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Gypsum Recycling in PlaNYC 2030: Spaces for Government Intervention
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Architecture & PlanningCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Urban Planning
byCaroline Bauer
May 2012
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research could not have been done without help from: Thomas Abdullah, Kate Aglitsky, Dana Coyle, Walter Czwartacky, Barry Dinerstein, Barry Fries, Mike Giraramita, David Hillcoat, Linda Jacobs, Samantha MacBride, Patrick Manning, Tom Piano, Michael Plottel, Raymond Ruggerio, Michael Snidal, Susana Siman, Rachel Van Tosh, Robert Viola and Patricia Zander.
A very special thanks to my advisors Robert Beauregard and Terri Matthews.
ACRONYMSADC Alternative Daily CoverBIC Business Integrity ComissionC&D Construction & DemolitionDEC Department of Environmental ConservationDCP Department of City PlanningDDC Department of Design & ConstructionDSNY Department of Sanitation EPA Environmental Protection AgencyESD Empire State Development AgencyFGD Flue gas desulfarization (synthetic gypsum)H2S Hydrogen Sulfide GasLEED Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design MTA Metropolitan Transit AuthorityNADC National Association of Demolition ContractorsNYC New York CityNYCT New York City Transit Authority USGBC United States Green Building Council
CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH QUESTION & DESIGN 4
CHAPTER 2: GYPSUM IN CONSTRUCTION 13
CHAPTER 3: THE C&D WASTE STREAM IN NYC 32
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS & FINDINGS 43
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 56
ABSTRACTInitiative 5 of PlaNYC 2030 details the city’s support in developing “cost-effective recycling options” for gypsum scrap in the construction & demolition (C&D) waste stream (148). Currently only 0.06% of drywall waste is recycled, a very low rate in comparison with the fact that nearly 70% of the entire C&D waste stream is recycled in NYC. This research will follow a question posited in alignment with the city’s agenda: How can NYC incentivize drywall recycling? Primary research components include observation of demolitions as well as interviews with key stakeholders in the gypsum supply chain. Illustrative diagrams are included to explain the life-cycle of gypsum from extraction to disposal. A key finding of this research is that the poor recycling rate for gypsum does not present a significant environmental or public health threat. As such, the gypsum problem does not warrant regulatory intervention to solve. Nevertheless, recommendations for future policy directions are still provided.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4
CHAPTER 1
RESEARCH QUESTION & DESIGN
Introduction In2007,theNewYorkCityMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitypublished
PlaNYC2030,apolicydocumentdefinedbytheagencyas“aboldagendatomeetthechallengesofa
growingpopulation,aginginfrastructure,achangingclimateandanevolvingeconomy(CityofNew
York,2011:5).”Anupdatetothisstrategicpolicyagendawaspublishedin2011,withadditionalgoalsfor
thecitytobecomea“greener,greaterNewYork.”
Thisthesisprojectisfocusedononeofthe132goalspublishedinthePlaNYCupdate.Initiative5
oftheSolidWasteManagementstrategystatesthatthecitywill“workwiththebusinesscommunityand
theCityCounciltoenactmandatoryrecyclingforcertainconstructionanddemolition(C&D)wasteprod-
uctsandencouragecost-effectiverecyclingoptionsforthesematerials(CityofNewYork,2011:140).”The
Planprioritizesgypsumwallboardscrapasan“optimalcandidateforrecycling,”yetalsoacknowledged
that“fewornolocalresourcestoeffectivelyrecyclecleangypsumscrap”currentlyexist(140).
Thepurposeofthisresearchistwofold.First,tofindthereasonsforthepoordrywallrecycling
rateinNYC.Secondly,torecommendhowthecitycancorrectthisproblemwiththedevelopmentof
newpolicy.Tomeetthesetwogoals,itaskstheresearchquestion:How can New York City incentivize
drywall recycling?
Material % of total stream
Wood 42%
Drywall 27%
Carpeting,fixtures,tile 15%
Brick 6%
AsphaltRoofing 6%
Plastics 2%
Metals 2%
Exhibit 1: Material proportions of United States Construction Waste(Franklin Associates, 1998)
5
Gypsumwallboard,alsocommonlyknownasdrywall,gypsumboard,orSheetrock™1,hasbeen
usedinnearlyeverystructureintheUSsincetheearly1900s.Drywallcomprises27%ofC&Dwastegen-
eratednationally.AsevidentinExhibit1,drywallisthesecondmostprevalentwastematerialgenerated
fromconstructionprojects.Theuniquenessofeachbuildingnecessitatesthatdrywallsheetsbecutto
building-specificdimensionsduringnewconstructionprojects.Additionally,renovationanddemoli-
tionprojectsareprevalentthroughoutNYCduetothecity’srelativelyoldbuildingstockandscarcityof
developableland.Eachpracticegeneratesasignificantamountofdrywallwaste.Wastecreatedfrom
cuttingnewdrywalliscalled“cleangypsumscrap,”thatiscompletelyrecyclablebutoftenthrownaway
withothertrashonthejobsite.Ontheotherhand,demolitionandrenovationprojectsgenerate“dirty”
gypsumscrap,ordrywallthathasbeencontaminatedbypaint,nails,jointcompoundorasbestos.Due
tothepresenceofthesecontaminants,mostpurchasersofrecycleddrywallwillnotbuymaterialmade
fromdirtyscrap.
Interestingly,thereissomeimpetustokeepdrywalloutoftheC&Dwastestreamentirely.When
thegypsumcoreofdrywallisexposedtowater,itcreatesahydrogensulfidegaswithasignificantand
persistentodor.Materialsinevitablygetwetduringprocessingandinthelandfillmeaningthatthepres-
enceofdrywallinbothplacescancreatepublicnuisanceconditions.
Generated in New York State
(estimated tons)
Recoveredin New York State
(tons)
Proportion Recycled
(%)
Plastics 110,613 5,558 .5%
Metals 276,533 211,158 76%
Asphalt,brick&concrete 497,759 637,476 128%*
Cleandrywall
(fromconstruction) 331,839 35,085 .06%
Dirtydrywall
(fromrenovation&demolition) 221, 226 0 0%
Unadulteratedwood
(scraps&pallets) 636,025 160,098 25%
Adulteratedwood
(painted&engineered) 1,155,907 137,755 12%
Roofing 608,372 0 0%
Exhibit 2: Estimated C&D Waste Materials Generated and Recovered in New York State(NEWMOA 2009)
Duetothesereasonsandothersthatwillbeelaboratedupon,recyclingdrywallisanissueof
1 Sheetrock™isaUSGypsumproduct.
6
particularcomplexity.Manyfactorshinderitsrecyclabilitybothontheconstructionsiteandintheregu-
latoryframeworkaddressingwastemanagementinNYC.Forexample,thecurrentwastemanagement
systeminNYCrequiresallC&Dwastetobeprocessedinatransferstation.Whilethesefacilitiestypically
achievehighdiversionrates,thisenvironmentdegradesgypsumscraptothepointwhereoneoperator
opinedthatthereis“nochanceinhell”thatdrywallcanberecycledinthetransferstation.
WhiletheLEED2programhashelpedC&Dwasterecyclingbecomeamorecosteffectiveactivity,
recycledgypsumhasnexttonoendmarketsintheNYCmetropolitanarea.Moreoverthecommodity
isindirectcompetitionwithsyntheticgypsum,agreenalternativetothevirginmaterialthatisoften
cheaperandofhigherqualitythanrecycledgypsum.Thiscombinationoffactorshasresultedinanearly
0%recyclingrateforcleangypsumscrapinrecentyears.WhileExhibit2presentsdatafromNewYork
Stateonly,gypsumscrapalsohasthelowestrecyclingratesofC&Dmaterialsnationwide.
BackgroundGypsumscrapisconsideredapartoftheconstructionanddemolition(C&D)wastestreaminNew
YorkStatelegislation.Thestreamiscomprisedofthematerialscontainedinbuildings,includingtimber,
plastics,assortedmetals,concrete,drywall,insulationaswellaslightfixturesandotherarchitectural
details.In2006,NewYorkCitygenerated38,000tonsofthiswasteeveryday,whichtranslatesinto8.64
milliontonsofC&Dwasteproducedannually(DSNY,2006:IV-3).Thisfigurewasdisproportionately
higherthanthenationalaverageofC&Dwastegeneration.Thestreamconstitutes45%ofthenational
dailywasteoutputasopposedtothe60%itaccountsforinNYC(UrbanGreen,2010).3
ThereisastrongenvironmentalargumentfordivertingC&Dwastematerialsfromlandfill.Recy-
clingthesematerialsreducesrelianceonvirginnaturalresourcesandthecarbonemissionsgeneratedin
theirtransportationandmanufacture.Constructionmaterialsaccountfor40%oftotalmaterialconsump-
tionglobally(UrbanGreen:2010,3).Moreover,theextractionandmanufacturingofbuildingelements
alsoconsumes30%ofthetotalUSenergysupply(Viola,2008:5).Thestrongmetalcontentoflandfilled
C&Dwaste(i.e.arsenic,aluminumandcopper)producesaharmfulleachatethatcouldpotentiallycon-
taminatethequalityofsurroundinggroundwater(Weberetal.,2000inViola,5).
Insharpcontrasttopoorgypsumrecyclingrates,70%ofthetotalC&Dwastestreamwasrecycled
in2010(UrbanGreen,2010).Highrecyclingratesofconstructionmaterialsisdueprimarilytotheirhigh
inherentvalue.Steelandlumber,forexample,canbetakendirectlyoffajobsiteandreusedwithout
furtherprocessing.Materialsprocessorsalsopaytopdollarforsteelorlumbercuttingsfromdemolition
2 LEEDstandsfortheUSGreenBuildingCouncil’sLeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesignprogram3 ThedifferencemadeupbyMunicipalSolidWaste(MSW)comprising40%ofthecity’soutputand55%ofthenationaloutputoverall.
7
projectsthatcannotbedirectlyreused.
Importantly,somecomponentsoftheC&Dwastestreamareeasiertorecyclethanothers.Thisis
inpartduetotheintrinsicvalueofthematerial,butalsobecausesteelandothermetalscanbekeptin-
tactduringC&Dactivitiesandsubsequentwasteprocessing.Drywall,ontheotherhand,iseasilycrushed
duringtheseprocesses,makingthecaptureandresaleofgypsumdifficult.
ThereisalsoagrowingeconomicconcernforrecyclingC&DwasteinNYC.Thisispartlydueto
the2001closureofStatenIsland’sFreshKills,thelastremaininglandfillinthecity.Astheentiretyofthe
city’swastemustnowbeexportedeitherupstateoroutofstate,theDepartmentofSanitation’sbudget
hasincreasedby$400millionannuallysincetheclosingprocessbeganin1996(GruzenSamton&City
GreenInc.,2003:1).Landfilloperationsinneighboringstateshaveinstitutedmaterialbans,tonnage
taxesandincreasedtippingfeestocopewiththeincreasedvolumeresultingfromtheimportofNYC’s
wastestreams.Arguably,duetothecity’shighconsumptionrateofC&Dmaterials,increasedrecyclingof
thesematerialswillhavebothregionalandnationalrepercussions.
DuetothehighinherentvalueofmostmaterialsandtheprevalenceofC&Dprojectsthroughout
thecity,jobsitescavengingisapopularactivityinNYC.InhislettertotheeditoroftheNew York Times,
anNYCconstructionworkerGeraldButlerrespondedtoanarticleaboutthelimitsofrecyclinginthecity:
It’sfascinatingthatmostofthecommentersareforcedonhectoringandlecturingthecommonmanandwomantobringtheirownknives,forksplatesandnapkinsfromhomeasameansofreducingwaste.Thethingsis,afull50%-7milliontonsoutof14milliontons-ofwastegeneratedinthiscityeveryyearisindustrialdebris.Contrarytothearticle,we’renottalkingabout‘dirt’here.We’retalkingaboutcutoffsfrommetalstuds,tracksandbeams,piecesofscrapsheetrock,cardboardboxesthatcontainedbathtubs,sinks,toiletsandstoves,piecesofwood,sawdust,scrapelectricalwiring,etc.There would probably be a lot more waste if construction workers like me didn’t scour the job-site dumpsters for scrap metal that we can sell for a profit (NewYorkTimes,2011:9,emphasisadded).
ThisresponseisparticularlypoignantformyresearchontheNYCrecyclingindustry.Notonly
doeshemakeitclearthatC&DwasteshouldbethetargetofNYCwastereductionefforts,healsoproposes
apolicysolutiontoreducingthiswastestream:
However,nobodyheretalksaboutmakingMr.Trump,Mr.Zuckerman,Mr.Silverstein,Mr.Walentas,Mr.RatnerandtheotherNewYorkrealestatebillionaires‘reduce,reuseandrecycle.’Whynotchargethembythepoundforallthegarbagetheirconstructionsitesgenerate?Thatmakesalotmoresensethanputtingaregressivegarbagetaxontheworkingclassandthepoor,orlecturingpeopletobringtheirownplatestoarestaurant!
ThefivemennamedbyButlerareprominentNYCdevelopers.Whilenoneofthesemenaredirectly
responsibleforthewayinwhichC&DwasteiscollectedordisposedinNYC,Butlerplacestheirfinancial
8
interestsasthetargetofpublicpolicyinitiativesregardingrecycling.Here,Butlerastutelyhighlightsthe
circuitousnatureofconstructionfinanceaswellashowwastemanagementconsiderationsareoften
afterthoughtsinthebottomlinethinkingoftheconstructionindustry.Thesetwofactorshaveparticular
consequencesformaterialslikegypsum,whichischeaptoextractandlandfillbutexpensivetorecycle.
