromotedadiscoursewhereenvironmentalproblemsshouldbesolvedattheleveloftheindividualconsumerratherthanseekingmoresystemicsolutions.Inthethreesectionsofthebook,eachconsistingoffiveconcisechapters,Dunawayexaminesaseriesoficoniceventsinthehistoryofmodernenvironmentalismfromthe1960sonward.Mostwillbefamiliarforenvironmentalhistorians,thoughothersarelessstudied.Foreachoftheseevents,hearguesthatimagesplayedacentralpartintheframingofenvironmentalissuesaswellasinprescribingparticularoutcomes.Dunawaystatesthatthisbookemphasizesthreebroadthemesthatareoftenmissingfromotherhistoriesofpopularenvironmentalism:1)emotionsandpubliclife,2)theshiftingmeaningsofenvironmentalcitizenship,and3)thelimitsofmediarepresentation.Byusingenvironmentalimagestostudythesebroaderthemes,Dunawaydrawstheconclusionthattheiconicimageryofmodernenvironmentalismmixesfactsandfeelingsinwaysthathelpedtheenvironmentalmovementgrowlargeatthecostofitscapacityforcreatingsystematicchange.Whenenvironmentalissueswerepopularizedthroughvisualmedia,theydeflectedattentionfromcorporateandgovernmentresponsibility,Dunawayargues,insteademphasizing“theideathatAmericansarepersonallyculpableforpollutionandotherenvironmentalproblems.”These“mass-mediaspectaclesofcrisis”(p.2)encouragedAmericanstoseethemselvesaspartofalargerecologicalfabric,butoftenmaskedsystemiccausesandstructuralinequalities.Hisworthwhileambitionwiththisstudy,whichbuildsonandextendshisfirstbook,NaturalVisions:ThePowerofImagesinAmericanEnvironmentalReform,isnotonlytobringimagesintohistoriesofenvironmentalism,buttoplacemediaimagesatthecenterofanalysis.2Imagesmakeproblemsvisible,buttheyalsohideandmaskthecausesoftheseproblems,Dunawayargues.Inotherwords,hisrealconcerniswhatliesoutsidetheframeoftheiconicenvironmentalimageshestudies.2FinisDunaway,NaturalVisions:ThePowerofImagesinAmericanEnvironmentalReform(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2005).

W

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Whensittingdowntoreadthebook,Iwasexpectingtofindastudythatbroughtenvironmentalhistoryindialoguewithvisualcultureandmediastudies,well-establishedresearchfieldsthatstudyrespectivelytherelationshipbetweenimagesandtheirusers,andthecontent,history,andeffectsofparticularmediaforms.ThisisnotquitewhatDunawayhasdoneinhisbook,though.Hedoesnotattempttotheorizemediaorrelatetokeyscholarshipontheproductionandreceptionofmedia,ofwhichthereisplenty.3Asaresult,Idon’tthinkwegetasatisfactorydiscussionofwhatitmeanstoseeandevenmoreso,toseegreen,asthetitleofthebookpromises.Icertainlybelievethereisaconnectionbetweenwaysofseeingandwaysofknowingandengagingwithnatureandtheenvironment.Inarecentbook,thejournalistJonMooallemarguesthatweincreasinglyworkoutourrelationshiptothenaturalworldthroughvisualmedia,withtheconsequencethatnatureisasmuchaplaceoftheimaginationasitissomething“outthere.”4ThisisanobservationthatenvironmentalhistoriansshouldrecognizefromWilliamCronon’sessay“TheTroublewithWilderness.”5Ihaverecentlyarguedthatmediaimages“notonlyarticulatebroadersocialtrendsbutalsoshapethemandgivethemdirection,”anargumentthatdefinitelyalignswithwhatDunawayaimstodoinSeeingGreen.6Visualculturebypasseswordsandtheneedtospelloutexactdefinitions.Itworksonanemotionallevel,asDunawayacknowledges,butitalsomeansthatimagesaren’tdefinitive.Thereisalwaysroomforinterpretation,aswereadmeaningintoimagesand,indoingso,toacertainextentprojectourownexperiences,values,andpreferencesontothem.AnditishereImisssomemoreexplicitandtheoretically-informeddiscussionofwhatthemediaformsthatDunawaywritesaboutareandhowtheyfunction.Hemakesapointoffocusingonmainstreammassmedia,lookingatlargelyiconicimagesthatfoundwidespreadcirculation,andusesthesetodrawparticularconclusionsaboutmediaimagesasrhetoricalagents.Hisconclusionisthatvisualmediaisatechnologyofenvironmentalcitizenship,butonethatcomeswithseverelimitations.WhileIcangenerallyagreewiththatstatement,itisnotentirelycleartomeexactlywheretheselimitationscomefrom.Whatkindofexplanatorypowercanweattributetosuchvisualmedia?Areallformsofmediaequalanddotheyworkinthesameway?Doimagesshapetheboundsofenvironmentaldiscourse,oraretheysimplytoolsinthestrategiesofparticularactorstopromotetheirinterests?Inother

3SeeforinstancePaulVirilio,WarandCinema:TheLogisticsofPerception(London:Verso,1989),MarcusBanks&JayRuby,MadetoBeSeen:PerspectivesontheHistoryofVisualAnthropology(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011),JohnBerger,WaysofSeeing(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1972),andStuartEwen,AllConsumingImages:ThePoliticsofStyleinContemporaryCulture(NewYork:BasicBooks,1990).4JonMooallem,WildOnes:ASometimesDismaying,WeirdlyReassuringStoryaboutLookingatPeopleLookingatAnimalsinAmerica(NewYork:Penguin,2013).5WilliamCronon,“TheTroublewithWilderness;or,GettingBacktotheWrongNature.”InUncommonGround:RethinkingtheHumanPlaceinNature,editedbyWilliamCronon,69–90(NewYork:Norton,1995)6FinnArneJørgensen,“WhyLookatCabinPorn”,PublicCulture3,2015,p.559).

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words,arethelimitationsofvisualmediaastechnologiesofenvironmentalcitizenshipinherentqualitiesofimagesasmediaformsorarethelimitationssomethingthatareactivelyconstructed,enforced,andmaintainedbyindividuals,institutions,andorganizations?Thetensionbetweenimagesasagentsandimagesasjustoneofmanytoolsinthestrategiesofwhatwemightcallmoretraditionalhistoricalactorscanbefoundthroughoutthebook.Forinstance,inpart2,Dunawayfocusesonhowmediafragmentedpopularperceptionsoftheenergycrisisandrenderedincoherenttheclaimsofoppositionalmovements.HereweseehowinthemediacoverageofSunDay,individualtinkererscouldbetreatedwithrespect,butenergyactivistsworkingtowardssystematicchangewereridiculed.Dunawayinterpretsthisasanexampleofhownotallimportantenvironmentalproblemscanberepresentedinvisualmedia(withreferencetoRobNixon’sconceptof“slowviolence”).Whilemassmediacoveragehasbeenimportantforlegitimizingtheconceptofenvironmentalcrisis,andattimesalsoplacednarrativesofindividualdisastersintolargertemporalframeworks,Dunawayarguesthattheoverallimpressionisoneofshort-termsolutionsandimmediatedisasterthinking.Long-termandsystematicreformhaslittleplaceinthemass-mediadiscourseonenvironmentalproblems.Yet,Iwonder:Dothecausesofthisproblemresideintheimagesthemselves,orinthewaytheseimagesaredeployedinmassmedia?Itseemstomethattherealpowerinthestoryliesinmassmediaandactorsthatinfluenceandgovernmediaratherthanintheimagesthemselves.Dunawaydemonstrateswellhowimage-producingagents(organizationsandindividuals)producespectaclesofcrisistoservetheirowninterests.Twosuchactorsthatappearfrequently,andthatIhavesomeknowledgeoffrommyownresearch,areKeepAmericaBeautiful(KAB)andTheAdvertisingCouncil,whichpartneredtoproducetheveryinfluentialpublicservicecampaign“TheCryingIndian,”releasedonEarthDayin1971.KABisanonprofit,publiceducationorganizationestablishedin1953byagroupofimportantglass,aluminum,paper,andsteelcontainermanufacturers,typicallymakingconsumerproductsindisposablepackaging.BeveragecompanieslikeCoca-ColaandPepsiwereimportanthere,butalsoDow,Dupont,andProcter&Gamble.KABisatrickycompanytostudy,astheyhavebeenactiveforalongtimeandhavehadconsiderableinfluenceonAmericanenvironmentalpolicyandcivillife,yettheyhavenotwelcomedscholarsandjournalistsintotheirarchives.AsDunawayrightlynotes,KAB“practicedaslyformofpropaganda”(p.88).Manyscholars,myselfincluded,havewrittenaboutKABusingmaterialfromwhereKABhascomeintocontactwithotheractorsthatareaccessiblyarchived,suchasTheAdvertisingCouncil,whosearchivesaredepositedintheUniversityofIllinoisArchivesinUrbana.InstudyingtheseandothersourceswegetaclearimpressionofanorganizationthatworkstoinstillasenseofenvironmentalawarenessintheAmericanpublic,particularlycenteredonwasteandlittering,butinwaysthatdeliberatelyshiftresponsibilityawayfromthepackagingmanufacturers.Dunaway’sconclusionthatKABframesenvironmentalproblemsinmoralandnotstructuraltermsinordertoshiftresponsibility,attention,