Theoretical Approach
ArchitectandauthorMichaelMcDonoughoffersaguidefortrackingthelife-cycleofgypsum
boardthroughtheconstructionprocess.InaninterviewforBruceMau’sMassive Change,McDonough
statesthatbeforebeginninganyproject,heaskshimself,“whataretheprocessesbywhichthisthingis
produced?Whataretheprocessesbywhichitwillenditsusefullife?”(Mau,2004:39).Clearly,the“thing”
inMcDonough’scommentreferstothegypsumcontainedindrywall.Hisuseoftheword“processes”is
ofparticularinteresthere,asthisresearchultimatelyaimstoassistmakingtheprocessofrecyclingdry-
wall costeffective.DavidHarvey(1997:17)expandsontheideaoffollowingprocessesintheurbanen-
vironment:“weshouldfocusonprocessesratherthanthings,andweshouldthinkofthingsasproducts
ofprocesses...Mostofthecategoriesweusetendtobe‘thing’categories.Ifinsteadweexaminedynamics
andprocesses,wemaytrytodosobyconceivingthemasrelationshipsbetweenpre-existingthings.”He
continuesthat“allpolitical-economicprocessesweobservearemediatedthroughoutthefilterofurban
organization(17).”
GroundingHarvey’stheoriestothetasksathand,theresearchmethodologydefinesthepro-
cess ofrecyclingdrywallinNYCbywayoftherelationshipsbetweenstakeholderswhoconstitutethe
processesthemselves.Insodoing,thediverse(andsometimesdivergent)prioritiesofthegovernment,
businessandcivilsocietygroupswithvestedinterestintheprocesswillalsobedescribed.BrunoLatour
(2005:173)describesthiseffortasmappingthe“continuousconnectionsleadingfromonelocalinterac-
tiontotheotherplaces,timesandagenciesthroughwhichalocalsiteismadetodosomething,”stress-
ingthat“eachtransactioncontainsatransformation.”Suspendingrealityforamoment,thenarrative
willfollowthetransformationsasinglepieceofdrywallundergoesinthelife-cycleofaNYCbuilding,
spanningfromtheextractionofvirgingypsumtoitstransformationintoeitherrecycleddrywallorwaste
material.InhisseminalworkEnvironment: from Surplus to Scarcity, AllanSchnaiberg(1980)asserts
thatallenvironmentalproblemsboildowntotheproduction,consumptionanddisposalofmaterials.
Scholarsaddressingaparticularenvironmentalproblemshouldanalyzetherelevantpatternsofmaterial
productionwiththisframework,payingspecialattentiontothetransformativeprocessesinthelife-cycle
ofamaterial.
9
Inhis2001bookMaterialsMatter,KenGeiserpointsoutthatwhilethereareprecedentexamples
ofgovernmentinterventioninsupportofend-marketsforrecycledgoods.Hestressesthattheseincen-
tivesrequiremuchtimeandeffortfrommanystakeholders,stating:“ifrecyclingistosucceedatreducing
thedrainonvirginmaterials,thenalargenetworkofenterprisesengagedinconsumingrecycledmateri-
alsasfeedstocksmustbedevelopedandencouraged(230).”
Throughoutthecourseofthisresearch,itbecameapparentthattheNYCgovernmenthaslimited
abilitytoincentivizedrywallrecyclinggiventhecomplexityofthesystemsalludedtobyGeiser.IWhile
theseproblemswillbeelaboratedatlengthinthefollowingchapters,itisimportanttonoteherebecause
thisobservationtransformedtheresearchquestionfrom“howcanNYCincentivizedrywallrecycling”
to“shouldthiseffortbetakenatall?”IftheultimategoalsofincludinggypsuminPlaNYCaretore-
duceminingofvirgingypsumandreducethetotalvolumeofwastebeinglandfilled,thesegoalscanbe
achievedbymethodsotherthanrecycling.Indeed,thisresearchconcludesthatrecyclingisnotthebest
solutiontosolvingthegypsumproblem.ProminentsystemstheoristRussellAckoffnotes:“successful
problemsolvingrequiresfindingtherightsolutiontotherightproblem.Wefailmoreoftenbecausewe
solvethewrongproblemthanbecausewegetthewrongsolutiontotherightproblem(AckoffinGeiser,
2001:216).”Becausethisobservationcamelateintheresearchprocess,however,muchoftheresearch
followstheassumptionthatrecyclingisthebestoptionforthetreatmentofdrywallscrap.Nevertheless,
thisideaisrevisitedinthefinalchapter.
Methodology
Theresearchdesigndrawsfromthesetheoreticalconsiderationsandthethreekeyobjectives
listedbelow:
Researchcomponentsincludeinterviews,sitevisitsandprimarydatareview.Interviewswerecon-
ductedfromNovember2011–February2012.Beforebeginningtheinterviews,thisprojectwascleared
bytheInstitutionalReviewBoard(IRB)ofColumbiaUniversity.IRBapprovalofaprojectensuresthat
1
2
3 Createrecommendationsforhowpublicagenciescanmaketheprocessesofrecyclingdrywalleconomicallyviableforallstakeholders.
Analyzetherolesandinfluenceofgovernmentagencies,businessesandthird-sectororganizationsplaythroughouttheprocess.
DocumentthegypsumwallboardmaterialscyclefromextractiontowasteinNYC.
10
eachintervieweeiscomfortablewiththetermsandexpectationsofparticipatingintheresearchproject.
Whilethemajorityofinterviewstookplaceinperson,sometookplaceoverthetelephoneorviaanemail
exchangeduetodistanceorschedulingproblems.Participantsincludedgovernmentofficialsfromboth
NewYorkStateandNYCrepresentativesfromtheconstruction,wastemanagementandgypsumrecy-
clingindustries,andacademicswhoconductedsimilarresearch.Theseinterviewsweredonetounder-
standtheprocessesinvolvedindrywallrecyclingfromthe“streetlevel,”ortorevealspecificsgoverning
industriesandagenciesthatarenoteasilycapturedinofficialdocuments.Afullinterviewscheduleis
includedinAppendixA.Whilethelistincludestitlesandaffiliations,nameswereremovedtoprotectthe
confidentialityofparticipants.However,namesofparticipantswhodidnotrequestconfidentialityare
includedthroughoutthenarrative.
Threesitevisitswerealsoconductedintheinterestofgatheringstreet-levelinformationabout
thegypsumrecyclingprocess.Sitesobservedincludedacommercialrenovationproject,alargeconstruc-
tionprojectandaC&Dwastetransferstation,alllocatedinNYC.Theconstructionandrenovationsites
wereselectedthroughtheinterviewprocess,meaningtheywerecurrentprojectsofinterviewpartici-
pants.Thetransferstationwasselectedduetoitsword-of-mouthaccoladesasoneofthemostefficient
operatorsinthecity.Inadditiontotheexperientialknowledgegainedfrominterviewsandguidedtours,
otherdatagatheredateachsiteincludedphotosandwastetonnagedata.
TherenovationprojectobservedwasintheHospitalForSpecialSurgeryintheUpperEastSideof
ManhattanandwasvisitedonJanuary23rd,2012.Thejobwasmanagedbythegeneralcontractingfirm
BRFriesandconsistedofamajorrenovationofseveralfloorsofthehospital.Thevisitoccurredduring
thedemolitionphaseoftheproject,andincludedawalkthroughofthescopeoftheworkandaguided
tourbytheProjectSuperintendant.Mechanicaldemolitionofgypsumwallboardwasobservedduring
thisvisit.ThesecondsitevisitwasofCooperTankRecyclingaC&DwastetransferstationinGreenpoint,
BrooklynonJanuary27th,2012.Here,thedailyoperationsofthetransferstationwereobservedviaa
guidedtourwiththeGeneralManagerofthestation.Specialattentionwaspaidtohowgypsumfaresin
themechanicalandhandsortingprocesses.Lastly,theconstructionsiteofthenewNewYorkCityPolice
AcademyinCollegePoint,QueenswasobservedonFebruary17th,2012.Theprojectwaspubliclyfunded
withtheNewYorkCityDepartmentofDesignandConstructionactingasthepropertyownerandTurn-
er/STVConstructionmanagingtheproject.ThevisitincludedatourofthefacilitybytheProjectManager
fromDDCandtheLEEDComplianceOfficerfromTurner/STVConstruction.Whiletheconstructionwas
notyetatthedrywallinstallationphase,specialattentionwaspaidthroughoutthetourofthegeneral
C&Dwastemanagementmeasuresandotherenvironmentalconsiderationsoftheproject.Unlessother-
11
wisecited,themajorityofthephotosusedinthenarrativeweretakenduringthesesitevisits.
Interviewsandsitevisitsweredesignedtoelicitresponsesfromstakeholdersaboutthelimita-
tionstheyperceiveforrecyclingdrywall.Morespecifically,themethodologywasdesignedtodistin-
guishbetweenthe subjectivelimitationstotheprocess,orthoseduetoadeficiencyinconceptualization
andtheobjectivelimitationscausedbythecharacteristicsoftheenvironmentoftheproblemand/or
peculiaritiesofconstructioningeneral(Vrijhoef&Koskela,2000:176).Onthegroundobservationssuchas
theseareimportantforunderstandingtheerraticandatypicalconstraintspresentonmostconstruction
sites.
Lastly,reviewofthelegislationandavailabledataregardingC&DwasteinNYCwerealsokey
componentstotheresearch.Primarydocumentsfromthefederal,stateandcitylevelsofgovernment
werereviewed.Theseincludedthelegaldefinitionsandtherelevantplans,policiesandprogramsregard-
ingC&Dwasteaswellasthetransferstationpermittingprocess.
Analysis of Current Government Actions
Thisresearchproducedinrecommendationsforcityagenciesratherthantheconstructionindus-
try.Assuch,itisimportanttounderstandthecurrenteffortsbeingmadebythegovernmentforrecycling
gypsum,aswellasthecultureinwhichthesedecisionsaremade.Forexample,iswastemanagement
explicitlyconsideredintheplanningphaseofaprojectorisitlefttotheconstructioncompanywhowon
theprojectbid?Toanswerthesequestions,amoreindepthexaminationoftheactivitiesoftheNewYork
CityTransitAuthority(NYCT)andtheNewYorkCityDepartmentofDesignandConstruction(DDC)was
alsoundertaken.Thetwowerechosenastheyimplementandmanageconstructionprojectsthrough-
outthecity.AkeydifferencebetweenthetwoisthefactthatNYCTisastateagency,whileDDCisacity
department.Whilerecommendationswillonlyfocusontheworkofcityagencies,theactionsofNYCT
aredescribedintheinterestofexamininghowrecyclingeffortsareapproachedatthestatelevel.NYCT
isthestateagencyresponsiblefortheconstructionandongoingmaintenanceoftheentirepublictransit
systemofNYC.DDCservesasimilarfunctionforthecity’sinstitutionalbuildings,oneexamplebeingthe
PoliceAcademyProjectcoveredinthisresearch.Thus,thetwoareagaugeofcurrentgovernmentinterest
andinfluenceonC&Drecycling.Theanalysisincludesareviewofthewastemanagementcontracting
processrecordkeepingproceduresandcurrentdiversionandprocurementgoalsforeachagency.Local
lawsadoptedbythelegislatureandexecutiveorderswerealsoconsidered.Additionally,since2008,both
agencieshaverequiredsubcontractorstosubmitwastemanagementplansforeachjob.Asamplesetof
thesewastemanagementplanswerereviewedtounderstandhowdiversiongoalsactuallytranslateinto
12
agencyaction.Thisdatareviewwasundertakenwithaspecialfocusonhowdrywallistreatedinthe
plansandonajobsite.Furthermore,primarydatacollectionwasnecessaryascomprehensiveanalysis
ofplansandsubsequentgypsumcapturehasyettobedoneateitheragency.Importantly,accesstothis
datawaslimitedformanyreasons.Theselimitationsarealsoaddressedintheanalysis.
Outline
Chapter2describeshowgypsumisusedinconstruction,highlightingspecificissuesthathinder
itsrecyclability.Diagramsareprovidedtoillustratetheprocessesatplaywhengypsumiseitherland-
filledorrecycled.Thesevisualsfocusontherolesofdifferentindustrystakeholdersandthecostsassoci-
atedwitheitherscenario.Chapter3analyzestheregulatorystructureofC&Dwastemanagementonthe
federal,NewYorkstateandNYClevel.Contributionsofthirdsectorinitiativestowardgypsumrecycling
arealsoconsideredinChapter3.Chapter4presentsthefindingsandanalysisthecurrenteffortsforgyp-
sumdiversionbyDDCandNYCT.AsthetwoorganizationsmanageconstructionprojectsinNYC,their
actionsandinternalincentiveprogramsareanalyzedtodescribethecurrentprocessesofstateprocure-
mentandC&Dwastemanagement.Finally,Chapter5summarizestheanalysisofthecurrentbarriersto
drywallrecyclinginNYC.Fromthesefindings,recommendationsforfurthermethodsofstateinterven-
tioninrecycledgypsummarketsarethenprovided.
13
CHAPTER 2
GYPSUM IN CONSTRUCTION
Gypsum: A Brief History Gypsumisanaturallyoccurringmineralcomposedofcalcium,sulfurandoxygen.Itisasoftma-
terialwhosecolorrangesfromwhitetobrown(dependingonpurity)andappearsineitheracrystalline
orsand-likeform.Depositsareassociatedwiththeevaporatebedsofsedimentaryrocksandarefoundin
abundancethroughouttheworld.Duetoitsdurability,strengthandfire-resistance,gypsumhasbeen
usedasabuildingmaterialforthousandsofyears.ThepyramidofChoeps,constructedin3700B.C.,is
madeofgypsumblocksandplaster.Anecdotally,thewallsofKingMinos’Cretanpalacewasconstructed
ofgypsumplaster.
WhilethefirstUSdepositsofgypsumwerefoundin1792inNewYorkState,BenjaminFranklin
iscreditedwithintroducingthematerialtoUSmarketsmuchearlier.Interestingly,Franklinadvocated
fortheuseofgypsumnotasabuildingmaterialbutratherasanagriculturalproduct.Whenusedasa
soilamendment,gypsumaddsnutrientsandboostscropyields.Sometimescalleda“soilsweetener,”gyp-
sumisespeciallybeneficialtopeanutcultivation.Today,theprimaryendmarketforrecycledgypsumin
theNortheastremainsasasoiladditive.
Drywallasitisknowntodaywasinventedin1910byU.S.Gypsum,whichisstillthelead-
Exhibit 3: Gypsum rocks in a quarry mine.(Alibaba.com)
14
inggypsummanufacturerintheUS.Priortotheuseofgypsumwallboard,mostinteriorwallswere
constructedoflathandplaster.Atypicallathwall,showninExhibit4,consistsofwoodenslatssealed
togetherandcoveredwithgypsumplaster.Lathwallinstallationismaterial,timeandlaborintensive.As
withmanyUStechnologicaladvancements,themilitarywasthefirstadopterofthisnewbuildingmate-
rial.MichaelGardner(2008),executivedirectoroftheGypsumAssociation,describeshowthepopularity
ofgypsumwallboardneatlyalignswithbothWorldWarI&II:“Thefirstcall-upofU.S.troopsin1917
createdanurgentneedfortemporarymilitaryhousing,bothathomeandoverseas.Themilitaryused
avarietyofbuildingmaterialstomeetthisneed;however,abarracksfirethattookthelivesofseveral
servicemenledmilitaryengineerstolookfornaturallyfire-resistantmaterials.Gypsumboardmetthis
needandconsequentlybecamethepreferredbuildingmaterialformilitaryhousingconstruction…By
1945,themilitaryhadusedapproximately2.5billionsquarefeet ofthematerial.”Gardnerdescribesthat
thepost-WWIIhousingboomwasfacilitatedbygypsumwallboard,continuingthat“bytheendofthe
decadethe{gypsum}industrylaunchedamajorpublicrelationscampaignthatreachedanestimated54
millionAmericans.”Whileafewdrywallalternativesexist,includingwoodpanelingandcementboard,
thedurabilityandlowpriceofgypsumwallboardmakeitthemostpopularinteriorwallmaterialinthe
U.S.today.
Gypsumdepositslargeenoughforcommercialexploitationarefoundinmanystatesinthe
westernpartoftheUS,makingthecountrythenumberoneproducerofgypsumintheworld.Gypsum
miningandmanufacturinghasplayedamajorpartintheUSeconomysincetheinventionofdrywallin
theearly1900s.Similartourbanizationpatternsaroundoildeposits,gypsumdepositsspurredthedevel-
Exhibit 4: Traditional lath & plaster wall. (buildapedia.com)
Exhibit 5: Gypsum mine with a mobile crusher. (SBNMachinary.com)
15
opmentofcitiesandtowns.Forexample,therearetownscalled“Gypsum”inColorado,KansasandOhio.
WhiteSands,NewMexicoisalsonamedforthemineral.ThetownishometotheWhiteSandsNational
Monumenta270squaremilegypsumdeposit,whoseexpanseisenoughtosupplytheconstruction
industrywithdrywallfor1,000years.In1933,PresidentHerbertHooverdesignatedWhiteSandsana-
tionalmonumentinresponsetothestrongresidentoppositionoftheproposedminingofthearea(Abarr,
1999).
Thoughitcannotbeexploited,thevastnessoftheWhiteSands,asingledepositofthemineral,
illustratestheprevalenceofgypsumworldwide.Otherconstructionmaterialsthatarelessplentiful,like
copper,orheavilyregulated,likelumber,aremorereadilyrecycledthangypsumwhichiseasytofind
andcheaptoextractandprocess.Assuch,theabundanceofgypsumisakeybarriertogypsumrecycling.
Extraction & wallboard manufactureTheU.S.gypsumindustryconsistsof55naturalmines,locatedmostlyinthewesternhalfofthe
U.S.,whichgenerated9milliontonsofcrudegypsumin2010.46gypsummanufacturingcompanies
ownandoperatethemines,makinggypsumminingandmanufacturinga$58.5milliondollarindustry
intheUS(USGS,2011).Threemajorgypsumcompaniesservicethenortheasternregion:USGypsum,
NationalGypsumandGeorgia-Pacific.Thesecompaniesmakeavarietyofgypsum-basedconstruction
materialsinadditiontoexteriorandinteriordrywallpanels,includingacousticalceilingpanels,floor
slabsandunderlayments,jointcompoundsandstucco.In2010,90%ofthegypsumconsumedintheUS
wasintheformofgypsumwallboardandplaster-basedconstructionmaterials.26.8billionsquarefeetof
wallboardwasproducedbythenetworkofdomesticmanufacturersin2009(USGS,2011).
Gypsumistypicallyextractedfromtheearthviaan“openpit”or“surface”miningprocess.
Gypsumrocksareblastedwithdynamiteandthendrilledtoloosenlargechunksofthematerial.Assuch,
theminestypicallyresemblerockquarries.Mostmineshaveequipmentonsitetocrushrocksbefore
transportingthemtothemanufacturingfacility.AsshowninExhibit5,thesecrushersreducethevolume
ofthebulkymaterialforeasiertransport.Therocksaretakentoamanufacturingfacilitytobefurther
crushedandscreenedbeforebeingtransformedintovariousproducts,meaningthatfirmsoftenlocate
plantsclosetominesitestoreducetransportationcosts.Extractedgypsumcostsaround$8.80aton,mak-
ingitanextremelycheapvirginresource(Recology,2009:15).
Putsimply,drywallproductioncanbebrokendowninto5steps.First,thegypsumiscrushed
intotinypebbles.Itisthencalcined,ordriedatahightemperature,toevaporatewatercontainedinthe
rock.Thedrygypsumismixedwithwater,turningitintoplaster.Thisplasterisplacedintoacastbound
16
bytwosheetsofpaperwhichformstheshapeofdrywallpanels.Thefifthandlaststepoftheprocessis
dryingthesepanelsina500ºkilnsforanextendedperiodoftime.
Aswithmostconstructionmaterials,drywallisproducedtospecificdimensionsbymanufactur-
ers.Allpanelsare4’wide,rangefrom8’to14’inlengthandare½”to5/8”inthickness.Asinglepieceof
drywallcostsanywherebetween$6-$14.Pricedifferencesareduetothevarietyoffireproofingandmold
proofingtreatmentsavailablefortheboards.
Environmental ConcernsTheproductionofdrywallfromvirgingypsumisbotharesourceandenergy-intensiveprocess.
Surfaceminingcanerodethelandaroundminesites,leadingtosinkholesormudslides.Miningalso
threatenswildlifelivinginandaroundminesites.Fuelleaksfromminingequipmentcancompromise
soilandwaterneareachquarrymine.However,allextractionofmaterialsthroughsurfaceminingpres-
enttheseenvironmentalthreatsandnonearegypsum-specific.
Thecrushingandcalcinationprocessesaccountforapproximately6%ofthetotalenergyused
intheproductionofdrywall,whilethekilndryingcomprisesaround65%ofenergyuse(AthenaInsti-
tute,2010:2-8).Excludingtheenergyrequirementsfortransportationofthematerialfromminesoras
afinishedproducttoendmarkets,transformingvirgingypsumintodrywallrequires4,000megajoules
ofenergypertonofdrywallproduced(Recology,2009:16).Transportationenergycostsvarywiththe
proximityofminestomanufacturingfacilities,andalsofromdistancetoendmarkets.Forexample,the
AthenaSustainableMaterialsInstituteestimatesthattransportationofrawgypsumtoprocessingsites
accountsfor21%ofenergycostsfordrywallproducedinCanada.
Thereisnoconsensusonthetotalembeddedenergycontainedingypsumwallboard,andthus
thisinformationisonlyavailablefromproductproducers.AccordingtoaUSGypsumreport,“theembod-
Gypsum core
Paper backing
Exhibit 6: Drywall cross section.
17
iedenergyofgypsumboardisextremelylow(Master,2010:294).”InapromotionalarticleforEcoRock™4
agypsum-freealternativefordrywall,thedesignblogInhabitatreportsthat“drywallisthenumberthree
producerofgreenhousegassesamongbuildingmaterials(Flahiff,2008).”Regardlessofexactfigures,the
productionandtransportationofdrywall,aswithallbuildingmaterials,producesasignificantamount
ofenergyandemissions.However,itshouldnotbeassumedthatrecycledcontentdrywalloralterna-
tivestothematerialhavefewernegativeexternalitiesthantraditionalgypsumwallboard.Thoughthe
alternativesmaynotcontainvirginresources,theirtransportationandprocessingstillrequiresubstantial
amountsofenergyandareemissions-producing.
Wasteisalsoproducedingypsumproductmanufacture.Called“pre-consumer”waste,this
materialtypicallyexperiencesa100%recyclingrateasmanufacturersincorporatethesecutoffsintothe
in-houseproductionofotherproducts.
Synthetic Gypsum Drywallproductionhasaninterestingconnectionwithemissionscontroltechnologyforcoal
burningpowerplants.The1970CleanAirActrequiredcoalbasedpowerplantstocontroltheirsulfurdi-
oxide(SO2)emissions,asthechemicalisthemaincontributortoacidrain.Emissionscontrolregulations
havestrengthenedovertheyears.Apopularandinexpensivewayforpowerplantstomeetthesere-
quirementsisbyinstallingfluegasdesulfurizationsystems(FGD)or“scrubbers.”Essentially,thesescrub-
4 NowknownasQuietRock™
Exhibit 7: Synthetic gypsum in storage.(Nationalgypsum.com)
18
bersareslabsofcalciumrichwet-limestoneplacedatthetopofsmokestacks.Asexhaustrisesthrough
thestacks,thecalciumreactswiththeSO2,transformingitfromairpollutionintotheexactchemical
compoundofgypsum(Rubin,Hounshell,Yeh&Taylor,2004).Thisnaturalby-productoffluegasdesul-
furizationsystemscreatessynthetic gypsum,alsoknownasFGD gypsum.Thismaterialwaslandfilled
untiltheconnectionwithdrywallmanufacturingwasmadeinthe1980s.
Syntheticgypsumcostsonly$3atonandisusuallymorepurethanrecycledorevenvirgin
gypsum(Recology,2009:15).Useofthismaterialiswidespreadamongstgypsummanufacturers;in2010
7.5milliontonswasproduced,creatinga$3millionmarketforsyntheticgypsum.Since2000,USGypsum
hasproduced72millionsquarefeetofdrywallmadeexclusivelywithsyntheticgypsum(USG,2011:3).
Facilitiesthatusesyntheticgypsumareoftenlocatednearpowerplantswithwet-limestonescrubbers.
Thisdecisionismadebygypsummanufacturersutilizingthesamelogicaslocatingfacilitiesnexttogyp-
summines,asthiscurbstheirtransportationcostsforthebulkymaterials.
Industryadoptionofsyntheticgypsumbringsenvironmentalbenefits.Thematerialdecreases
relianceonvirginresourcesandreducesthelandfilldepositsforpowerplants.Recycledandsynthetic
gypsumbothprovidetheenvironmentalbenefits,yettheformerismoreexpensiveandlesspurethan
thelatter.Syntheticgypsum,however,doesnotrequireenergy-intensivecrushingorsiftingtechnolo-
giesneededforrecyclinggypsum.Moreover,manydrywallmanufacturershaverenovatedseveral
plantslocatednearcoalplantstouseonlysyntheticgypsumratherthanvirginorrecycledmaterial.As
such,whiletheabundanceandlowcostofsyntheticgypsumcontributestothe“greening”ofthebuild-
ingindustry,italsoprovidesadisincentivefordrywallrecycling.
Drywall in ConstructionAsevidentinExhibit8,themajorityofdrywallwasteisgeneratedduringnewconstructionand
renovationprojects.Drywallwasteiscreatedduringnewconstructionwhenfreshdrywallsheetsare
trimmedtomeetthedimensionsofthebuilding.
Activity %oftotaldrywallwasteproducedbyactivity
Construction 64%
Demolition 14%
Manufacturing 12%
Renovation 10%
Exhibit 8: Gypsum scrap generation by activity.(Pichtel, 2005)
Drywallwastefromnewconstructioniscalled“cleangypsumscrap,”anddiffersfromdrywall
19
wastegeneratedduringdemolitionbecauseithasyettobecontaminatedwithpaintornails.Thelatter
materialiscalled“dirtyscrap.”Wastecreatedduringmanufacturingisthe“pre-consumerscrap”dis-
cussedpreviously.Importantly,PlaNYConlytargets“cleangypsumscrap”forrecyclingincentives.
Giventhefragmentednatureoftheconstructionindustry,aseparatecontractorishiredspecifi-
callyfordrywallinstallation.Thecomplexityofthecontractstructureofconstructionprojectswillbe
discussedatlengthinChapter4,yetitisimportanttonoteherethatthepartyresponsibleforinstalling
thedrywallisnotnecessarilyresponsibleforwastemanagementdecisions.Dependinguponthecontrac-
tualstructureoftheproject,theseservicesaretypicallytheresponsibilityoftheGeneralcontractoronthe
project.
Drywallcontractorsareresponsibleforthepurchase,transportationandlaborcostsassociated
withinstallation.Wallboardisorderedfromaregionaldistributorandshippedtotheconstructionsiteon
largepallets.Consideringthebulkinessofdrywallpanels,thesepalletscanoccupyasignificantamount
ofspaceon-site.ThisfacthasparticularimplicationsforNYC,asthedensityofthecitymakesspaceon
constructionsitesscarce.
Exhibit 9: Plans detailing gypsum board installation.
Exhibit 10: Drywall installation.(buildopedia.com)
Exhibit 11: Drywall delivery on 6th Avenue & West 8th Street.