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andliabilityawayfromitsfounders,alignsperfectlywiththisgrowingbodyofscholarship.However,whileimagesandvisualmediacertainlywereanimportanttoolintheactivitiesoftheseactors,theywerecertainlynottheonlyone.IfwearetorecognizehowimagesandvisualmediaweredeployedthroughmassmediainparticularwaysthatclearlyreflectedtheinterestsofKAB’sfounders,weshouldnotnecessarilytreatthesuccessesandlimitationsoftheseimagesasinherentqualitiesofthemediaform.I’mnotsayingthistocriticizeDunaway’streatmentofKABandtheAdCouncil,whichIbelieveisbothsophisticatedandspoton,butbybringingthisparticularaspectofthestorysosharplyintofocus,Iwonderwhatnuancesarelost.IsaythatbecausewhileimagesarethesubjectofDunaway’sbook,hesimultaneouslytellsahistoryoftheriseofgreenconsumerismasaformofenvironmentalcitizenship.Indealingwiththisstory,IhaveadistinctfeelingthatDunawayreducesthestorytobinarypoliticalalternatives:ourchoicesandwaysofunderstandingtheworldareframedaseither/or,good/bad,individual/corporate.ItisquiteobviousthatDunawayisnotafanofpracticesofindividualenvironmentalaction,suchasrecycling,energyconservation,andgreenconsumerism,callingthefaithinpersonalaction“lopsided”(p.4).Dunawaymakesasharpargumentthatgreenconsumerismasanattempttoharnessmarketforcestosavetheplanetisawhollysymbolicalaction:“Morethaneverbefore,greenconsumerismandotherformsofpersonalactionbecamethecrucialleversofchange,thesitewherehoperesided,therealminwhichindividualscouldsimultaneouslyexpresstheirenvironmentalvaluesandgainasenseoftherapeuticrelief”(p.203).Impliedinthisargumentisanunderstandingthattheimage-centricityofmass-mediaenvironmentalismisthecauseoftheindividualizedenvironmentalactionsofgreenconsumerism,whichhecategorizesasfutile.Butwhatisthecausallinkhere?Didtheimagescausetheshifttoindividualizedactionsoraretheysymptomaticoftheshift?Thestoryofenvironmentalismgoingbroaderbutshallowerisonewecanrecognize,forinstance,fromthelight-greenFrancethatMichaelBesswritesaboutinTheLight-GreenSociety:EcologyandTechnologicalModernityinFrance,butwhathappenswhenthisstoryisappliedtotheUS?7Dunawayismoreinterestedinconnectingthelight-greenenvironmentalismofgreenconsumerstotheadvanceofneoliberalismratherthanseeingitasalegitimateformifenvironmentalaction,howeverimperfect,inacomplexandcontradictoryworld.Yet,hybridmodelsofenvironmentalactionandgovernance,suchastheonesthatBessarguesfororthatIwriteaboutinMakingaGreenMachine,areincreasinglycommon.8Bypresentingafundamentallybinarymodelwheretheonlysubstantiveandmeaningfulenvironmentalactionmusttakeplaceatsystemiclevels,Dunawayrisksfallingintothesametrapastheactorshe

7MichaelBess,TheLight-GreenSociety:EcologyandTechnologicalModernityinFrance,1960-2000(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2003).8FinnArneJørgensen,MakingaGreenMachine:TheInfrastructureofBeverageContainerRecycling(NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2013)

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looksat–bymakingparticularproblemsvisible(whichhedoeswell),alternativesareobscured.Asanexperiment,couldthestoryoftheenvironmentalimagesinthisbookbetoldandinterpretedinanotherway?Insuchastory,couldwesaythatbyputtingenvironmentalconcernsonthepublicagendafromthe1960sonwards,environmentalimagesservedtoraiseawareness(thoughadmittedlyanincompleteknowledge,asisthecasewithallknowledge)ofenvironmentalconcernsandconnections,mostimportantlyinprovidingaframeworkforunderstandingconcreteeverydayactionsinrelationtoanincreasinglyplanetaryviewofenvironmentalproblems?Thisemergingarticulationofrelationshipsandresponsibilitieswasgradualanddistributed,takingplaceinavarietyofmediaandpromotedbyactorswithparticularinterests,manyofthemconflicting.Insuchastory,whatistherelationshipbetweenseeinggreenandactinggreen?Inconclusion,Ithinkthatwhilethebookiswell-writtenandcompelling,itslargerframingfitsinwithalonger(andlargelyAmerican)traditionoffundamentallydeclensionistenvironmentalhistories.Idonotfindittobeaparticularlyoptimisticbook,ratheronethatdespairsatthepossibilityofenvironmentalactionintheUnitedStates.Significantactionisnotpossiblewithinthecurrentsystem,Dunawayseemstosaythroughouttheentirebook.ByreducingAmericanstoindividualconsumers,theirabilitytoactcollectively,ascitizens,istakenaway.Ofcourse,onecouldaskwhetherinstillinghopeshouldbeagoalwithourscholarship,andopinionswilldifferhere.Idobelieve,however,thatweshouldbeaskinghowwecanactatscalesbeyondtheeveryday.SeeingGreensucceedsinaskingtherightkindofquestionsandprovidessomeprovocativeanswersthatshouldinspirereflectionandconsideration,especiallyonwhattheanswersmightlooklikebeyondtheAmericancontext.Areenvironmentalproblemsmoral,structural,orboth?Howcanwebreakdownplanetaryanddeeplystructuralenvironmental/social/political/economicproblems(forthesearedeeplyintertwined)intocomponentsonwhichitispossibletotakeaction?Whilethequestionofindividualresponsibilityisacriticallyimportantone,Ibelieveitisevenmorepowerfulwhenpairedwithastoryabouthopeandofthepossibilityofmeaningfulchange.Whileindividualresponsibilitycertainlyisn’tenough,thequestionremains:canyoudowithoutit?

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CommentsbyMargueriteS.Shaffer,MiamiUniversity

“TheDramaofNature”n2014ConservationInternational,anonprofitenvironmentaladvocacyorganizationheadquarteredinArlington,Virginia,launcheditsworldwidepublicawarenesscampaignentitledNatureisSpeakinginanefforttoreframethepublicdebateaboutclimatechangeasaleadintothe2015ParisClimateSummit.

Throughbothimageryandmessage,thecampaignseekstoshiftthediscourseofenvironmentalismawayfromthetraditionalrhetoricofwildernesspreservationtowardecosystemservices,humandependenceonnaturalsystems,and,ultimately,survivalofthehumanspecies.Currently,thecampaignconsistsoftenshortvideoscreatedbyLeeClow,themanbehindtherenownedApple“1984”advertisementanddirectorofmediaartsfortheglobaladvertisingnetworkTBWAWorldwide.Eachvideorepresentsacriticalcomponentoftheearthsystem,aspecificnaturalcycle,oraniconicnaturalphenomenon.HarrisonFordnarrates“Ocean”;EdwardNortonisthevoiceof“Soil”;PenelopeCruzdepicts“Water”;LiamNelsonportrays“Ice“;KevinSpaceyspeaksfor“TheRainforest”;RobertRedfordisthevoiceof“TheRedwood”;IanSomerhaldernarrates“CoralReef”;LupitaNyong’operforms“Flower”;ReeseWitherspoon,“Home”;andJuliaRobertsistheinimitablevoiceof“MotherNature.”9Combiningtheaestheticsofthesublimewiththerecognizablevoicesofblockbusterglobalcelebrities,thespotsdramatizenature’sagencyandemotionalappeal:eachoneculminatesintheadmonition,“Naturedoesn’tneedpeople.Peopleneednature.”CI’sNatureisSpeakingcampaignmightbestbeunderstoodaspartofanestablishedpracticeofenvironmentaladvocacythathasreliedontheemotionalpunchandpowerofenvironmentalimagerydesignedtoeducatethepublicabouthardenvironmentalfacts.TheshortfilmsdrawattentiontoanumberofcriticalissuesdeftlyexploredinFinisDunaway’snewbookSeeingGreen:TheUseandAbuseofAmericanEnvironmentalImages.LikethediversearrayofenvironmentalimagesexaminedbyDunaway,theNatureisSpeakingspotsprovocativelyfusefactsandfeelingsinanefforttosparkanewglobalenvironmentalcitizenship.AswiththeexamplesDunawaycites,thesepublicserviceadvertisementspointtotheresilienceofnatureandthevulnerabilityofhumans.Theirgoalistodramatizetheurgencyofourcurrentglobalenvironmentalcrisisandthusprovokearenewedsenseofenvironmentalresponsibility;theyserveasanenvironmentalcalltoaction.Theirmeldingofmassmediaandenvironmentalism,Hollywoodcelebrityandspectacularnature,ecosystemservicesandecologicalresilienceprovidesausefulentréetoconsiderthelargersignificanceofDunaway’swork.

9GregHarmon,“’NatureisSpeaking,’WillConsumersListen?”TheGuardian6October2014,http://www.theguardian.com/vital-signs/2014/oct/06/-sp-julia-roberts-harrison-ford-penelope-cruz-spacey-norton-redford-nature-is-speaking-videosaccessedNovember12,2015.Seealso,theConservationInternationalwebsiteforNatureisspeaking:http://www.conservation.org/nature-is-speaking/Pages/default.aspx

I

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SeeingGreen:TheUseandAbuseofAmericanEnvironmentalImagesexaminestheemergenceanddevelopmentofenvironmentalismasamasspoliticalmovementfromWorldWarIItothepresent,focusingontheroleofvisualmediainframinganddefiningpublicconceptionsofandresponsestoenvironmentalissues.Tracingabroadspectrumofmainstreammediaincludingadvertisements,publicserviceannouncements,popularcomics,Hollywoodfilm,documentaries,newsstories,pressreleases,andpublicrelationscampaigns,amongothersources,Dunawaydocumentshowmediahasshapedavisual,cultural,andpoliticalrhetoricofenvironmentalism,whichblendsemotion,science,andpoliticstofosterasenseofecologicalvulnerabilityandanidealofenvironmentalcitizenship.Hisdetailedanalysisdemonstratesthatevenasthisemotionallychargedpoliticaldiscourseexpandedthepublicdebateaboutenvironmentalissues,italsoconstrainedthepossibilitiesforeffectivepublicactionbyframingenvironmentalreforminneoliberaltermsasanindividualratherthanastateorcorporateresponsibility.Inprobingtheintersectionsbetweenvisualimagery,publicdiscourse,massmedia,popularpolitics,andenvironmentalism,Dunaway’sworknotonlyre-contextualizesthehistoryofenvironmentalism,butitalsooffersanewunderstandingofpoliticalcultureandpublicdiscourseinthepostwarera.Hisanalysisrevealstheintegralinterconnectionsbetweenconsumerculture,systemicandstructuralenvironmentalproblems,andpopularenvironmentalism.TheNatureisSpeakingcampaignisclearlyanattempttointerveneinandcorrectwhathasbeendeemedawidespreadfailuretocommunicatenotonlythescientificfactssubstantiatingpressingenvironmentalissues,butalsothepolitical,economic,andsocialissuesatstakeforenvironmentalpolicymakers,theenvironmentalmovement,andthebroaderpublic.InSeeingGreen,Dunawaydemonstratesthatthisfailurehaswell-established,deeproots.Integratingmediastudies,visualstudies,politicalculturestudies,andconsumerculturehistory,Dunawayraisesanumberofsignificantissuesthatlaybaretheoriginsandtheinadequaciesofenvironmentalcommunicationandtheimplicationsforfuturepublicdebatesaboutenvironmentalpolicy.WhatfollowsisapreliminarymeditationontheseissuesinspiredbymyreadingofFinisDunaway’stimelynewbook.Specifically,Iwanttofocusontwointerrelatedthemes:theinefficacyofenvironmentaldiscourseandthelimitationsofenlightenmentepistemology.Despitetheemotionalpowerofenvironmentalimagery,Dunawayarguesthatthevisualrhetoricofenvironmentalismpreventedratherthanprovokedsystemicenvironmentalreform.Intracingthedevelopmentandimpactofarangeofmediarepresentationscenteredonenvironmentalissues,fromimagesofthe1969SantaBarbaraOilSpilltothe“CryingIndian”KeepAmericaBeautifulPSA,fromthepopularimpactoftheOPECOilEmbargotoThreeMileIslandandTheChinaSyndrome,fromthecampaignagainstAlartoAnInconvenientTruth,DunawaydocumentsandprobesRobNixon’sconceptof“slowviolence.”10Hiscloseanalysis10RobNixon,SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011).

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oftheserepresentationsexposesthepowerandlimitationsofthediscourseofpopularenvironmentalism,demonstratinghowtheseimagessuccessfullyelicitedfeelingsofenvironmentalvulnerabilityandculpabilitywhileobscuringthesystemicandstructuralcausesundergirdingabroadrangeofenvironmentalcrises.HisanalysisoftheCryingIndianKeepAmericaBeautifulPSAprovidesacompellingexample.IncelebratinganidealofnatureembodiedbythevanishingIndianandconflatingpollutionwithlitter,thispublicserviceannouncementsimultaneouslyobfuscatedtheproblemoftoxicbyproductsandpollution,whileplacingresponsibilityforactiononconsumercitizensratherthancorporatemanufacturersandgovernmentregulators.Similarly,theNatureisSpeakingspots,casthumansbroadlyastheproblem.In“CoralReef,”IanSomerhaldercallsouthumansingeneralfordestroyingonefifthoftheworld’scoralreefssystems:“you[humans]raisethetemperatureoftheoceansoIcan’tlivehereanymore…youtearmeapartwithdynamiteandpoisonmewithcyanide.”11Ineachoftheseexamplesthevisualspectacleofnatureevokesabroademotionalappealrootedinasenseofuniversalhumanvulnerability,guilt,andresponsibility,butthecausesofthisenvironmental“slowviolence”areeitherindividualizedorgeneralized.Corporate,business,andstatepowersbarenoresponsibility,andtherealitiesofenvironmentalinequitiesareerased.ToquoteWaltKelly,thecreatorofthePogocomicstrip,oneofDunaway’smainexamples:“Wehavemettheenemyandheisus.”Inthislogicofpopularenvironmentalism,environmentalproblemsarethepublic’sproblem.“Ultimately,”writesDunaway,“theiconicimagesofAmericanenvironmentalismhaveimpededeffortstorealizeorevenimaginesustainablevisionsofthefuture”(6).Inthisway,Dunawaydetailsthebroadimplicationsofthisfailure,andindoingsoraisesthequestionoftheresponsibilityofenvironmentalhistoriansamongotherscholarstoaddressthisfailureofpublicdiscourse.InAmusingOurselvestoDeath:PublicDiscourseintheAgeofShowBusiness,apivotalcritiqueofpublicdiscourseinamediasaturatedage,mediascholarNeilPostmanwarnedthatthegraphicrevolutionembodiedbyinstantaneousnewsandvisualspectacle“underminedtraditionaldefinitionsofinformation,ofnews,andtoalargeextentofrealityitself”andintheprocessundercutcivicliteracy,publicdiscourse,andreason-basedpoliticalaction;orashedescribesit:the“sophisticatedabilitytothinkconceptually,deductivelyandsequentially;ahighvaluationofreasonandorder;anabhorrenceofcontradiction;alargecapacityfordetachmentandobjectivity;andatolerancefordelayedresponse.”12Postmanprovidesbroadcontextforrecentworksinenvironmentalhistory,mostnotablyNaomiOreskesandEricM.Conway’sMerchantsofDoubt:HowaHandfulofScientistsObscuredtheTruthonIssuesfromTobaccoSmoketoGlobalWarmingandJoshuaP.Howe’sBehindtheCurve:ScienceandthePoliticsofGlobalWarming,whichexaminetheinefficacyof

11ConservationInternational,“CoralReef,”narratedbyIanSomerhalderhttp://www.conservation.org/nature-is-speaking/Pages/Ian-Somerhalder-Is-Coral-Reef.aspxaccessedNovember12,2015.12NeilPostman,AmusingOurselvestoDeath:PublicDiscourseintheAgeofShowBusiness(NewYorkCity,NY:Penguin,1985),74and63.

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environmentaldiscourseandthefailedpoliticalresponsetoclimatechange.13OreskesandConwaychroniclethedeliberateandsystemicpracticesofmisrepresentationandobfuscationembracedbycorporationstodiscreditenvironmentalscience.Howe’shistoryofglobalenvironmentalpolicy,practice,andimplementationfurtherdocumentsthefailureofscience-basedpoliticaldiscoursetoproduceeffectiveinternationalenvironmentalpolicyonclimatechange.Bothoftheseworkssuggestthatifrational,science-based,publicdiscoursecouldprevailovercorporatemass-mediatedinterests,theremightbesomehopeforademocraticpoliticsofenvironmentalismthatcouldresultinpotentenvironmentalpolicy.Dunaway,however,complicatesthisfaithinthepossibilitiesofarational,science-based,politicsofenvironmentalism.Intracingtheemergenceofmass-mediatedenvironmentalspectaclerootedinemotionalimageryandapopulistpoliticsofenvironmentalvulnerability,guilt,andindividualresponsibility,heexpandsoncriticalissuesraisedbyNeilPostmanandRobNixon.HisanalysisofAnInconvenientTruthoffersacaseinpoint.AsDunawaynotes,AlGore’sfilmofferedthemostcomprehensiverepresentationoftheconnectionsbetweenglobalwarmingandourdependencyonfossilfuels.Yet,likethemanyenvironmentaliconsthatprecededit,aswellasthecurrentNatureisSpeakingcampaign,thefilmengagesthedramaofnaturetoconveyitsmessageofuniversalvulnerabilityandindividualresponsibility.AsDunawayexplains,“His[Gore’s]solutionsmergethepersonalwiththeplanetary,butobscurethegeographiesofriskandresponsibilityandenshrinefaithinthemarketastheimmediatesavior,theshort-termsolutiontothelong-termaccumulativecrisisofclimatechange”(272).Gorewasunwillingandunabletocallintoquestionthedrivingfaithinunendinggrowthandaccumulationfuelingglobalconsumerculture;norwasheabletoaddresstheinequitiesandpowerdynamicsthatsupportaglobaleconomyandcultureorganizedaroundconsumerabundance.ThepowerofDunaway’sbookrestsinhisdetaileddocumentationandanalysisoftheintegralconnectionsbetweenconsumerculture,systemicenvironmentalproblems,andpopularenvironmentalism.Throughthisunravelingoftheentanglementofrepresentationandthematerialenvironment,emotionandscience,consumercultureandenvironmentalism,NatureandCulturewritlarge,Dunawayspeakstothefailureofenlightenmentepistemologyinamediasaturatedworldgovernedbytheforcesofneoliberalism.Hesuggeststhattheinefficacyofpopularenvironmentalismgoesbeyondattemptingtoconfrontglobalenvironmental“slowviolence.”LikePostmanandNixon,Dunawayarguesthatthespreadofahegemonic,consumerdriven,massmediated,corporatecontrolled,globalizedculturecenteredonunlimitedgrowthandaccumulationistoblame.Thisraisesthequestion:asenvironmentalhistorians,academics,globalcitizens,inhabitantsoftheearth,whatareouroptions?