20
Drywallinstallationoccursinoneofthelaterphasesofconstruction.Asthematerialcoversthe
steelandlumberskeleton,drywallinstallmarksthepointatwhichtheinteriorformofthebuilding
becomesapparent.Sheetsarescrewedintothelumberormetalframingofthestructureandrestontop
ofalayerofinsulationmaterial.Slabscanalsoformtheceilingofabuilding,yetgypsum-basedceiling
tilesaremorecommonlyusedforthispurpose.Thesheetsaresealedtogetherusingjointcompound,
anothergypsum-basedmaterial.Drywallinstallationisaparticularlymessyendeavor.Cuttingsheetsis
dustywork,slatheringofjointcompoundismessy,andliftingtheheavysheetsishardontheworker’s
bodies.Assuch,interiorcontractorsaresomeofthelowestpaidunionconstructionworkers.Theyearn
$18.41perhour,whiletheaveragehourlyrateforstructuralironandsteelworkersis$21.42.Onaver-
age,drywallinstallersdonothaveahighschooldegreenordotheyreceiveonthejobtraining,while
moststructuralsteelworkershaveasecondarydegreeandgothroughaunionapprenticeshipprocess.
Thiscontrastineducationalattainmentisimportanttohighlightbecauseitshowsthelackofvenuesfor
whichdrywallinstallerscouldbetrainedtokeepdrywallscrapsintactduringconstruction(BLS,2010).
Exhibit 12: Floor of a demolition site, with drywall scrap high-lighted.
Exhibit 13: Drywall being demolished with a sledgehammer
21
Therecoverabilityofcleanscrapdependsuponhowthewasteishandledonsite;scrapsmustbe
keptdryandseparatefromotherwastematerials.“CenterPiling”isamethodofachievingbothrequire-
ments.Workersinstallingdrywalltossscrapsintoacentralizedlocation,whicharethencollectedin
specializedbinstobehauledtoeitheragypsumrecyclingfacility.
Drywall in Renovation & DemolitionBuildingdemolitionpresentsahostofissuesthathindergypsumrecycling.Inatraditional
demolition,alsocalledmechanicaldemolition,sledgehammersorcrowbarsareslammedagainstbuild-
ingelementstotearthemdown.Whilesteelandlumberreinforcementscansometimesremainintact
inamechanicaldemolition,drywalliscrushedanddestroyed.Muchofthegypsumcoreofthedrywall
crumblesintodust.Notonlydoesthisresultingypsumloss,italsocreatesanunpleasantenvironment
fordemolitionworkers.
Asdrywallpanelsaredemolished,thescrapsfallhaphazardlyontothefloorofthesite.Asevi-
dentinExhibits12&13,thescrapscomminglewithotherwastematerialsandaresteppedonbyworkers
throughouttheworkdaybeforebeingcollectedandplacedintowastebins.Thistreatmentofthescraps
degradesthequalityofthegypsumcore.UnlesstheGeneralConditionsspecificationinthecontractor
theWasteManagementPlanstipulatethatwastebesortedintoseparatecontainers,drywallscrapsare
Exhibit 14: Absestos joint compound identified at the Hospital for Special Surgery.
22
thrownintobinswithlumber,cardboard,insulationandothermaterials.Thisdisposalmethodcrumbles
scrapsevenmore.
Recyclingthis“dirty”scrap,whichcontainspaint,nailsandothercontaminants,isaprocess
thatrequiresmoresiftingandsortingthanrecyclingcleanscrap.Dirtyscrapisoftennotviableforrecy-
clingduetopuritystandardssetbythevariousend-usersofrecycledgypsum.AccordingtoPatrickMan-
ning,DirectorofGypsumRecyclingAmerica,dirtyscrapwillneverbeacceptedbydrywallmanufactures
duetotheriskofthematerialcontainingasbestos.Helateropinedthathe“hatesthetermdirtyscrap,”
whichreinforcesthecommonbeliefthatthematerialcannotberecycledatall.WhileGypsumRecycling
Americarecyclesdirtyscrap,thepotentialpresenceofasbestosinrecycleddirtyscraphindersitsmarket-
ability.
NYChasstrictlawsgoverningthesubstance.Notsurprisingly,thereisaseparateabatement
subcontractoroneachjobsite,whosesoleresponsibilityistodrillholesinselectsheetsofdrywalltoseeif
asbestosinsulationwasusedinthebuilding.Ifasbestosispresent,thenthedrywallalongwithallother
materialssurroundingthepieceofinsulationmustbedisposedashazardouswaste.
Often,theabatementcontractorworksonanentirelydifferentschedulethantherestofthecon-
structionteam.Forexample,theabatementcontractortestedthewallsonthethirdflooroftheHospital
forSpecialSurgery,thoughthisfloorwasnotscheduledforrenovation.Thoughthismayseemlikeami-
nordetail,itillustrateshowcoordinationproblemsbetweencontractorscreatesextrawastethattypically
issenttoalandfill.UrbanGreen,theNYCchapteroftheUSGBC,considersthecity’sabatementrequire-
mentstobeoverlystrictandresponsibleforanunnecessaryamountofC&Dwastebeingsenttoalandfill
whicharenotactuallycontaminated.
On-site DisposalThewastemanagementsubcontractorprovidesthecontainersforwastetobecollectedonsite.
Containersrangeinsizefrom1.5cubicyardsto20cubicyards.DuetothescarcityofspaceonmostNYC
constructionsites,somecontractorsplacebinsonthestreet.Howeverthispracticecomeswiththerisksof
scavengingand/orpedestriansmistakingthecontainersasregulartrashbins,asevidentinExhibits16&
17.Largerbinstakeupparkingspaces,whichareapreciouscommoditytomanyNewYorkers.Another
methodforcontractorstomaximizespaceonthesiteisbyminimizingtheamountofcontainers.Al-
lowingallwastetobethrowntogether,ratherthansegregatingitbymaterial,logicallyrequiresfewer
bins.Whenhandledinthismannerthecommingledmaterialsarethoughtofasasingleproduct,called
“MixedC&D.”
23
Incentivesdoexistforsome materialstobeseparatedonsite.Contrastingthetreatmentof
drywallversusmetalwastenicelyillustrateswhythisisthecase.Itiscommonpracticeforsteel,copper
andothermetalstobesource-separatedfortworeasons.First,metalskeeptheirshapeduringdemolition
andcanbeeasilyidentifiedinthetrashcoveringthefloorofademolitionsite.Secondly,metalhasahigh
resalevalue.Often,wastecontractorswillnotchargeageneralcontractortohaulsegregatedmetalsoff-
siteduetotheirinherentvalue.ThisoffsetstheextralaborcostsshoulderedbytheGeneralcontractorto
separatemetalfromothermaterials.
Ontheotherhand,crumbleddrywallmightnotbeaseasilyidentifiedinthismessyenviron-
ment.Assuch,laborersresponsibleforthecollectionofwastemustbetrainedtoidentifythegypsum
scrapviableforrecyclingfromcontaminatedpieces,aswellasfromtheceilingtilesandsimilarlooking
Exhibit 18: C&D waste bin occupying two parking spaces on Broadway & 99th Street.
Exhibit 16 &17: C&D waste bins on street contaminated with municipal waste.
Exhibit 15: Bins with segregated waste on site in the Hospital for Special Surgery demolition.
24
materialspresentonthefloorofademolitionsite.Duetotheextratrainingandtimerequiredtoseparate
gypsumfromotherwastematerials,on-siteseparationgeneratesadditionallaborcosts.Couplingthe
highlaborcostsrequiredtorecoverthematerialsonsitewiththehighcostofrecycledgypsumtomanu-
facturers,itisclearthattheprocessasitstandsnowisnotcosteffectiveforeitherparty.
Aspreviouslymentioned,drywallmustbeseparatedfromothermaterialsonsiteinordertobe
recycled.WhengypsumscrapistreatedasMixedC&D,itisthrownintobinswithlumber,tileandother
scrapswithsharpedges.Thisturnsthegypsumcoreintodust.TransportingMixedC&Doffsitealsojostles
thedrywall,furtherdegradingthegypsum.Drywallthatissource-separatedallowsforthematerialto
maintainitsqualityandbehauleddirectlytoafacilitythatrecyclesgypsumandbypassthetransfersta-
tion.
C&D Waste Transfer StationAllMixedC&Dgeneratedinthecityishauledtooneofthe42MixedC&Dwastetransfersta-
tionsinNYC.Uponarrival,thetrucksareweighedandthecompositionsoftheirloadsareassessed.This
isdonebyworkers’eyeballingandestimatingtheamountofmaterialscommontoC&Dprojectsineach
load.Withsomeexceptions,thefivematerialsrecordedtypicallyinclude:brickandstone,lumber,cor-
rugatedcardboard,metals,plasticsanddrywall.Bytheseestimates,CooperTankRecyclingestimatesthat
drywallwastecomprises15%-30%oftotalloads.
Exhibit 19: Tipping floor of Cooper Tank Recycling.
Exhibit 20: Mechanical sorters at Cooper Tank Recycling.
25
Haulersarechargeda“tippingfee”bythetransferstationoperator.Thesefeesareleviedperton
andrangefrom$60-$80inthecity.Haulersreceiveweighticketsfromtheoperatorsdenotingthetotal
tonnage,materialcompositionandtippingfee.Theseticketsservebothasareceiptforthehaulersand
asameansfortransferstationoperatorstotracktonnagesprocessedandthefinaldestinationofdifferent
materials.
Aftertheirloadsareweighedandassessed,haulerstiptheirtrucksontothetransferstationfloor.
Whiletechnologyvariesbetweenfacilities,thebasicmethodforprocessingMixedC&Dcanbeunder-
stoodassortingthistrashpileintodifferentmaterials.Essentially,thesortingturnswasteisbackinto
materialswithintrinsicvalue.Wasteisseparatedindecreasingsizeorder,usuallybeginningwithamag-
neticgrapplerpickingoutlargemetalpieces.Afterpickingoutmetals,stationswithlowdiversionrates
willcrushtheremainderofloadsbyrunningoverthepilewithatrackmachinebeforesendingitstraight
tolandfill.Crushingisnecessaryheretoreducevolumeandthustransportationcosts.
Stationswithhighrecyclingratesfurthersortlargematerialslikebrick,concrete,lumberand
cardboardbyhand.What’sleftofthepilesthengothroughshakersandscreenerstosegregatefinesfrom
bulkymaterials.Bulkiermaterialsaretheplacedonaconveyerbeltandfurthersortedbyamanualpick
ordirectlybyhand.AsMixedC&Dloadscontaininsulationandothermaterialsthathavenorecycled
value,eventhemostefficientprocessingmethodcreatesresidualbulkywaste.
Exhibit 21: Drywall in the transfer station environment, with the destroyed gypsum core highlighted.
26
Fines,orthedustcreatedwhenlumberandothermaterialsarecrushed,areasourceofincome
fortransferstationoperators.FinescanbecollectedandresoldtolandfilloperatorsasAlternativeDaily
Cover(ADC).ADCissprinkledontopoflandfillsattheendofeachworkdaytomitigatevermininfesta-
tion,odors,litterandscavenging.PriortothedevelopmentofADC,mulchesmadefromvirgintimber
wereusedasdailylandfillcover.Soilssurroundingthelandfillwerealsoused,effectivelyreducingthe
surfaceareaoflandfillsitesandcontaminatingsurroundingsoils.UseofC&DfinesforADCisoneexam-
pleofthemanywayswasteiseasilyturnedintoacommoditywithpropermanagement.
C&Dtransferstationsareefficientrecyclersandprocessors.CooperTankRecyclingforexample,
processesover1,400tonsofMixedC&Dperdayandboastsan85%diversionrate.70%oftheentireC&D
wastestreamofNYCiscurrentlyrecycled(UrbanGreen,54).Incontrast,only0.06%ofrecoverablegyp-
sumwasrecycledinNewYorkstatein2006,therestbeingsenttolandfill(NEWMOA,2009:NY-5).This
poorrateisnotduetooperationalormanagementdeficiencies,butsimplybecausethecompositionof
drywallcannotwithstandthetransferstationenvironment.Presumably,drywallarrivesatthestation
insmallanddeterioratedscrapsduetoroughhandlingontheconstructionsiteandduringtransport.
Scrapsaretoosmalltobehandpickedoutofpiles.Mechanicalsortingpulverizesthegypsumcoreand
ripsthepaperbacking.Exhibit21depictsdrywallscrapfoundonthefloorofCooperTankRecycling,
whichnicelyillustratesthesusceptibilityofdrywalltodamageduringtraditionalwastemanagement
processes.Couplingalltheseconsiderationstogether,theGeneralManagerofCooperTankRecyclingput
itbestinsayingthat“thereisnochanceinhellthatgypsumcanmakeitthroughthetransferstationto
berecycled.”
Gypsumalsoactsasapollutantinthetransferstationenvironment.Whenwaterreactswiththe
sulfurbaseofgypsum,itcreateshydrogensulfidegas(H2S),causingthenoxiousandlingeringodorof
rotteneggs.ThoughH2Sisapoisonousgas,itisemittedatsuchlowconcentrationsinthetransferstation
andinlandfillsthatitdoesnotposeapublichealththreat.Thesmell,however,isanuisanceforworkers
andthoselivingaroundthesefacilities.Exhibit19ofCooperTankRecycling’stippingfloorshowshow
thefacilityismostlyopenair,meaningthatwastepilesareconstantlyexposedtorainandsnow.Thisisa
commondesignforurbantransferstations,makingitdifficultforoperatorstosequesterthesmellexuding
fromdampeneddrywall.GypsumusedtobeakeyingredientinADCuntilthediscoveryofitsH2Semis-
sions.However,itisinevitablethatgypsumfineswillmixwithADCmaterialsinthetransferstation,
leadingtomanylandfilloperatorstobantheuseoffacilityfinesasADC.