13NaomiOreskesandEricM.ConwayMerchantsofDoubt:HowaHandfulofScientistsObscuredtheTruthonIssuesfromTobaccoSmoketoGlobalWarming.(NewYork:BloomsburyPress,2010);JoshuaP.Howe’sBehindtheCurve:ScienceandthePoliticsofGlobalWarming.(Seattle,WA:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2014).

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FollowingtheinterpretivepathofculturalstudiesscholarStuartHall,Dunawayconcludesthatthepowerofimagesto“rendervisibletheseeminglyinvisiblephenomenonofglobalwarming”andotherformsofenvironmentalslowviolenceofferspossibilities(273).Hecites350.org’ssuccessfuluseofimageryandsocialmediatogalvanizeaglobalclimatemovementthathashadsignificantpoliticalimpact.Thus,heendsonanoteofhopeforademocratic,mass-mediated,politicsrootedinenlightenmentepistemology,whichpromisesthatscience,knowledge,andreasoncanresultinrationalactionandinformedpolicy.CI’sNatureisSpeakingcampaigngrudginglysharesthissamefaith.AsJuliaRobertsasMotherNatureintones:“Onewayortheotheryouractionswilldetermineyourfate,notmine.IamNature.Iwillgoon.Iampreparedtoevolve.Areyou?”Inthecontextofenvironmentalhistoryandthelargerpoliticsofenvironmentalism,thisraisesthewell-establishedtensionbetweencapitalismandenvironmentalism—themarketvs.democracy.WhatboththeNatureisSpeakingcampaignandSeeingGreenaddtothisdebateisamorenuancedlookatthecomplexinterconnectionsbetweenconsumercultureandenvironmentalism.Thisperspectivereflectsthebroadershifttakingplaceinenvironmentalpolicyandpoliticsarticulatedbytheconceptsofecosystemservicesandenvironmentalresilience.Inthisemergingframework,natureisrecastinthecontextofthe“planetaryboundaries”necessarytosupportasafeoperatingspaceforhumanitytoavoid“human-inducedenvironmentalchangeonaglobalscale.”14WhatthisemergingenvironmentallogicsuggestsisthatweneedtoturnmoreattentiontowhatDonnaHarawaycalls“naturecultures,”whichreject“typologicalthinking,binarydualisms,andbothrelativismsanduniversalismofmanyflavors”infavorof“relationalcategories”focusedon“process,historicity,difference,specificity,co-habitation,co-constitution,andcontingency.”15InSeeingGreen,FinisDunawayoffersanexcellentmodeltofollow.

14Rockström,J.,W.Steffen,K.Noone,Å.Persson,F.S.Chapin,III,E.Lambin,T.M.Lenton,M.Scheffer,C.Folke,H.Schellnhuber,B.Nykvist,C.A.DeWit,T.Hughes,S.vanderLeeuw,H.Rodhe,S.Sörlin,P.K.Snyder,R.Costanza,U.Svedin,M.Falkenmark,L.Karlberg,R.W.Corell,V.J.Fabry,J.Hansen,B.Walker,D.Liverman,K.Richardson,P.Crutzen,andJ.Foley.2009.Planetaryboundaries:exploringthesafeoperatingspaceforhumanity.EcologyandSociety14(2):32.[online]URL:http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/15DonnaHaraway,TheCompanionSpeciesManifesto:Dogs,People,andSignificantOtherness(Chicago:PricklyParadigmPress,2003),6,8,7.Foramoredetailedexplorationofthisapproachinthecontextofenvironmentalhistorysee,MargueriteS.ShafferandPhoebeS.K.Young,“TheNature-CultureParadox,”RenderingNature:Animals,Bodies,Places,Politics,eds.MargueriteS.ShafferandPhoebeS.K.Young,(Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2015),1-20.

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ResponsebyFinisDunaway,TrentUniversitythankChristopherJonesforincludingSeeingGreenintheH-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsandfororganizingthislivelydiscussion.IamalsogratefultoKeithWoodhouse,MargueriteShaffer,FinnArneJørgensen,andLoriVermaasfortheirthoughtfulandcriticalengagementwithmywork.Togethertheirreviews

raisewide-rangingquestionsaboutthemethodologies,interpretations,andbroaderimplicationsofthebook—questionsthatIameagertoconsiderinthisresponse.Ihavestructuredmycommentsasasetofreflectionsonthefollowingquestions:

1. HowdoesSeeingGreen’sapproachtoenvironmentalimagesrelatetootherscholarshipinmediaandvisualculturestudies?

2. What’smoreimportant:imageorcontext?3. IsSeeingGreentoocriticalofpopularenvironmentalimages,especiallythose

thatemphasizeindividualresponsibilityandgreenconsumerism?4. Isthebooktoopessimistic?Isthereaplaceforhopeinthewritingof

environmentalhistory?5. Whattopicsdoesthebookignore,andhowmightfuturescholarshipdrawon

(ordepartfrom)itsapproach?Beforeaddressingtheseissues,letmebeginwithsomebriefcommentsabouttheoriginsanddevelopmentofSeeingGreen.Initially,Iconceivedofthisprojectasahistoryofpopularenvironmentalimagesduringthe1970s.Atthetime,otherhistorianswereworkingonpath-breakingaccountsofthispivotaldecade,yettheirbooksonpolitics,culture,labor,andothertopicsneglectedtheera’scriticalenvironmentaldebates.IbeganbyexploringmediaimagesthatcirculatedduringtheperiodsurroundingthefirstEarthDayin1970.Fromthisresearch,Ibegantonoticecertaindominantmotifsandrecurringpatternsacrossavarietyofsources.Inparticular,Ifoundthatpopularimagesemphasizedtwokeyconcepts:theideaofuniversalvulnerability,whichsuggestedthatallAmericanswereequallysusceptibletoenvironmentaldanger;andthenotionofuniversalresponsibility,whichsuggestedthatallAmericanswereequallyculpableforcausingtheenvironmentalcrisis.AlthoughIcontinuedtoresearchenvironmentalimagesinthe1970s(andlargeportionsofSeeingGreenfocusonthisdecade),Isoonfoundmyselfbeingdrawn,simultaneously,backwardandforwardintime.MyinterestintraversingthemorerecentperiodwasinpartsparkedbytheremarkablesuccessofAlGore’sAnInconvenientTruth.Ivividlyrememberseeingthatdocumentaryduringthesummerof2006,whileIwasinthemidstofmyEarthDayresearch.IwasimpressedbyGoreanddirectorDavisGuggenheim’sinnovativeuseofimagestoconveyscientificinformationaboutclimatechange.YetIwasalsodisappointedbythefilm’semphasisonuniversalvulnerabilityanddisheartenedbyitspredictablerecitationofindividualsave-the-planettips.ThepublicresponsetoAnInconvenientTruthencouragedmetocarrymystoryintothetwenty-firstcenturyandalsotowritethisbookwithaneyeonthepresent.Iresearchedand

I

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draftedSeeingGreenasthedevastatingimpactsofneoliberalpoliciesbecamemoreapparent:increasingincomestratificationanddecliningopportunitiesforthemiddleandlowerclasses;escalatingcarbonemissionsandotherlong-termecologicalproblemsthatreceivedminimalresponsefromtheUSgovernment;andongoingpopularenthusiasmforthemarketandgreenconsumerismasthemostappropriatemeansforsolvingtheenvironmentalcrisis.TheedgytonethatIadoptinthebook(andthatsomereadersfindtoostrongandprovocative)wascertainlyshapedbymyfeelingsofconcernaboutthewidespreadfailuretoconfrontthesedeeplyentrenchedenvironmentalandsocialpredicaments.Atthesametime,IalsobegantoexplorehowandwhyparticularimagesgainedpublicvisibilityintheyearsbeforeEarthDay.Theproject’schronologicalscopethusgreatlyexpanded:Rangingfromdebatesovernuclearfalloutandpesticidesduringthe1960sthroughglobalwarmingtoday,SeeingGreentracestheoriginsanddurabilityofenvironmentalimagesandideas.Inwritingthebook,Iapproachedthesesourceswithambivalence.EvenasIsoughttoexplainthepowerofthemediatoshapepopularattitudesandbringecologicalvaluesintothemainstream,Ialsowantedtounderstandtheproblemsandlimitsofenvironmentalicons.

1. HowdoesSeeingGreen’sapproachtoenvironmentalimagesrelatetootherscholarshipinmediaandvisualculturestudies?

BothWoodhouseandJørgensennotethatSeeingGreenbuildsonmyfirstbook,NaturalVisions.Indeed,SeeingGreencouldbereadasachronologicalextensionofNaturalVisions,whichcoverstheperiodfrom1900to1970.YetwhileNaturalVisionslooksathowartistsandadvocatesusedimagestogalvanizeconcernforthreatenedlandscapesandpolicydecisions,SeeingGreenemphasizeshowmainstreammediasourceshaveframedandpackagedenvironmentalideasforpopularaudiences.AlthoughSeeingGreendiscussescertainimagesproducedbyenvironmentalorganizations,thebook’sfocusislessonhowenvironmentalistshaveusedimagesasactivisttoolsandmoreonhowtheirideashavebeenvisualizedandinterpretedbythemainstreammedia.LikeotherscholarshiponthemediaandAmericansocialmovements,thebooktriestoexplainhowthemediacouldbothadvanceandhinderoneofthemostimportantpoliticalcausesofourtime.16Shaffer’sreviewastutelyplacesSeeingGreenindialoguewithotherworksonmediacoverageofscienceandenvironmentalissues,suchasNaomiOreskesandErikM.Conway’sMerchantsofDoubt.17OreskesandConwaydocumentthepowerfulroleof16Importantscholarshipontherelationshipbetweenthemassmediaandothersocialmovementsincludes:ToddGitlin,TheWholeWorldIsWatching:MassMediaintheMakingandUnmakingoftheNewLeft(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1980);SusanJ.Douglas,WheretheGirlsAre:GrowingUpFemalewiththeMassMedia(NewYork:TimesBooks,1994);andMartinA.Berger,SeeingthroughRace:AReinterpretationofCivilRightsPhotography(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011).17NaomiOreskesandErikM.Conway,MerchantsofDoubt:HowaHandfulofScientistsObscuredtheTruthonIssuesfromTobaccoSmoketoGlobalWarming(NewYork:BloomsburyPress,2010).

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corporationsandright-wingfoundationsinfosteringpublicdoubtaboutenvironmentalandhealthdangers.Thisefforttorejectclimatescienceandquestiontheseverityofenvironmentalproblemshasundoubtedlylimitedtheeffectivenessofenvironmentalism.Ratherthanemphasizetheseissues,though,SeeingGreenlookscloselyatmediasourcesthatseem,onthesurface,topromoteenvironmentalvalues.Throughacriticalhistoryofmediaimages,Iexaminehowmainstreamimagespromoteenvironmentalanxietybutalsoconstrictthepoliticalimagination.Iarguethatthelimitsofenvironmentalreformwereembeddedwithinpopularportrayalsofthemovementasanindividualistresponsetosystemicproblems.Inthisway,SeeingGreenchallengesaviewcommonlyvoicedbyconservativecriticsofenvironmentalism:thatthemediahavepreyedonaudienceemotionstodupethepublicintoacceptingthefalseclaimsofenvironmentalists.Inthebook’snotes,Iciteexamplesofrepresentativeauthorswhomakethisargument.YetitisalsoworthnotingthatthisperspectivehasbeenmorefullyarticulatedinthehistorianPatrickAllitt’sAClimateofCrisis.(HisbookappearedjustasIsentthefinaldraftofSeeingGreentothepublisher,soIwasunabletoengagewithit.)AClimateofCrisiscontendsthattheAmericanpublichasbeenrepeatedlymanipulatedbyenvironmentalistsandthemedia.Allittpresentsaudiencesasgullible,easilyswayedbyemotion-saturatedcoverageandthuspronetoacceptenvironmentalfear-mongering.Helooksatpivotalevents(includingsomeanalyzedinSeeingGreen)—suchastheAlarscareandthecatastrophicExxonValdezoilspill—tobuttresshisclaimthatthespectacle-drivenmassmediamobilizedpopularfeelingsandlentlegitimacytotheapocalypticwarningsofenvironmentalists.18Allittandconservativecriticsaresurelycorrectthatthepopularmediahavepromotedecologicalanxietythroughtheemotivedepictionofenvironmentaldanger.Yetthisargumentfailstoconsiderhowmediacoveragehasfrequentlyignoredthelong-termcausesandconsequencesofecologicalrisk.AsShafferandJørgensennote,SeeingGreendrawsontheliterarycriticRobNixon’sconceptofslowviolencetocritiquemediaimagery.HisbookSlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoorappearedafterIhadcompletedmostoftheinitialdraft,andIfoundthatitprovidedacriticallanguagetohelpmeilluminatesomeoftheproblemsofmainstreammediaimages.19WhileAllittechoesconservativecriticsinchidingtheemotionalismofenvironmentalimagery,SeeingGreenconsidershowmediatemporality—thefocusonsuddenspectaclesofcrisis—oftenobscuresslow-motiontragediesandpromotesshort-termfixestosystemicproblems.Jørgensenasksimportantquestionsaboutthe“inherentqualitiesofimagesasmediaforms,”the“causallink”betweenimagesandenvironmentalpolitics,andthemultipleusesofimagesbydifferenthistoricalactors.Manyofhiscommentssuggest

18PatrickAllitt,AClimateofCrisis:AmericaintheAgeofEnvironmentalism(NewYork:PenguinPress,2014).19RobNixon,SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011).

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thathewasexpectingsomethingdifferentfromthebook,suchasahistoryofoneparticularmediaforminrelationtothegrowthofenvironmentalism.Thisisastandardapproachinmanyfields,andithassignificantvirtues:itallowsforcloseattentiontothevisualqualities,formsofaddress,andmodesofcirculationofferedbyaspecifictypeofmedia.InSeeingGreen,though,Ichosetoemphasizethecross-fertilizationofimages.RatherthantracingthehistoryofphotographyorfilmorTVnews,Ilookedathowsimilarideasandvisualmotifscutacrossdifferentgenresofexpression.ThisapproachmeantthatIhadtosacrificethedetailedscrutinyofaparticularmediaformthatJørgensenrecommends,butitalsoallowedmetoconsiderawiderrangeofsourcesandtoexaminehowcertainideasandrepresentationsbecamenaturalizedthroughrepetition.AlthoughIcanunderstandwhysomemightpreferaclosestudyofasinglemediaform,Ihopethatreaderswillfindthetrade-off—thegreaterbreadthofferedbythisapproach—tobeworthit.Jørgensenalsowishedforamorein-depththeoreticalandmethodologicaldiscussion.It’struethatIultimatelydecidedtokeepsuchcommentarybrief—inpartbecauseIwantedthebooktoengagethebroadestpossibleaudience.Thatbeingsaid,thenotesindicatesomeofthetheoreticalscholarshipthatinformsSeeingGreen.Sincethisliteraturedoesnotcorrespondtothesourceshecites,Iwouldliketoexplainthebook’stheoreticalunderpinnings.Inparticular,Ifoundinterdisciplinaryscholarshiponpublicculturetoenrichmyunderstandingofenvironmentalimages.MuchoftherecentworkinthisareaseekstoreviseJürgenHabermas’sinfluentialtheoryofthepublicsphere.InPublicsandCounterpublics,theliterarycriticMichaelWarnerchallengesakeyfeatureoftheHabermasianpublicsphere:thenotionofanidealizedcommunitybasedsolelyontherationalexchangeofdiscourse,totheexclusionofaestheticandaffectivemodesofexpression.20SeeingGreenbuildsontheworkofWarnerandotherscholarswhohaveconsideredtheemotionalityofpublicculture,includingvisualculturetheoristswhohaveexplainedhowthepublicisconstitutedthroughactsofcommonspectatorship.InNoCaptionNeeded,thecommunicationscholarsRobertHarimanandJohnLouisLucaitesarguethatvisualimagesformpublicsbyappealingtoaudienceemotionsandbringingstrangersintoasharedworldofdiscourse.“Bystartingwithaphotothatevokesastrongassociationbetweenvisualimagery,emotion,anddissent,”HarimanandLucaiteswrite,“wecanaskhowavibrantdemocraticcultureisanemotionalculture,howparticularimagescommunicateorconstrainparticularemotions,...andhowdisruptiveemotionscanbecrucialfordemocraticcitizenship.”21Likewise,SeeingGreenquestionsfamiliarbinariesbetweenreasonandemotiontoexaminethefusionoffactandfeelinginenvironmentalicons.AsShaffernotes,SeeingGreencanbereadinrelationtootherstudiesthathaveprobed“thelimitationsofenlightenmentepistemology.”Inemphasizingtheemotionalpoliticsofenvironmentalism,thebookreconsiderstheroleofspectaclein

20MichaelWarner,PublicsandCounterpublics(NewYork:ZoneBooks,2002).21RobertHarimanandJohnLouisLucaites,NoCaptionNeeded:IconicPhotographs,PublicCulture,andLiberalDemocracy(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2007),161.