Thissummaryshowsthatmaterialsleavethetransferstationinoneoftwoways,eitheraswaste
orasaproduct.Inthefirstscenario,wasteishauledtooneoftheC&Dlandfillsintheregion.Thisoption
hastransferstationoperatorspayingboththetransportationcostsandatippingfeeatthelandfill.These
27
feesrangefrom$25-$30.Whenmaterialsleaveaswaste,theyarehauledinsegregatedloadsandsoldto
recyclersforfurtherprocessing,end-marketusersorarchitecturalsalvagestores.Thoughstationoperators
havetoshouldertransportationcostsineitherscenario,itisimportanttonoteherethatrecycling = profit
whilelandfilling = loss. Moreover,theclosureofFreshKillsimpliesincreasedtransportcostsforloads
tomakeittolandfillsinupstateNewYork,LongIslandoraneighboringstate.CooperTankestimates
around$15pertonintransportationcoststosendtruckloadstothelandfill.Inthecaseofgypsum,haul-
ersarechargedpertonofscrapbyrecyclers.Assuch,neithertheconstructionsidenorwastemanage-
mentsideofthesupplychainseeaprofitfromrecyclinggypsum.
LandfillGypsumproductionofH2Sposessimilarproblemswhenlandfilledaswhenhandledinthe
transferstation.MostC&Dmaterialsareinert,meaningthattheircompositionanddecompositionposes
noimmediateenvironmentalorpublichealththreats.Wasteisdisposedinlandfillsdesignedspecifically
forconstructionmaterials.Essentially,thismeansthatthelandfillsareunlinedandenjoyapermitting
processmuchmorelaxthanthosehandlingMSW.However,gypsumcreatesH2Sinthelandfillenviron-
mentaswell.
InDecember2010,theMassachusettsDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionbannedthe
disposalofcleandrywallscrapfromtheC&Dlandfillsinthestate.Thisdecisionwasmadeprimarily
fromtheamountofcomplaintsfromresidentslivingnearC&Dlandfills(O’Connell,2005).Whilelandfill
concernsarenotofimmediaterelevancetothisdiscussionofplanningissuesinNYC,itshowsthatother
stategovernmentsarebeginningtoaddresstheenvironmental,socialandeconomicsustainabilityissues
presentedbylandfillinggypsum.
RecyclingRecyclinggypsumisatwo-partprocess.First,thepaperbackingisremovedfromthegypsum
core.Secondly,thegypsumcoreisrunthroughamechanicalchipperuntilthematerialisfinelyground.
Carefulconsiderationmustbepaidtotheproportionofpaperinthismix;iftoomuchispresent,theload
isnotviablefordrywallmanufactureasitwilldecreasetheproduct’sfiresafetyrating.Additionally,gyp-
summanufacturespurchasethisrecycledpapertobereusedindrywallmanufacturing.TheUSGeologi-
calSurvey2010“GypsumSummary”indicatesthat“some”ofthe4milliontonsofgypsumgeneratedas
wasteinwallboardmanufactureorconstructionactivitieswasrecycled.
TaylorRecyclingFacilityinMontgomery,NYistheonlygypsumrecyclerinthestate.Inearly
28
2008,CooperTankRecyclingconsideredinvestinginthe$1.2millionequipmentthatwouldenabletheir
facilitytoprocessgypsumonsite.Howeverthemarketcrashlaterinthesameyear,resultinginthecon-
tractionofbuildingindustriesacrosstheboard,requiredthemtoabandontheconsiderableinvestment.
GypsumRecyclingAmerica,basedinCambridge,MA,isauniqueprocesserthathasplansto
expandintoNewYorkinthenearfuture.Thecompany’sbusinessmodelisfocusedaroundtheentire
life-cycleofwastegypsumscrap.Itsuppliesthecontainersandlogisticssystemstoreceivegypsumdi-
rectlyfromconstructionsites.Shreddingequipmentisalsomobile,meaningthatitcanchangelocations
dependinguponareasinthestatewherethemostwasteisgenerated.Thisdecreasestransportationcosts
forhaulersandthusincreasesthecost-effectivenessofdrywallrecycling.
Thecompanycharges$60/tonforinboundgypsumtotheirprocessingfacilities.Togiveanidea
ofexactlyhowmuchdrywallisinaton,onecubicyardofthematerialequals500pounds.Gypsum
RecyclingAmericahasaninterestingpricingmodelforitsrecycledgypsum.AccordingtotheCEO,the
company“setsthepriceagainstthatofourenduserscurrentcostofnaturalgypsum.So,iftheyopenup
theirbooksandshowustheircurrentcosts,weofferoursfor20%less.”
Exhibit23displaystheapplicationsforrecycleddrywall.Themajorityoftheseendusers,includ-
ingdrywallmanufacturers,havestringentpuritystandardsthatallowthemtoonlyacceptcleanscrap.
Assuch,mostusedordirtydrywallcannotberesoldoncerecycled.Thisdecisiondoesseemlogical;we
wouldn’twantourfood-growingsoilenrichedwithgypsumcontaminatedwithasbestosorpaintchips,
norwouldwewantittotreatourwastewater.Couplingtheseconsiderationswiththefactthatmost
drywallwasteisactuallygeneratedduringnewconstructionprojects,itisclearwhymosteffortstoward
recyclinggypsumarefocusedoncleanscraponly.Nationally,thelargestapplicationofrecycledgyp-
sumscrapisasasoilenricher.Regionally,however,theavailabilityoftheseendmarketsisscarce.The
Exhibit 22: Gypsum Recycling Amercia’s mobile crusher.(gypsumrecycling.com)
29
primaryendmarketsintheNYCregionareasanagriculturalinput,anadditiveincementmanufacture
andinrecycleddrywall.AgricycleinPhiladelphiaprocessesdrywallwasteasanagriculturalinput.US
Gypsum’smanufacturingplantinStonyPoint,NYalsoacceptsregionallyproduceddrywallwaste,as
doesUSAGypsuminPhiladelphia.
EndMarkets SpecificUse
Drywall Corematerial
AgriculturalInputAddsnutrientstosoilforfoodgrowing,lawnareasandgolfcourses
CementadditiveAddedtocontrolsettingtimeandenhancecapacityofradiantheatslabs
Stucco&PlasterofParis
Usedasanalternativeforvirginmaterialinthisgypsum-basedproductstypicallymadebygypsummanufacturers
WastewatertreatmentSettlesuspendedclayparticlesintreatmentprocesses
ManuretreatmentWhenmixedwithammonia,gypsumreducesodorfromanimalwaste
AnimalbeddingHelpstoabsorbmoistureinbeddingwhenmixedwithwoodshavings
GreaseabsorptionCanbesprinkledontopofoilleaksonautoshoporotherindustrialfloors
AthleticfieldmarkerCreateslinesonfootballorsoccerfieldsasanalternativetochalk
DentalMolds
Thoughrecycledgypsumisnotcommoninthisapplication,virginmaterialisusedbytomaketemporarymolds
IcemitigationinroadwaysFacilitatestheleachingofsaltsfromsoilalongroads
Exhibit24displaysthegeneralformulaforcalculatingcostpertonofrecycledgypsum.InNYC,
poorrecyclingratesareprimarilyduetodrywallbeingdisposedofasMixedC&D,ornotseparatedonthe
constructionsite.Ifthematerialwassourceseparated,thenthewastemanagementsubcontractorcould
haultheloaddirectlytoagypsumrecyclingfacility.However,thisrequiresanextratrucktripandthus
resultsinextracostsforthegeneralcontractor.Thoughdrywallcouldbeseparatedatthetransfersta-
tionsiteandstoreduntiltherecyclerpicksitupforfurtherprocessing,thisisnotaviableoptiongiven
theaforementionedproblemsthisenvironmentposestogypsum.Evenifgypsumcouldbesalvagedin
thetransferstationenvironment,thelaborandtransportcostsmightoutweighthecurrent$65/toncost
tolandfillresidualwaste.Aspreviouslymentioned,thisoptionalsogeneratesextralaborcostsforthe
generalcontractor.
Exhibit 23: Common end markets for recylced gypsum.(Pichtel, 2005 & NERC 2011)
30
Cost ResponsibleEntity
SourceSeparation(labor) Generalcontractor
Transportation(constructionsite–processor) Subcontractedwastehauler(generalcontractor)
Storage(atprocessor) Processor
Transportation(processor-endmarket) Processor
Saleprice Enduser
Exhibit 24: Formula for calculating cost per ton of recycled gypsum
Generallyspeaking,itischeaperforallstakeholdersinthesupplychaintolandfillratherthan
recyclegypsumscrap.WhileGypsumRecyclingUSA’spricingmodelmakesrecycledgypsumacost-ef-
fectiveoptionfortheend-users,itdoesnotnecessarilydosoontheconstructionsideofthesupplychain.
Thecompany’s$60/tonchargeforinboundgypsumiscompetitivewithNYCtransferstationtippingfees.
However,evenifgypsumissourceseparatedandsenttoaprocessingfacility,siteswillstillhaveMixed
C&Dloadstobehauledtotransferstation.Assuch,contractorsmustconsiderhowmuchsource-separat-
inggypsumwouldreducetotalMixedC&Dtonnage.Additionally,thechargeforgypsum-onlydisposal
mustbeconsideredintandemwithitsassociatedtransportationandlaborcosts.Thisleadstotheoption
onlybeingcost-effectiveforthegeneralcontractoronlyifthereisasignificantamountofgypsumwaste
generatedbytheproject.Moreover,thoughthe$60/tonchargeis$5/lessthantheestimatedcostcharged
totransferstationoperatorstolandfillthematerial,itiscurrentlynotpossibleforgypsumtoberecovered
fromthisenvironment.
AsidefromGypsumRecyclingUSA’sbusinessmodel,itisusuallynotcosteffectiveforendus-
erstopurchaserecycledgypsum.Costspertonvarydependinguponthetechnologiesandcontractors
involvedintheprocess.Estimatesrangefrom$9-$20perton,whichissignificantlyhigherthancostsfor
virginorsyntheticgypsum.
ConclusionsExhibit25summarizesthetransformationsgypsumundergoesthroughextractionanddisposal
inthecontextofNYC.Trucktriplengthrequiredforeachdisposaloptionisshownbythevaryinglength
oflinesbetweendestinations.
ThemajorityoftheC&Dwastestreamiscomprisedofmaterialsthatarebulky,inertandhavein-
trinsicvalue.Giventhesecharacteristics,C&Dtransferstationstypicallyachievehighdiversionrates.As
inthecasestudyexample,manyofthesetransferstationsevenhave“recycling”intheirname.Further-
more,CooperTankRecyclingrecyclesupwardsof85%ofthetotaltonnagesprocessedeachyear. Assuch,
31
theconstructionindustryreliesonthetransferstationnetworktoachievetheirrecyclinggoals.While
thissymbioticrelationshipresultsinhighrecyclingratesformostmaterials,gypsumwallboardcan-
notwithstandtheconditionsofthetransferstation.Followinggypsumthroughthedrywallmaterials
cyclepresentsaparadox:the efficiency of transfer stations is a disincentive for gypsum recycling. This
paradoxobviateswhytheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilityaddressedgypsum
scrapmarketstimulationdirectlyinPlaNYC2030;recycleddrywallmarketsstrugglewhengovernedby
thelogicofAdamSmith’sinvisiblehand.Governmentinterventionisnecessaryforrecyclingdrywallto
becomeacost-effectiveactivityforallinthegypsumsupplychain,butitisunclearifthisactionwould
achieveanyenvironmentalbenefitsgiventhehostoftrade-offissuesidentifiedinthischapter.
Extraction
Manufacture
Consumption
Gypsum Recycler
Landfill
End Markets
Transfer Station
SourceSeparated
MixedC&D
Cement Drywall Agricultural input
Waste option 1
Waste option 2
Exhibit 25: The gypsum supply chain from extraction to disposal.
32
CHAPTER 3
THE C&D WASTE STREAM
PlaNYCdescribespathwaysforachievingthegoalsofInitiative5,thefirstbeingtoreducebuild-
ingwasteoverallandthesecondtoencouragethecosteffectivenessofrecyclingC&Dwaste.ThePlan
alsoliststwomethodsforachievingthesegoalsaswellasthecityagenciesanddepartmentsrespon-
sibleforimplementation.Thefirstisaimedatprocurement:“Requireuseofrecycledcontentinbuilding
materials,”whilethesecondispurelyregulatory:“Requirerecyclingofbuildingmaterials.”ThePlan
designatesseveralcityagenciesresponsibleforcarryingouttheseeffortsincludetheDepartmentof
Buildings(DOB),DepartmentofTransportation(DOT),DepartmentofDesignandConstruction(DDC),the
DepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection(DEP),theDepartmentofSanitation(DSNY)andtheBusiness
IntegrityCommission(BIC)astheleadagencies.ThePlanalsoliststheCityCouncilisasecondarypartner
intheseefforts,asthisisthebodythatwillultimatelycodifyregulations.
AsthePlandoesnotdetailimplementationmethods,itremainstobeseenhowtheseagencies
willcoordinatetoestablishcosteffectivemethodsforgypsumrecycling.Severalinterviewedcityofficials
indicatedtheirdisbeliefthatthegoalsofPlaNYCcouldbetranslatedintoactualpolicy.Onementioned
thattheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitydevelopedthesegoalswithoutany
understandingofhowagenciescommunicateandcollaborateinpolicycreation.Thisobservationbegs
thequestionastoiftheproperresearchwasdonetoseeifthepromotionofgypsumrecyclingisaworth-
whileendeavorforthecitytotakeoninthefirstplace.Assumingitis,thischaptersummarizesthecur-
rentrolesofgovernmentstakeholdersintheC&Drecyclingprocess.Itthendescribeshowtwoagencies
responsibleforconstructionprojectsinthecityhandlewastemanagementontheirjobsites.Theimpacts
ofthesevariouseffortsongypsumrecyclinginparticularwillthenbeanalyzed.
GiventhatthisresearchisfocusedonNYC,theanalysisofthegovernmentstakeholderswillbe
fromthebottomup,beginningwithcityagenciesandascendingtothefederalscale.Thisorganization
alsomirrorstheinfluenceeachsphereofgovernmenthasonthewastemanagementprocessinNYC;fed-
eralagenciesworklargelyinanadvisorycapacityforlocalwastemanagementeffortswhilethecityand
statelevelsregulatetheprocessesviapermitsandlaws.Exhibit26providesasnapshotofagencyrolesin
C&Dwastemanagementonallgovernmentalscales.