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publiclife.Accordingtoculturalandmediatheorists,spectacledenotesformsofvisualpleasurethathaveproblematicpoliticalconsequences:imagesthatenticespectators,butdenigratepublicunderstanding.Forexample,duringtheColdWar,iconicimageryofthemushroomcloudaestheticizednucleartesting.PhotographsoftheNevadaTestSiteelicitedfeelingsofaweinspectatorsbuterasedthematerialrealitiesofradioactivedanger.22Inthebook’sfirstchapter,Iexplainhowthisatomicsublimewasactivelyresistedthroughvisualimagesthatmergedfactwithfeeling,reasonwithemotion.SANE(theNationalCommitteeforaSaneNuclearPolicy)andotherantinuclearorganizationsorchestratedmediacampaignsthatcombinedscientificknowledgeaboutthelong-termdangersoffalloutwithphotographsdepictingchildrenasinnocentvictims.Theseimageschallengedthespectacleofthemushroomcloudthroughthecounter-spectacleofthevulnerablechild.Ratherthanassumingthatscienceandspectaclearemutuallyexclusive,SeeingGreenexplorestheircomplexentanglementsinpubliclifeandexplainshowemotion-infusedimageryhasbeenbothproductiveandproblematicformodernenvironmentalism.

2. What’smoreimportant:imageorcontext?BothJørgensenandVermaassuggestthatthereisatensioninSeeingGreen:isthebookprimarilyahistoryofenvironmentalimagesorshoulditbereadasabroaderreinterpretationofAmericanenvironmentalism?Thistension,theyimply,relatestolargermethodologicalquestionsconcerningimagesashistoricalevidenceandtheanalyticalweightgiventotextandcontext.Vermaasclaimsthatcertainchaptersveertoomuchfromvisualanalysistoprovideextensive(and,inherview,“jarring”)explorationsofhistoricalcontexts.Meanwhile,Jørgensenthinksthatthebookneededtoclarifywhethertheimagesthemselvesexertedsignificantpowerorwhetherthekeystoryherewastheusesofimagesbythemediaandotheractors.SeeingGreenaimstomovebeyondthestandardwayhistoriansuseimagesintheirscholarship.Ratherthanpresentingpicturesasmereillustrationsandpassivemirrors,Itreatimagesasactiverhetoricalagents.InwritingSeeingGreen,Ihopedtodemonstratewhyimagesmattertohistory,andhowenvironmentalimageshaveshapedtheboundsofpublicdebate.SomeofJørgensen’squestionssuggestthatthisclaimeitherneededtobequalified(toofferamorerestrictedaccountofimageagency)orexpanded(toemphasizetheinherentproblemsandlimitsofimagesasrepresentationsofenvironmentalknowledge).IwouldbereluctanttofollowJørgensen’ssecondsuggestion,asIthinkthatitwouldbeoverlyreductivetocharacterizeallimagesaslackingthecapacitytoconveycomplexecologicalideas.Likemanyvisualculturescholars,Iexplainhownon-visualcues—includingphotographiccaptions,TVandfilmnarration,magazinearticles,andothertextualandauditorysources—worktoanchorthemeaningofimagesandhelpshapeviewerresponses.AsthevisualtheoristW.J.T.Mitchellcomments:“[T]he22ScottKirsch,“WatchingtheBombsGoOff:Photography,NuclearLandscapes,andSpectatorDemocracy,”Antipode29(July1997):227-55.

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interactionofpicturesandtextsisconstitutiveofrepresentationassuch:allmediaaremixedmedia,andallrepresentationsareheterogeneous;thereareno‘purely’visualorverbalarts,thoughtheimpulsetopurifymediaisoneofthecentralutopiangesturesofmodernism.”23Adoptingthisapproach,SeeingGreeneschewsanoverarching(andoverlydeterministic)interpretationoftheinherentlimitsofvisualrepresentationtoemphasizeinsteadtheculturalandpoliticalworkofimages.SeeingGreenseekstocombinetheobject-centered,close-lookingapproachpracticedbymanyarthistoriansandmaterialculturescholarswithcontextualresearchintothelargersocialandpoliticalworldsinwhichenvironmentalimagesweremademeaningful.Althoughthebookcritiqueshistoriansfortheirinattentiontothevisualqualitiesofimages,italsotriestoavoidthepitfallsoftextualanalysisthatremainshermeticallysealed—cutofffromlargersocialforces,boundedwithintheframesofanimage.Indeed,factorsexternaltoimagesoftenplayacrucialroleindeterminingtheirculturalandpoliticalsignificance.24Forinstance,Ifounditquitesurprisingthatthe1969SantaBarbaraoilspillwaswidelyinterpretedbymanyAmericansasatroublingsignofanall-encompassingenvironmentalcrisis.Toviewanoilspill—aneventthatcouldeasilyconformtodominantformsofmediatemporalitythatprivilegethesuddenandthespectacular—asevidenceofagradually-escalatingcalamitystruckmeasunexpectedandinneedofexplanation.Inthiscase,thevisualevidencealone—thepoignantphotographsofoil-stainedbeachesanddyingwildlife—didnotdeterminewhatperiodviewerssawintheseimages.SeeingGreenemphasizestheinterplaybetweenimageandcontexttoreconstructthecontingenciesofreceptionandtorevealhowparticularimagesparticipatedinbroaderenvironmentaldebates.

3. IsSeeingGreentoocriticalofpopularenvironmentalimages,especiallythosethatemphasizeindividualresponsibilityandgreenconsumerism?

SeeingGreen’sargumentstrikessomereadersasoverlystrong.Intheirreviews,Jørgensen,Vermaas,andWoodhousecommentonwhattheyfindtobethebook’sextremelycriticalinterpretationofenvironmentalimages.IhavetoconfessthatIfindsomeoftheircriticismstobeunfair.NeitherJørgensennorVermaas,forexample,mentionsplaceswhereSeeingGreenexplainshowimagescontributedtopoliticalchange.The1963LimitedTestBanTreaty,thenumerousenvironmentalpoliciesadoptedduringtheperiodsurroundingEarthDay1970,therisingoppositiontonuclearpowerfollowingthereleaseofTheChinaSyndromeandmediacoverageoftheThreeMileIslandaccident,theincreasingvisibilityandpublicunderstandingofclimatechangethataccompaniedthesurprisingsuccessofAnInconvenientTruth:allofthesearediscussedinSeeingGreentodemonstratehow

23W.J.T.Mitchell,PictureTheory:EssaysonVerbalandVisualRepresentation(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1994),5.24MartinA.Berger,“TheProblemwithCloseLooking,”inACompaniontoAmericanArt,ed.JohnDavis,JenniferA.Greenhill,andJasonD.LaFountain(Malden,MA:WileyBlackwell,2015),113-27.

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imageshaveworkedtolegitimateenvironmentalconcernandencouragepolicychange.Still,thereviewersarecorrectthatthebookultimatelyemphasizestheproblemsandlimitsofpopularimages.Forallthechangeslistedintheaboveparagraph,Iidentifylimitsinhowtheseissueswereframedbythemediaandaddressedbypublicpolicy.JørgensenandWoodhouseclaimthat,indevelopingthebook’sargument,Iadoptanoverlydismissivetonetowardindividualactionandgreenconsumerism.Theycharacterizetheanalysisasoverlysharp—evenbinary—initsefforttoquestionwhatIconsidertobethepopularmedia’sexaggeratedemphasisonindividualaction.WhileSeeingGreendevelopsastrongargument,Ithinkthatreviewersaresometimesreadingthebookasbeingfarmorepolemicalthanitreallyis.Letmebeclear:Idonotthinkthatappealstoindividualresponsibilityarepointless,nordoIthinktheyinevitablyexcludestructuralresponses.WhatIdothinkisthatpopularmediaframingsofenvironmentalismrepeatedlyprivilegethepersonaloverthepolitical,androutinelyobscuretheroleofcorporationsandotherpowerfulentitiesinproducinglarge-scaleenvironmentaldegradation.IthinkthatWoodhouseisrightthatattimesImayhavemissedopportunitiestoconnectindividualbehaviorandcollectivevisions.YetIthinkthatthedominantframingofenvironmentalismpropagatedbythemainstreammediahasbeentopromotefaithinthecapitalistmarketandgreenconsumerismasthemainsiteswhereenvironmentalhoperesides.Appealstopersonalresponsibilityoftenrelyonatherapeuticframethatsoothesenvironmentalanxietiesbutdeflectsattentionfromthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsthatcauseecologicaldevastation.Indeed,asIdocumentinthebook,popularimagesofenvironmentalhope—fromantilittercampaignstothecorporateappropriationoftherecyclinglogo—haveoftenbeenusedtosupportunsustainableagendas.TheexamplethatWoodhouseprovidesofMcKibbenfeelinghopefulwhenheseesthesolarpanelsataVermontcouple’shomeiscompellingandindicatesthatMcKibben,likemanyenvironmentalists,isacomplexfigurewhoextolsmultipleformsofaction.YetitdoesnotunderminethecentralpointthatIdevelopaboutMcKibbenandthefoundingof350.org:thisclimateactiongroupexplicitlymodeleditselfasaresponsetoAnInconvenientTruth,asanefforttomovebeyondgreenconsumeristnostrums—changeyourlightbulbs,buyaPrius,purchasecarbonoffsets—tonurturesupportforstructuralsolutionstotheclimatecrisis.SeeingGreenexplainshowmainstreammediahaveoftendistortedtheideasofenvironmentaliststhrougharelentlessfocusonpersonalresponsibility.25Unlike

25Importantcritiquesofthediscourseofindividualresponsibilityinclude:TedSteinberg,“CanCapitalismSavethePlanet?OntheOriginsofGreenLiberalism,”RadicalHistoryReview107(Spring2010):7-24;MichaelF.Maniates,“Individualization:PlantaTree,BuyaBike,SavetheWorld?,”GlobalEnvironmentalPolitics1(August2001):31-53;TimothyW.Luke,“GreenConsumerism:

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mostothercritiquesofthisdiscourse,Isoughttoprovideahistoricalperspectivethatshowshowpopulardepictionsofindividualactiondevelopedovertime;acloseengagementwithvisualculturethatrevealstheroleofimagesinpromotingtheseideas;andareceptionanalysisthatconsidershowmediaimageswerecontestedandarguedoverbydifferenthistoricalactors.Indeed,Iwassurprisedtoseehowfrequentlythequestionofindividualresponsibilitybecamecentraltoculturalandpoliticalstrugglesoverthemeaningsofenvironmentalism.AppealstoindividualresponsibilityemergedintandemwiththeriseofpopularenvironmentalismduringtheperiodsurroundingthefirstEarthDay.Forenvironmentalactivists,thefocusonindividualactionprovided(andcontinuestoprovide)apowerfulwaytohelpAmericanscontemplatehowtheirlivesareenmeshedwithincomplexecologicalsystems.Yetthesesameactivistsalsobecamesomeofthemostardentcriticsofthemedia’soveremphasisonindividualresponsibility.FromPogo’spopulardiagnosisofenvironmentalcrisis(“WeHaveMettheEnemyandHeIsUs”)totheKeepAmericaBeautiful’santilittercampaignstarringtheCryingIndian(“Peoplestartpollution.Peoplecanstopit.”),theseactivistschallengedpopularportrayalsoftheenvironmentalcrisisforobscuringtheproductiondecisionsofcorporationsandgovernments.Itisimportanttoemphasizethereceptionanalysis,becausethebook’sargumentdoesnotsimplyimposemyowninterpretationontopastimages.VermaascriticizesSeeingGreenfor“constantlyjudg[ing]”theimages,butshedoesnotmentionhowIdevelopthisargumentthroughresearchintothehistoryofaudiencereception.EvenasIexplainhowimages“cameupshort”(assheputsit),Ialsosoughttounderstandhowperiodactorsrespondedtotheseimages,includingwhymanyenvironmentalactivistsrepeatedlyopposedpopularmediaframingsoftheircause.MycritiqueofgreenconsumerismconnectstoabroaderemotionalhistoryofcapitalismthatIdevelopinthebook.Greenconsumerism,recycling,andotherformsofindividualactionseemedtofusethepersonalwiththepolitical,alleviatinganxietybyprovidingAmericanswithasenseofinvolvementintheenvironmentalcause.Evenasthemainstreammediaprovidedevidenceofcapitalism’sdestructionoftheecosphere,greenconsumerismofferedafantasyofempowermentandpresentedthemarketastheprimesolutiontothecrisis.Likeotherformsofneoliberalcitizenship,thisvisionofpopularenvironmentalismmadeconsumerchoiceappearsynonymouswithpoliticalpower.

4. Isthebooktoopessimistic?Isthereaplaceforhopeinthewritingofenvironmentalhistory?

Jørgensen,inparticular,raisessomethoughtfulquestionsaboutpessimism,hope,andthewritingofenvironmentalhistory.Again,Idonotagreewithsomeofhischaracterizationsofthebook:“asonethatdespairsatthepossibilityof

EcologyandtheRuseofRecycling,”inIntheNatureofThings:Language,Politics,andtheEnvironment,ed.JaneBennettandWilliamChaloupka(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1993),154-72.

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environmentalactionintheUnitedStates.”Indeed,asShaffernotes,myconcludingdiscussionof350.org’suseofmediaimageryincontemporaryclimateactivism“endsonanoteofhopeforademocratic,mass-mediatedpolitics.”AsIwrotethebook,IwasquiteconsciousoftheconcernsthatJørgensenmentions,andItriedtoensurethatcertainchaptersconsideredalternativevisionsandmodelsofenvironmentalcitizenshipthatdidnotconformtothedominantpatternsthatIcritiqued.Iagreethatenvironmentalhistoriansshouldlookforexamplesofhopeinthepastandshouldnotonlyproducedeclensionistnarratives.26AstheAmericanStudiesscholarJoelPfisterargues,culturalhistoriansshouldstrivetounderstand“howaestheticculturecanbeusedmoreaffirmativelytobettermakeandmobilizepoliticalagentsinvestednotjustindemystifyingthepresentandnamingguiltyparties,butinimaginingafutureworthstrugglingandlivingfor.”Otherwiseculturalstudiesmaylapseintowhatheprovocativelycalls“cynicismstudies.”27Similarly,Ithinkthatculturalandenvironmentalhistoryinvolvesmorethan,say,demystifyingthesocialconstructionofwildernessordeconstructingtheproblemsofmediaimagery.Ialsothinkweneedtoconsidertheproductiveandpromisingusesofculture,toexplorehowimagesnotonlydistractandalienateviewersbutalsocanencouragethemtoreimaginethehumanplaceinnature.MycurrentresearchonthehistoryoftheArcticNationalWildlifeRefugesuggeststhat,ratherthandistractingviewersfrommorepressingenvironmentalconcerns,ArcticrefugeimageryhasoftenurgedspectatorstoviewthisremotelandscapewithinthebroadercontextsoffossilfueldependencyandAmericanenergypolicy.Thisprojectwilltracethegrassrootscirculationofnon-iconicimagestorevealhowvisualculturecaninspireenvironmentalaction.Yet,evenaswelookforalternativevisionsor,assomereviewerssuggest,emphasizethesalutaryimpactofgreenconsumerismandindividualaction,Ithinkthatthereisadangerinwritingoverlyoptimisticaccountsofenvironmentalhistory.Manycallsforenvironmentaloptimismarepremiseduponarosyviewoftechnologicalfixesandmarketforces.Theyoftendefineenvironmentalproblemsassideeffectsofindustrializationthatareeasilyremediedbywealthydemocraticnations.Suchaccountsneglectlargerquestionsofpowerandinjustice,bothwithintheUSandonaglobalscale.Forthesereasons,Ithinkweneedtobecriticalofpopularvisionsofenvironmentalhopethatdonotaddressunsustainablepatternsofgrowthanddonotconfrontthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsthatproducelong-termecologicalproblems.26FinisDunaway,“SeeingGlobalWarming:ContemporaryArtandtheFateofthePlanet,”EnvironmentalHistory14(January2009):9-31;FinisDunaway,“WritingHistoryintheAnthropocene,”Raritan:AQuarterlyReview35(Winter2016):30-53.Foranimportantstudyofenvironmentalhope,seeAndrewG.Kirk,CountercultureGreen:TheWholeEarthCatalogandAmericanEnvironmentalism(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2007).27JoelPfister,CritiqueforWhat?CulturalStudies,AmericanStudies,LeftStudies(Boulder,CO:ParadigmPublishers,2006),19and178.

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Ratherthansubscribingtooptimismorpessimism,SeeingGreenemphasizesthecomplexculturalandpoliticalimplicationsofenvironmentalimages.Overthepastfivedecades,theseimageshavehelpedchangepublicattitudes:strontium90,DDT,andAlarbecamefeared;recyclingbecameamainstreampractice;thecoolingtowerbecameaniconofnucleardanger;andthenotionofaglobalenvironmentalcrisis—markedbythedisappearingozonelayer,thedestructionoftropicalrainforests,andthegreenhouseeffect—becamearecurringmediastory.Mediaimagesarenotmarginaltothishistory;theyhaveactivelyshapedpublicdebatesoverpressingenvironmentalproblems.Yettheseimageshavetendedtoframeallpeopleasequallysusceptibletoenvironmentalharmandthusdeflectedattentionfromthepowerrelationsthatdetermineecologicalinequalities.Moreover,therepeatedemphasisonindividualactionandgreenconsumerismhasmadeenvironmentalproblemsappearaseasilysolvedbythebenignworkingsofthecapitalistmarket.Despitetherealachievementsofmodernenvironmentalismandthemainstreamacceptanceofenvironmentalvalues,thegravityofcurrentecologicalproblems—problemsthat,inmanycases,haveworsenedoverthepastfewdecades—callsuponhistorianstooffercriticalinsightsintohowandwhymodernsocietiescreatedthesecrises.Whileecologicalproblemsstemfromanumberofpoliticalandeconomicfactors,SeeingGreenemphasizestheroleofculture:Popularframingsofenvironmentalismasamarket-oriented,green-consumeriststrategycontributedtotheneglectofaccretivedisastersinthemaking.