Notably,theproblemsassociatedwithrecoverabilityofgypsumscrapdescribedinChapter2are
recognizedonthefederal,stateandlocalscales.Moreover,eachoftheseplansandstudiesmentionthe
33
samebarrierstorecyclinggypsumandnotethaton-sitesortingisthemosteffectivewayofremedying
theproblem.None,however,offersuggestionsonhowtomaketheon-sitesortingofwastecosteffective.
Organization Influence
FederalEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
+ Worksinadvisorycapacityforstatesandcitiestocoor-dinatetheirownC&Dwastemanagementpracticesandpolicies
+ CommissionedanationalsurveyoftheC&Dwastestreamin1998,whichremainstheonlystudyundertakenontheFederalscale
+ 1998Franklinreportmentionsthelackofend-marketsforrecycledgypsumandthevariousbarrierstoitsrecover-ability
State
DepartmentofEnvironmentalConservation(DEC)
+ SuppliespermitsfortheprivatewastetransferstationsinNYCaswellasenforcementofregulatorycompliancepertainingtodailyoperations
+ 2010BeyondWastePlanacknowledgesthat“marketdevelopmentattentionisstillneeded”forgypsumwall-boardscrap,statingthattheproblemliesinthelackoflocalend-usemarketsforrecycledgypsum,alackofin-formationontonnagesandqualityofthematerialintheC&Dwastestream
EmpireStateDevelopment(ESD)
+ OffersfundingfornascentcompaniesintheWMsector.+ OpeningtheC&DResearchInstituteatSyracuse.Activi-
tiesincludeR&Dinmaterialsmanagement&recyclingandindustryoutreach
Governor’sOffice + ExecutiveOrder4(2008)requiresallstateagenciestore-ducewasteby50%.ThisactionspurredtheMTA/NYCTtotranslatediversiongoalstoconstructionprojectsinNYC
Region StatesofPA,CT,VT,MA,NCandGA
+ TherearenolandfillsinNYC,meaningthatmuchoftheC&DwastestreamisdisposedofinupstateNYorneigh-boringstates.
+ Eachstateestablishesauniquesetofregulationsregard-ingtheirC&Dlandfills.MA,forexample,banneddrywallfromlandfills
City
DepartmentofCityPlanning(DCP)
+ Sitesnewtransferstationsandmaterialsrecoveryfacili-ties
DepartmentofSanitation(DSNY)
+ LeviespermittingfeesforC&Dtransferstations&conductssitevisitstoensureoperationalcompliance
DepartmentofDesign&Construction(DDC)
+ Commissionedthe2003Construction&DemolitionWasteManualasaguideforunderstandingC&Drecyclingop-portunitiesandWMbestpracticesinNYC
+ Implementstheconstruction&renovationofcitybuild-ings
BusinessIntegrityCommission(BIC)
+ Establishesmaximumratesthathaulerscancharge+ Licensesandregisterstradewastebrokers&haulers
Exhibit 26: Federal, State & City agencies with a role in C&D waste management.
34
C&D Waste Management in NYCAllC&Dwasteisclassifiedas“non-putresciblecommercialwaste”inNYCregulations.Non-pu-
trescibleessentiallymeansthatnofoodispresentinthestream,andthusdecompositionisnotaconcern
duringprocessingorlandfilling.Thenon-putresciblecommercialstreamisdefinedbythelegislation
exclusivelyasthewastegeneratedbyconstruction,renovationanddemolitionprojects.Putrescible
commercialwaste,ontheotherhand,isthedailytrashgeneratedinofficebuildings,hotels,retailstores
andthelike.Importantly,allcommercialwastemanagementisconductedbytheprivatesector.The
NewYorkCityDepartmentofSanitation(DSNY)handlesdailytrashgeneratedinhomes(Municipal
SolidWaste)andininstitutionalbuildingsfromthesourcetofinaldisposal.Thisdivisionoflabormeans
theprivatesectorcollects,haulsandprocessesallC&Dwasteregardlessiftheprojectispublicorprivate.
Importantly,thislimitstheamountofinfluencecityagenciessuchasDSNYandDEPhaveontheprivate
C&Dwasteindustriesoutsideofthepermittingprocess.
The2006SolidWasteManagementPlanpublishedbyDSNYgivesahistoricalcontexttothedivi-
sionoflaborinthewastemanagementindustriesestablishedinthe1950s(DSNY,2006:ES-4):
Becauseprivatehaulerstookadvantageofthelow-costoptionofdisposingattheCity’slandfills,bothresidentialandcommercialwastecontinuedtodependonthesameultimatedisposalloca-tion.
Duringthelate1980s,concernsaboutpreservingcapacityat theFreshKillsLandfillcausedtheCitytodramaticallyraiseratesforprivatehaulerstotipthere.Withtheeconomicsoftheirbusinesschangeddramatically,theseprivatehaulersbeganbuildingupanetworkofin-Citytransfersta-tions,pointsfromwhichwastefromlocalcollectiontruckswastransferredtolong-haultrucksforexportoutsideoftheCity.Withtheestablishmentofthisall-privatesystem,theCity’scommercialandresidentialwastewascompletelysegregatedforthefirsttime.
TheclosureoftheFreshKillsLandfillin2001onceagainresultedinthecommingleddisposalofcommercialandresidentialwaste,onlynowtherelationshipwasreversed.WheretheprivatehaulersoncereliedontheCity’sdisposalinfrastructureattheFreshKillsLandfill,theCitywasnowtobereliantonthetransferstationsandlandfillsoftheprivatesector.
TheFreshKillsLandfillalludedtointhispassageislocatedinStatenIsland.Upuntilits2001clo-
sure,FreshKillswastheonlyfinalwastedisposalsiteinNYC.ThePlanalludestothisorganizationasthe
reasonforthe“far-flungarrayofprivatehaulers,transferstationsanddisposalcompanies(DSNY,2006:
ES-1)”requiredtohandlethecity’scommercialwaste.Additionally,thePlanstatesDSNY’sgoalofcity-
widewastereductionby75%anditsdesiretostimulatemarketsforrecycledgypsumscrap.However,
justlikePlaNYC,theSolidWasteManagementPlanonlyrecognizesthepersistentproblemsforgypsum
recyclingratherthanofferingsolutionstocorrecttheproblem.
ThefactthatDSNYdoesnothandleC&Dwastemeansthatithaslimitedpowerstocorrectthis
35
marketfailure.Forexample,DSNYrequiresbylawthatmetal,glassandplasticandotherrecyclable
materialsareseparatedfromputrescibletrashintheMunicipalSolidWastestreamsforwhichtheyare
responsible.Whilenon-recyclablesinthisstreamarehauleddirectlytoalandfill,therecyclablemateri-
alsarehauledtoa“MaterialsRecoveryFacilities”(MRF)forfurtherprocessing.Requiringthatmaterials
beseparatedatthesourcesignificantlyraiseddiversionratesforMunicipalSolidWaste.Aspreviously
mentioned,drywallmustbesourceseparatedinordertoberecycled.However,DSNYlackstheabilityto
requirethisonjobsitesgiventhecurrentdivisionoflabor.Furthermore,theDeputyDirectorofRecy-
clingatDSNYdefinedC&Dwastetransferstationsas“defacto”MRFs.Thisreinforcestheviewthatthe
efficiencyoftransferstationsprovidesadisincentivefordrywallrecycling;lowrecyclingratesforasingle
materialaremaskedbytheoverallhighdiversionratesachievedbytransferstations.
TheDepartmentofCityPlanning(DCP)isresponsibleforsitingnewtransferstationsandma-
terialsrecoveryfacilities.Transferstationsrequireamplespaceandaccesstoprimarytruckroutesfor
theiroperations.GiventhescarcityofspaceinManhattan,themajorityoftransferstationsarelocatedin
QueensandBrooklyn.Therearecurrentlynoplanstoconstructadditionaltransferstationsinanybor-
oughs,norarethereplansfornewC&Drecyclingfacilities.
DCPreviewofpotentialtransferstationsitesisfocusedontheenvironmentalimpactsrather
thansocialconcerns.Asresidentialpropertyvaluesarelowernearthemajorroadwaysfavoredbyindus-
triallanduses,manytransferstationsandotherwasteprocessingfacilitiesarelocatednearlow-income
neighborhoods.Trucktripsgeneratedbytheseindustriallandusespresentsairqualityconcernstothose
livingnexttothefacilities.Moreover,peoplelivingaroundC&Dtransferstationsarealsomorelikelyto
sufferfromthemalodorousH2Sgasemissionsfromdrywallinthestationenvironment.Assuch,these
residentsbearadisproportionalburdenofthenegativeexternalitiesfromC&Dtransferstationoperations.
DSNY’s2006SolidWasteManagementPlanaddressesthisbyreducingthetotaltonnageperdaycapacity
allowedattransferstationslocatedinwhattheyterm“relevantcommunitydistricts,”orneighborhoods
withahighrateofindustriallandusesintheirsurroundingarea(DSNY,2006:4-10).ThePlanstatesthat
DSNYwillreducepermittedcapacityofthesestationsbyupto2,000tonsperday,andthatthecity-
ownedandoperatedMarineTransferStationswillhandlethisextrawastevolume.However,thisplan
hasyettobeimplemented.Ifthisintentiseventuallytranslatedintopolicy,thenDSNYwouldhavethe
powertobandrywallfrombeingprocessedintheMarineTransferStations.Assuch,thismovepresentsa
potentialpathforthecitytohaveadirectimpactonrecycleddrywallmarkets.
TheBusinessIntegrityCommission(BIC)involvementinthisprocessistocurbdisposalofwaste
intounregulatedlandfillsaswellasprocessingandhaulingbyinformalnetworks.Itdoessobylicens-
ingallcommercialwastehaulersandestablishingthemaximumratesthatprivatecarterscancharge
36
forremovalofputresciblewaste.Therearecurrently720certifiedC&Dhaulersand52wastebrokers
operationalinNYC(BusinessIntegrityCommission,2012).Interestingly,BICdoesnotsetmaximumrates
forC&Dhauling.Thisratemusttakeintoconsiderationthetippingfeeandtheboththetransportation
costsforwhichthehaulersareresponsible.AsallC&DwastehaulersmustbringloadstoanNYC-based
transferstationforprocessing,astandardestimatefortransportationcostscouldbemadeindeveloping
apricemodelforamaximumC&Dhaulingrate.Coupledwiththefactthattransferstationssetcompeti-
tivetippingfees,itisfeasiblethatBICcouldsetareasonablemaximumrateforC&Dwastehauling.The
EPAestimatesthisaveragerateas$15.00/perton(EPA,2002).Thisistheexactamountquotedbythe
GeneralManagerofCooperTankrecycling.Clearly,thereisenoughinformationatBIC’sdisposaltocre-
ateafairmaximumrateforC&Dwastehaulers.Itisunclear,however,whytheCommissionhasnotyet
establishedthisrate.IfBICwasgiventhepowertosetandenforceabaserateforC&Dremoval,thiscould
haveanimpactontheeconomicsofdrywallrecycling.Standardizationofhaulingrateswouldminimize
therent-seekingpotentialofC&Dhaulerswhochargeunnecessarilyhighratesfortheirservices.Further
researchisneededtounderstandtheaverageratechargedbythelicensedhaulerslicensedinNYC.How-
ever,establishmentofamaximumratecouldlowercostsenoughtomakegeneralcontractorswillingto
payfortheextracartingservicesneededtosendsource-separatedgypsumdirectlytoarecyclingfacility.
Permitting: State & City ScaleAlltransferstationsreceivepermitsfromDSNYandtheNewYorkStateDepartmentofEnvi-
ronmentalConservation(DEC).DSNYpermitsmostlypertaintothephysicaloperationsofthefacility,
meaningissuesofworkersafetyandenvironmentalhealthofthesurroundingarea.TheDECismore
concernedwithhowmaterialswithinthewastestreamareclassifiedandtheirfinaldisposaldestinations.
TransferstationsareinspectedbyDECandDSNYofficialsonamonthlybasistoensurecompliancewith
eachofthepermittingterms.Muchoverlapexistsbetweentheprocessesofthetwoagencies,specifically
inthedocumentationrequiredtoreceiveinitialoperatingpermits.Thisresultsinsubstantialtimeand
monetarycostsfortransferstationoperators,especiallywhenapplyingforoperatingpermitsfornew
recyclingtechnologiessuchasagypsumwallboardshredder.InhisMaster’sthesisexploringtherea-
sonsbehinddifferingrecyclingratesfortransferstationsinNYC,RobertViola(2008)interviewedseveral
transferstationoperatorsontheinefficienciestheyperceiveinthesebureaucraticprocessesthathinder
marketsforrecycledgoods.Forexample,onetransferstationrepresentativewasquotedonhowthese
governmentalinefficacieshinderthedevelopmentofinnovativeusesforwastes:“Wehavecomeupwith
somereallyingeniousideastorecycleleachateanduseit...it’sjustshotdownimmediately;nobodywants
37
tohearit...thebureaucracyisjust,well,nobodywantstomakeamovewithoutsomeoneelsedoingitfirst.
Nobodyisatrailblazerinthatoffice(50).”ManyoftherepresentativesinterviewedbyViolaidentified
theneedforamoreefficientpermittingprocesstoallowoperatorsthefreedomneededtotrynewthings
as“marketsevolveandfluctuate,”continuing,“thisisnotpossibleanymore,notjustbecauseofthein-
flexibilityofthepermittingprocess,butalsobecausetheextremedelaysinreceivingapermitmayrender
yourinnovationsmootrelativetothecurrentmarketconditions(51).”
New York StateStateinvolvementonC&DwastemanagementactivitiesoutsideoftheDECpermittingprocessis
limited.ThisisbecauseC&DwasteislessregulatedthanotherstreamssuchasMunicipalSolidWasteor
HazardousWaste.Thelackofstateinvolvementontheissuepresentsbothbenefitsandburdenstoefforts
forincreasedgypsumrecycling.Onthepositiveside,alackofstateinvolvementmeanslessbureaucratic
redtapetowhichconstructionmanagersorwastehandlersmustdevotetimeandmoney.Negatively,
anystateeffortstowardincreasedC&Drecyclingarelostonthecitylevel.