5. Whattopicsdoesthebookignore,andhowmightfuturescholarshipdrawon(ordepartfrom)itsapproach?

IhopethatSeeingGreenwillencourageotherscholarstoconsiderimagesasactiveagentsinhistoryandtograpplewiththevisualpoliticsofenvironmentalism.Thereviewersoffersometantalizingsuggestionsfornewresearchtopics.Forinstance,Jørgensenwonderswhatmyanalysis“mightlooklikebeyondtheAmericancontext.”Ithinkthatthisisafantasticsuggestionforexploringthehistoryofenvironmentalimagesinnon-USandtransnationalcontexts.Ialsothinkthathisimplicitcallforstudiesofparticularmediaformswillencouragenewapproachestodifferentmodesofenvironmentalvisualculture.Likewise,Vermaasasksaboutthevisualrepresentationsof“clear-cuttingpractices”andthe“heavymediacoverageofJuliaButterflyHill’stwo-yearredwoodtreesitinthelate90s.”Asshenotes,thebookdoesnotdealwiththatportionofthedecade.Nordoesitfocusonpubliclands,forests,andwildernessdebates—allissuesinwhichvisualcultureanalysiscouldrecastfamiliarinterpretations.WoodhousementionsthecontemporarydroughtinCaliforniaandtheemphasisonindividualbehaviorinpopularresponsestothisongoingcrisis.Heoffersanintriguingsuggestion:toconsiderhowappealstoindividualresponsibilitymightalsoconnecttomoresystemicviewsofenvironmentalproblems.HiscommentdovetailsnicelywithShaffer’sbriefmentioningoftheculturalstudiesscholarStuartHall,whosegenerativeworkon

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encodinganddecodingopenednewvistasforunderstandingaudiencereception.28Shaffer’sownmeditationonConservationInternational’sNatureisSpeakingcampaignoffersprovocativeinsightsintocontemporaryenvironmentalimagesandsuggestshowtheissuesIexploreinSeeingGreencontinuetoresonateinpopularenvironmentalism.Heranalysisofthiscampaignalsoindicatesthesignificanceof“globalenvironmentalcitizenship”torecentframingsofenvironmentalissues.SeeingGreendiscussessomeofthetransnationalandglobalmeaningsofpopularenvironmentalimages,butIthinkthatthesetopicsbegforfurtherresearch.Shaffer’srecentpublicationsontransnationalwildlifeconservationrevealpromisingapproachestothesetopics.29Asnotedabove,Ialsothinkthathistoriansandotherscholarsshouldinvestigativeawiderrangeofvisualsources—notonlythemainstream,iconicimagesthatIemphasizeinSeeingGreen—butalsopicturesthathavecirculatedinothercontextsandthatcanoffernewinsightsintothemultifacetedandcontestedhistoriesofenvironmentalismintheUSandelsewhere.Thesesourcesincludevisualimagesbutalsoothermaterialobjectsthatcouldbedefined,accordingtoMitchell’sterminology,as“mixedmedia”:pamphlets,flyers,buttons,magazineinserts,andotheritemsthatareoftenoverlookedinaccountsthatprivilegemainstreamsources.Inthebook,Idiscusssomeexamplesofimagesusedbyenvironmentaljusticeactivists—includingpicturesthatchallengedtheconceptofuniversalvulnerabilityandtheneoliberalfocusonmarketsolutions—yetIthinkthatgrassrootsandsubalternusesofimagesdeservemuchgreaterattention.Ialsothinkthathistorianscouldpursuemoreplace-basedstudiesthatconsiderthematerialityandagencyofimages.Suchprojectscouldilluminatehowvisualcultureworksintheworldbyshapingthematerialhistoriesoflandscapesandhumancommunities.Finally,asbothShafferandWoodhouseindicate,fewenvironmentalhistorianshaveintegratedtheemotionsintotheirwork.Humanfeelings,desires,andfearshavematerialandpoliticalconsequences,andtheseshouldfiguremoreprominentlyinourstudiesoftheenvironmentalpast.Beyonditsemphasisonimagesasprimarysourcesforenvironmentalhistory,SeeingGreenadvancesbroaderargumentsaboutenvironmentalismthatotherscholarsmaywanttobuilduponorchallenge.Mycriticalinterpretationsofindividualresponsibilityandgreenconsumerismseem,accordingtosomereaders,tobethemostprovocativeanddebatableportionsofthebook.Althoughhistorianshavebeenreluctanttoengagewiththeconceptofneoliberalism,Ithinkthatitcanhelpusgrapplewiththetriumphofmarketvaluesandtheshiftingmeaningsofenvironmentalcitizenship.Incontrasttomyanalysis,somereviewershaveamore28StuartHall,“Encoding/Decoding,”inCulture,Media,Language:WorkingPapersinCulturalStudies,1972-1979,ed.StuartHalletal.(London:Hutchinson,1980),128-38.29MargueriteS.Shaffer,“ATransnationalWildlifeDrama:DianFossey,PopularEnvironmentalism,andtheOriginsofGorillaTourism,”AmericanQuarterly67(June2015):317-52;MargueriteS.Shaffer,“Digit’sLegacy:ReconsideringtheHuman-NatureEncounterinaGlobalWorld,”inRenderingNature:Animals,Bodies,Places,Politics,ed.MargueriteS.ShafferandPhoebeS.K.Young(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2015),70-96.

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sanguineviewtowardthecapitalistmarketanditspotentialtocreatelong-termconditionsofecologicalsustainability.AsIwritethisresponse,therearesomeencouragingsignsthatrenewableenergymayadoptamoreprominentpositionwithinfutureenergysystems.Maybefuturehistorianswillinterpretourcurrentmomentasoneinwhichthemarketbegantorespondtoconsumerandcitizenlongingsforasustainablefuture.Maybetheywillemphasize(asdoIattheendofSeeingGreen)thefoundingof350.organdotherclimateactivistgroupsascrucialagentsofchangetryingtoenvisionaworldthattransitionsawayfromfossilfuels.Wecannotpredictthefuture,butwecanlookbackattherecentpastandaskcriticalquestionsaboutwhytheUSandothernationsadoptedsuchshort-sightedresponsestoescalatingecologicalcrises.IhopethatSeeingGreenwillcontributetothesebroaderdiscussionsandwillencouragemorecriticalreflectiononthemethodsofenvironmentalhistory,thelinksbetweenvisualcultureandpubliclife,andtheongoingstruggletocreateajustandsustainablefuture.

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AbouttheContributorsFinisDunawayisProfessorofHistoryatTrentUniversityandtheGalleryandGraphicsEditorforEnvironmentalHistory.InadditiontoSeeingGreen,heistheauthorofNaturalVisions:ThePowerofImagesinAmericanEnvironmentalReform(UniversityofChicagoPress,2005).HeiscurrentlyresearchingthehistoryandimaginativegeographiesoftheArcticNationalWildlifeRefuge,aremoteareainnortheasternAlaskathathasbecomeoneofthemostcontestedlandscapesinmodernNorthAmerica.ChristopherF.Jones,AssistantProfessorintheSchoolofHistorical,Philosophical,andReligiousStudies,studiesthehistoriesofenergy,environment,andtechnology.HeistheauthorofRoutesofPower:EnergyandModernAmerica(Harvard,2014)andiscurrentlyworkingonaprojectexaminingtherelationshipsbetweeneconomictheoriesofgrowthandthedepletionofnon-renewablenaturalresources.FinnArneJørgensenisAssociateProfessorofhistoryoftechnologyandenvironmentatUmeaUniversity,Sweden,andhasaPhDinscienceandtechnologystudiesfromtheNorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology.HisresearchincludesstudiesofwasteandrecyclinghistoriesinScandinaviaandtheUnitedStates,thehistoryofNorwegianleisurecabins,materialcultureandconsumptionstudies,andtheconnectionsbetweenenvironmentalhumanities,mediastudies,anddigitalhumanities.MargueriteS.ShafferisProfessorofAmericanStudiesandHistoryatMiamiUniversityinOxford,Ohio.Herworkfocusesonissuesofpopularenvironmentalism,consumerculture,andpublicculture.HerbooksincludeSeeAmericaFirst:TourismandNationalIdentity,1880-1940(2001);andtwoeditedcollectionsPublicCulture:Diversity,Democracy,andCommunityintheUnitedStates(2008;paperback2012)andRenderingNature:Animals,Bodies,Places,PoliticswithPhoebeS.K.Young(2015).LoriVermaasistheauthorofSequoia:TheHeraldedTreeinAmericanArtandCulture(SmithsonianBooks,2003),severalhistoricalessays,andhistoricalbookreviews.Afifteen-yearpublishingprofessional,asawritershehasexploredvarioussubjects,mostavidlyAmericanvisualcultureandthenation’sattitudestowardnature.Herlatestbookismuchlighterfare,apictorialhistoryofthecommercialdevelopmentofTexas’sRioGrandeValley,Cornerstone:BuildingtheRioGrandeValley(www.rgvcornerstone.com).KeithWoodhouseisAssistantProfessoratNorthwesternUniversity,whereheteachesintheHistorydepartmentandtheEnvironmentalPolicy&Cultureprogram.Hisresearchinterestsarelate-twentieth-centuryenvironmentalpolitics,thought,andactivismintheUnitedStates.Heisworkingonahistoryofradicalenvironmentalismtentativelytitled“ASubversiveNature.”

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