Forexample,EmpireStateDevelopment(ESD)isastateagencywhodevotesapercentageofthe
statebudgettolocaleconomicdevelopmentefforts.Onesucheffortisthepromotionofrecyclingfacili-
tiesinstate,especiallyformaterialsthatarecurrentlynotlucrativeoptionsforrecycling.Inaninterview
withanEconomicDevelopmentSpecialistatESD,shementionedthatthegypsumrecyclingfacility
inMontgomery,NYwasarecentbeneficiaryofanESDgrant.Additionally,ESDisopeninganewC&D
InstituteinpartnershipwithSyracuseUniversity.TheInstitutewillprovideclassroomandfieldtrain-
ingtoindustryofficialsaboutsource-separation,andcollectdataonendmarketsandinfrastructuregaps
hinderingC&Drecyclingeffortsacrossthestate.Importantly,whilethisisanamazingresourceforefforts
acrossthestate,theInstitutecurrentlyhasnooutreachplannedforNYC.TheESDofficialinterviewed
mentionedthatthiswasbecausetheconditionsforC&DrecyclinginNYCaremuchdifferentthanthose
upstate.ManyintervieweesperceiveddifferencesbetweenNYCandtherestofthestateinmattersof
policycreationandmanagementtechniques.
Federal ScaleC&Dwasteisrecognizedas“solidwaste”undertheCommerceClauseoftheU.S.Constitution.
C&Dwastemanagementactivitiesareprotectedbythislegislationfromstateattemptstolimitthemove-
mentofthesematerialsacrossstateboundaries.Statesalsocannotinstituteflowcontroltolimittheim-
portationofC&Dwastefromonestatetoanother.Interestingly,theC&Dwastestreamistheonlystream
38
tobeclassifiedbyitsgenerationsourceratherthanitscompositionorfinaldisposaldestination.
Thefirstnational-levelcomprehensivesurveyofC&Dwastevolumes,sourcesandhandlerswas
commissionedbytheUSEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)in1998.Thereport,producedbythe
privateconsultancyFranklinAssociates,remainstheonlystudyofitskind.Assuch,itacknowledgedthe
manydatacaveatswithinitsstudyassources“ofconsiderableuncertaintyintheanalysis(FranklinAs-
sociates,1998:ES-1).”Theseincludethelackofpoint-sourcewasteassessmentdatafromthestateandcity
level,thedecisionoftheCensusBureautodiscontinuedatacollectiononthenationalnumberofdemoli-
tionsduetobudgetcutsin1995,andthereluctanceoftheprivatelandfillingindustrytodiscloselandfill
contents.Additionally,C&Dwasteflowsoftenoverlapwithmunicipalsolidwastestreams.Forexample,
workersoftendisposeofcardboardboxes,carpetingwoodpallets,paintcontainersandotherpackagingat
municipalsolidwastesites(1-9).
ThelimitationsoftheEPAstudycomplicateanaccuratecaptureofnationalgenerationandre-
cyclingratesspecifictoC&Dprojects,letalonetheaccurateexaminationofparticularcomponentsofthe
wastestream.Nevertheless,the1998FranklinReportremainstheonlysourceofnationaldataregarding
thecharacteristicsofC&Dwaste.In1996,136milliontonsofC&DwastewasproducedintheUS(ES-2).
Anestimated57%oftotalC&Dwasteproducednationallyisfromcommercialsources,meaningoffice
buildingsorinfrastructurelikeroads,bridgesandpiers(FranklinAssociates,ES-2).Ofthesenonresiden-
tialsources,6%ofwastegeneratedwasfromnewconstruction,36%fromrenovationprojectsand58%
fromdemolitionactivities(ES-3).
InresponsetothelackoffederalcontrolovertheC&Dwastemanagementprocess,theNational
DemolitionContractorsAssociationpublishedareportin2010arguingfortheestablishmentofanation-
alC&Dwastepolicy.Accordingtotheassociation,thispolicyisneededtostandardizewastemanagement
proceduresacrossstatelinesduetothefactthat“C&Dmaterialfromthenation’slargesturbancentersis
beingtransportedtositesfurtherandfurtherfromgenerationpointstherebyincreasingpollutionand
costsincurredfromtransportation(NADC,2010,6).”Furthermore,theyassertthat“demolitioncontrac-
torsworkinanextremelycompetitiveenvironment.Theyknowthevalueofeverycommodityonevery
jobtheyperform.Theprofitmarginsonrecycledmaterialcanbeverylow,subjecttochanginglocalmar-
ketconditions.Forademolitioncompanytomakethesizeablecapitalinvestmentinequipment,land,
time,laborandallothercostpointstosetuparecyclingprogram,itmustbeaprofitmakingventure(6).”
TheAssociationbelievesthatafederalpolicybasedonthesepointswouldstabilizepricesforrecycled
goods.Additionally,thegrouplistssixinstitutionalbarrierspresentforrecycledgoodsandformstheir
proposedpolicyasameansofcorrectingeachproblemidentified(seeExhibit27).
39
ThesebarriersaresimilarthoseidentifiedbyNYCtransferstationoperatorsinViola’sresearch.
TheAssociation’srecommendationsarethereforealsosalientforlocalpoliciesaddressingprofitabilityof
recycledgoods.ThegroupequatestheirpolicysolutionswithExecutiveOrder12873issuedbyPresident
Clintonin1993,where“theFederalGovernment,thelargestsinglebuyerofpaperintheworld,estab-
lishedrecycled-contentstandardsforpurchasedpaper.Thismoverequiredthepulpandpaperindustry
todeveloprecyclingfacilitiestomeetthisnewdemand.Thisincreaseduseofrecycledpaperreverberated
throughouttheeconomyasotherlargeentitiesfollowedtheFederalGovernment’sleadandinsisted
uponrecycledpaperintheirpurchasing(9).”Whileexploringnationalpolicyinitiativesisbeyondthe
scopeofthisresearch,useofgovernmentpurchasingpowertoincreasethevalueofrecycledgoodsisap-
plicableonthelocalscale.
Current C&D Recycling Policy Efforts
City Level: Local Law 86LocalLaw86waspassedin2005asmeanstoachievePlaNYC’smissiontobuilda“greener,great-
erNewYork.”Thelawprovidesenergyandwaterusebenchmarkingrequirementsforbuildingsaswell
asguidelinesforcityconstructionprojects.AProjectManageratDDCdescribedtherequirementsofLocal
Law86asensuringthateachcityprojectmeetthestandardsrequiredtoachieveLEEDSilvercertification.
1 ExcessivefeesforpermitstooperateaC&Dfacility
Over-regulationofproceduresusedatrecyclingfacilities
AttemptstolimitcollectionareasforC&Dmaterials
ToostrictregulationsgoverningtheuseofmobileC&Drecyclingplants
LimitedopportunitiesinstatepurchasingproceduresforthereuseofC&Drecycledmaterial
UnrealisticC&Drecyclinggoalstiedtoregionalorstate-widemandates
1
2
3
4
5
6
4
5
6
ReasonablepermittingfeesforfacilitieswiththerevenuegeneratedusedtopromoteC&Drecycling
NationalinspectionstandardsforC&Drecyclingfacilities
NationalguidelinesfordealingwiththemovementofC&Dmaterial
Reasonableregulationsformobileandstationaryrecyclingfacilities
PromotionofrecycledC&Dmaterialsinthemarketplace
Standardsformaterialquality,therebyincreasingcommoditymarketability
PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS
3
2
Exhibit 27: Elements of the National Demolition Contractors Association proposed C&D waste policy, 2010.
40
However,thecityhadtoarticulatethesestipulationsviaaLocalLawasagovernmentcannotdirectly
endorsetheuseoftheLEEDratingsystem.Underthelaw,constructionprojectsmustdivertatleast50%
oftheirtotalwastestream.
State Level: Executive Order 4ExecutiveOrder13423promulgatedbyPresidentBushin2007directsfederalagenciesto“iden-
tifylocalrecyclingandsalvageoperationsthatcouldprocesssiterelatedwaste”andsetsadiversiongoal
of50%forconstruction,demolitionandlandclearingwaste(ExecutiveOrder13423,2007).Thisdecreein-
centivizedthestateofNewYorktoissueExecutiveOrder4in2008,whichdictatesthatallstateagencies
mustdivert50%ofallwastematerialsfromlandfillingandreporttheirprogressannuallytotheofficeof
theGovernor(ExecutiveOrder4,2008).Thisdecreeappliestothewasteproducedinallactivitiesofstate
agencies,meaningeverythingfromcoffeecupstoprinterpaper.IndirectresponsetoExecutiveOrder4,
NewYorkCityTransit(NYCT)requiredallconstructionprojectsundertheirpurviewtoalsodivert50%
ofthewastegeneratedontheirconstructionsitesandsubmitawastemanagementplantoinformthe
agencyhowtheyintendtoachievestatedtargets.
Industry Level: LEED Certification TheU.S.GreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC)LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign
(LEED)programisapoint-basedsystemthatratesbuildingsontheiroverallimpactonenvironmental
health.Differentratingsystemsexistaccordingtothetypeofconstructionactivity.Forexample,thereisa
LEEDcertificationforNewConstruction,CommercialInteriors,Schools,Retailandothercommercialand
residentialbuildings.Theratingsystemisbasedonninecategoriesthateachaddressadifferentcom-
ponentofthesustainabilityofabuilding,rangingfromenergyusetoenvironmentalairquality.Each
categorylistsseveralcriteriaforwhichabuildingcanreceiveapointifimplemented.Themorecriteria
implemented,thehighertheLEEDrankingofthebuilding.TheserankingsrangefromBronze,awarded
tobuildingsthatachievedtheminimumamountofcriteria,toPlatinum,awardedtobuildingsthatfol-
lowedallthesustainabledesignandmethodscriteriacontainedintheLEEDprogram.
Wastemanagementandgreenprocurementcriteriaareincludedinthe“Materials&Resources”
categoryoftheLEEDprogram.TheUSGBCdefinesthiscategoryas“encouragingtheselectionofsustain-
abilitygrown,harvested,producedandtransportedproductsandmaterials.Itpromoteswastereduction
aswellasreuseandrecycling,anditparticularlyrewardsthereductionofwasteataproduct’ssource
(USGBC,2011).”NewConstructionprojectscanearn1pointif50%ofwasteisdiverted,and2fora75%
41
diversionrate.Theseinclude50%diversionrateearning1point,and75%diversionawarding2points.
GeneralcontractorshireLEED-certifiedspecialiststocreatewastemanagementplansthatensureprojects
willmeetthesetargets.LEEDreportingstandardsdividethewastestreamintotwooverarchingcatego-
ries;residualwaste,ormaterialssenttolandfill,anddivertedmaterials.Thedivertedcategorycontains
thesevencommonmaterialsfoundonconstructionsites.Thisincludesdrywallalongwithconcrete,
metal,wood,paperandcardboard,plasticandglass.ThesediversionratesareachievedbyhiringLEED-
certifiedwastehaulers,whoreporttotaltonnagesrecycledofthespecifiedmaterialsbacktothegeneral
contractoroneitheraweeklyoramonthlybasis.Additionally,1pointisawardedif10%ofthematerials
usedinthebuildingcontainrecycledcontent,and2pointsfor20%ofmaterialsareofrecycledcontent.
Importantly,alloftheninecategorieshaveadifferentnumberofcriteriaforwhichpointscanbeearned.
TheMaterials&Resourcescategoryhas14pointsoutof110potentialpoints,whiletheEnergyEfficiency
categoryhasamuchhigheramountof37points(USGBC,2009).Thisratingsystemisweightedtoward
energy-savinginitiativesratherthanrecyclingorrecycledcontentpurchasing.Assuch,buildersmay
choosetospendmoreonenergyefficiencyequipmentratherthanonrecycledmaterialsortheextralabor
andtransportationcoststhatcomewithsourceseparationandcartingtoaprocessor.
LEEDwasidentifiedbyallintervieweesasthemainimpetusfortheconstructionindustryto
embraceC&Dwasterecyclingmorebroadly.Thedemandforsustainablebuildingpracticesisincreas-
ingwiththegrowingpublicawarenessofclimatechange.TheLEEDprogramallowsforbusinessesand
developerstoprovetoconsumersthattheirstructuresareenergyefficientandwerebuiltinasustainable
manner.Assuch,theLEEDprogramhelpedtocreatethedemandforrecycledconstructionmaterials
andotherelementsofgreenconstructionpractices.Inthewordsofonegeneralcontractor,“economic
argumentsaretheTrojanHorseforgettingpeopletodotherightthingenvironmentally.”However,one
LEEDcertifiedconsultantstatedherbeliefthatLEEDreportingstandardsaddeda“slewofunnecessary
andrepetitivepaperwork,”forthoseontheadministrativesideofconstructionprojects.Indeed,LEEDre-
portingissimilartothedatacollectionwhichwasalreadyrequiredbystateandlocalregulationsregard-
ingwastetonnagesandfinaldisposalsites.
Civil Society Level: Urban Green Council UrbanGreen,theNYCchapteroftheUSGBC,publishedtheGreenCodesTaskForcereportin
2010.Thereportwasdevelopedbygovernment,businessandnonprofitstakeholdersandprovides141
recommendationstoNYCCityCounciltoachievethegreenbuildinggoalsinPlaNYC.Oneofthefive
goalsundertheResourceConservationsectionofthereportspecificallyaddressesrecoverabilityofclean
42
gypsumscrap.Goal1:RecycleConstructionWastesuggestsanewsectionbeaddedtotheNYCBuilding
Codewhichwouldrequireon-siteseparationofcleangypsumscrapfor“anyconstruction,alteration,
partialdemolitionordemolitionofabuildinggreaterthan20,000squarefeet(UrbanGreen,RC1-4).”
Whilethisrecommendationhasnotbeenwrittenintothebuildingcode,itdidprompttheMay-
or’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitytoincludeInitiative5inthe2011updatetoPlaNYC.
43
CHAPTER 4
CURRENT GOVERNMENT EFFORTS FOR C&D RECYCLING
Contract StructureDavidHarvey(1985:169)theorizesthattheconstructionindustryengages“inaparticularkindof
commodityproductionunderratherpeculiarconditions.Muchofwhathappensinthewayofconstruc-
tionactivityhastobeunderstoodintermsofthetechnical,economicandpoliticalorganizationofthe
constructioninterests.”Onewayofunderstandingthesepeculiarconditionsisthroughanalysisofatypi-
calcontractstructureforconstructionprojects.
Contractualrelationshipsdeterminehowwasteisgeneratedanddisposedandwhoisrespon-
sibleforbothoftheseactivities.AccordingtoVrijhoef&Koskelaintheirpieceonsupply-chainmanage-
mentinconstruction(2000:175),“muchofthewasteandproblemsarecausedinanotherstageofthe
constructionsupplychainthanwherethewastesurfaced.Therootcausesofthewastewererarelyfound
intheactivitywherethewasteandproblemswereencountered,butratherinapreviousactivitywitha
prioractor.”Theauthors’useoftheword“waste”herediffersfromthetraditionaluse;theyarereferenc-
ingthedeadweightlossesandinefficientuseandallocationofmaterialsaswaste.Theauthorsattribute
thiswasteproblemasadirectresultofthefragmentationofserviceprovidersintheconstructionindus-
try.Thesestakeholdersareconnectedtooneanotherthroughcontractualobligations,whichtheninflu-
encestheactualamountofphysicalwastegeneratedontheconstructionsite.
Innewconstructionprojects,forexample,thearchitectspecifiestheamountofdrywallneeded
inthedesignofthebuilding,whichthegeneralcontractorthenordersaccordingtothedesigner’s
specifications.Thedrywallarrivesindimensionssetbythemanufacturerandtypicallymustbecutto
fittheuniquedesignofthebuilding.Contractedlaborerstheninstallthedrywall,aprocessthattypi-
callyrequiresrevisionoftheoriginalplansandtheorderingofmorematerials.Assuch,the“wasteand
problems”alludedtobyVrijhoef&Koskelaarealsodirectlyresponsibleforthevoluminousamountsof
materialsdiscardedaswasteonconstructionsites,orthetypicaldefinitionofwaste.Followingthemore
nuancedontologyofthewordwaste,Harveyexplainsthisdilemmainabroaderandmoretheoretical
manner:“Sincethebuiltenvironmentistobeconceivedofasacompositecommodity,theindividual
elementshavestrong‘externality’effectsonotherelements,continuingthatthenatureofthebuiltenvi-
ronmentnecessitatesitbeingownedbydiverseinterests,“makingmanagementoftheassetswithinthe
44
environmentdifficulttocoordinate(171,173).”
Thedesign-bid-buildservicedeliverymethodologyisthetraditionalservicedeliverymethod-
ologyand,assuch,itisacommonmethodologyinconstruction.Privatesectorconstructionisableto
usemoremodernservicedeliverymethodologies,toolandtechniques,whilepublicsectorconstruction
tendstobeconstrainedlegislativelytothedesign-bid-buildmethodology.InNewYorkState,mostpub-
licownersarerequiredtousedesign-bid-build,withawardsforconstructiongoingtothelowestrespon-
siblebidder.Thefinalpartoftheprocess,theactualconstructionactivities,istheresponsibilityofthe
generalcontractor.Thoughthebidgoestoasinglefirm,generalcontractorsusuallysubcontractoutthe
individualaspectsofaproject.Theseincludebothdrywallinstallationandwastehaulingamongstmany
others.Exhibit28displaysatypicalcontractualstructureforaprivateprojectundertheDesign-Bid-Build
process.
Exhibit 28: Basic contract structure for private and Project Labor Agreement construction jobs.
Thisprocessistypicalforbothpublicandprivateconstructionjobsbecauseitminimizesthecon-
tractualobligationsforwhichthepropertyownerhasoversight.Assuch,theprocessalsoallowsproperty
ownerstotransfermostofthefinancialriskpresentedbytheprojecttothegeneralcontractor.
Prime Contract
Property OwnerArchitect
General Contractor
Interior
Waste Hauler
Abatement
Electrical
Plumbing
...(etc)...Subcontract
Prime Contract
DESIGN
BID
BUILD
45
Forpubliclyfundedprojects,thismeansthatthebidprocesstransfersriskfromthetaxpayerto
theprivatesector.Mostpublicprojects,however,aresubjecttotheWicksLaw.Thislawrequireseach
projecttohavefourprimarycontractsdirectlyoverseenbythepropertyowner,whichforpublicproj-
ectsareagencieslikeDDCorNYCT.Thesecontractsincludeageneral,electrical,plumbingandaHVAC
contractor.TheWicksLawwaspassedtoprovidetransparencyinthebidprocessandensurethatpublic
fundsareusedappropriately.Thetraditionalstructurecouldallowthegeneralcontractortosubcontract
jobsthroughnepotismratherthanthelowestbid.SomeprojectscanbypasstheWicksLawviaaProject
LaborManagementagreement,yetthiscontractstructureisnotascommonandthuswillnotbedis-
cussedatlength.ThetypicalcontractstructureforpublicprojectsisshowninExhibit29.
Exhibit 29: Basic contract structure for public construction jobs under the Wicks Law.
TheCityrequiresallconstructionagenciestouseastandardconstructioncontract,withalim-
itedabilitytochangestandardprovisionssubjecttoapprovalbytheCity’sLawDepartment.Thegen-
eralconditionsprovisionsforanindividualprojectarecontainedinaseparateappendixtitled“General
Conditions”thatisattachedandmadepartofthestandardconstructioncontract.TheGeneralCondition
provisionsaretailoredtomeettheneedsofeachproject.SpecificsdetailedintheGeneralConditions
includeelementslikescaffolding,worklightsandwastemanagementandhauling.Whilethetermsare
Property Owner
Plumbing
DESIGN
Electrical
HVAC
GeneralContractor
Architect
BID
BUILD
BUILD
BUILD
BUILD
Interior
Waste Hauler...(etc)...
Prime Contract
Prime Contract
Prime Contract
Prime Contract
Prime ContractSubcontract
46
site-specific,manyGeneralConditionsfollowprecedentexamplesfrompreviouscontracts.OneDDC
officialdescribedtheprocessofwritingthisappendixasa“copyandpasteoperation.”Forexample,after
LocalLaw86waspassed,theGeneralConditionswereamendedtostipulatethatpublicprojectsmet
LEEDapprovalstandards.Typically,thegeneralcontractoractsasaprojectmanager,makingthesefirms
responsibleforensuringthatthegeneralconditionsofthecontractaremet.Privateprojectsalsocontain
thesegeneralconditions,howevertheyareusuallyreferredtogeneralrequirements.Publicorprivate
propertyownerscanrequirethatdrywallbesource-separatedinthisGeneralConditionsappendix.
Bothdiagramsillustratehowtheinteriorcontractor,ordrywallinstaller,isoftennotresponsible
forthedisposalofthecleanscraptheygenerate.Itislikelynotapriorityfortheinteriorcontractorto
shoulderadditionallaborcostsrequiredtopracticethe“centerpiling”methodthatensurestherecover-
abilityofdrywallcuttingsunlesssucharequirementisincludedintheGeneralConditions.Ascontract
bidsusuallyamounttomillionsofdollars,theextracostsassociatedwithrecyclinggypsumwould
benegligibleifthegeneralcontractorincludedthemintheinitiallump-sumbid.Yetthelow-valueof
gypsumscrapandthescarcityofend-marketsfortherecycledproductaretwomajordisincentivesforthe
firmstodoso.Assuch,thepracticeofusingMixedC&Dcontainersandcartingtoonetransferstationis
thewastemanagementmethodwithboththelowestcostsandmostefficientuseofspace.
New York City TransitNewYorkCityTransit(NYCT)isoneagencyofmanythatcomprisetheMetropolitanTransit
Authority(MTA).OtheragencieswithintheMTAincludeMetroNorthRailRoad,LongIslandRailRoad,
BridgesandTunnels,MTABus,LongIslandBus,CapitalConstructionandMTAHeadquarters.MTAagen-
ciesareresponsiblefortheconstructionandmaintenanceofpublictransportationsystemsthroughout
theNYCmetropolitanarea.
NYCTisspecificallyresponsibleforthemaintenanceofsubwaytunnels,stationsandbusstops.
Constructionofnewtransitinfrastructure,likenewthe2ndAvenuesubwayline,fallsunderthepurview
oftheCapitalProjectsdivision.However,maintenanceoftheexistingsubwayandbussystemgenerates
muchC&Dwastegiventheageandtheextensivereachofthesystem.Additionally,muchoftheinfra-
structureNYCTmaintainsisundergroundandthuscontainsmoreconcrete,steelandstonethandrywall.
However,muchdrywallisusedfortheMTAofficesandlockerroomsfortrainoperatorsthatarehoused
insomesubwaystations.ThomasAbdullah,aPrincipalEngineeratNYCT,describedtheWest4thStreet
stationas“anundergroundcity”duetoalltheworkeramenitiesconnectedtothisstation.
PursuanttoExecutiveOrder4,allMTAagenciesmustproducedetailedrecordsontheirwaste
47
generationandboostdiversionratesto50%orhigher.ReportsarethensubmittedtotheMTAforagency-
widetabulation.Importantly,ExecutiveOrder4aimedtoreducetheamountoftrashgeneratedindaily
officeoperationsratherthanC&Dwastefromconstructionprojects.Accordingtoanemployeeofthe
MTA,“This{ExecutiveOrder}wasreallygearedmoretowardofficesettingswhenitwaswritten.Much
ofthenon-officewasteinformationincludedforreportingwasanafterthought.”The“afterthought”to
includediversiontargetsandrecordkeepingforC&DwastefromNYCTprojectswasdescribedbyMr.
AbdullahastheresultofaculturechangewithinMTAagenciesandtheconstructionindustryatlarge.
Inadditiontowastereductiontargets,NYCThasincorporatedsustainabledesignelementsintomanyof
theirrenovationprojects.Forexample,theagencypursuedLEEDcertificationforthenewCoronaYard
MaintenanceShopinQueens,andinstalledsolarpanelsonthenewGunHillsBusDepotintheBronx.
Additionally,TherenovationoftheConeyIslandStillwellAvenuesubwaystopwhichwasdesignedto
capturesunlightasitsprimarysourceoflightinginthedaytime.
Additionally,whenNYCTbeganresearchonthefeasibilityofapplyingthe50%diversiongoal
ofExecutiveOrder4totheirconstructionprojects,theyrealizedthatover50%ofwastegeneratedonsite
wasalreadybeingrecycled.Thisisoftenduetothehighvolumeofconcreteontheseconstructionproj-
ects,amaterialthathashighrecyclingratesnationwide.Assuch,theyarecurrentlyconsideringraising
thediversiontarget.Contractorsareoftenabletomeetthe50%diversionrequirementwhilesendingall
gypsumboardtolandfillduetothehighvolumeofconcreteontheirjobsites.Mr.Abdullahestimatesa
99%complianceratewithExecutiveOrder4.HedescribedthehighcompliancerateasbothNYCTand
theircontractorsas“wantingtodotherightthing,”yetalsoacknowledgesthatthehighresalevalueof
mostC&Dwastehasmadetherecyclingofthesematerialsstandardpracticeforyears.Moreover,the
2011“GreeningMassTransit&MetroRegions”aBlueRibbonCommissionReportonhowtheMTAcan
improvetheirsustainabilityinitiativesincludesmanyrecommendationsonhowtheagenciesshould
improvetheirwastemanagementandgreenprocurementpractices,includingtheinstitutionofalife-
cycleanalysisformaterialsmanagement,influencingrecycledmaterialsmarketsandflexingitsmarket
powertopromotegreengoods(MTA,2011:11).
Importantly,thesegoalsneatlyalignwiththoseinPlaNYCaswellastherecommendationspro-
videdbytheGreenCodesTaskForceandtheNationalAssociationofDemolitionContractors.
Eachofthesethreerecommendationswouldhavefavorableoutcomesfordrywallrecycling.Ofcourse,
theseoutcomeswouldonlycometofruitioniftranslatedintoactionthroughpolicylikethediversion
targetsandrecordkeepingpracticesspurredbyExecutiveOrder4.
ThewastemanagementplanssubmittedbysubcontractorsforreviewbyNYCTprovideade-
taileddescriptionofthesortingmethod,haulingandprocessingfacilities,anticipateddiversionrate
48
aswellasfinaldisposaldestinationsforallwastegeneratedonthejobsite.Theparametersoftheplan
areincludedinthe12WsectionoftheGeneralConditionscontractstructureforNYCTprojects.Inother
words,theseplansaddresshowthewastesubcontractorwillmeettheircontractualobligationstodivert
atleast50%ofwastegeneratedonsite.The12Wasksforcontractorstotakephotographsofthejobsiteto
documentwastecollectionpracticesaswellasgiveasenseofthetonnagesgeneratedofeachmaterial.If
NYCTdecidedtomandatetheon-sitesortingofwasteordiversionofallcleandrywallscrap,thisrequire-
mentwouldbewrittenintothissectionoftheGeneralConditionscontract.
Additionally,wastesubcontractorsmustbelicensedbytheBusinessIntegrityCommission(BIC)
tobeawardedacontractforapublicjob.BICcertifieshaulersandtransferstationsasmeansofensuring
wasteisrecycledordisposedatregisteredfacilitiesandlandfills,respectively.Assuch,subcontractors
arealsorequiredtoprovidetheBIClicensenumberofthetransferstationwherewasteishauled.These
plansaresubmittedinpaperformandarenotfileddigitally.
Subcontractorsarealsorequiredunder12Wtoreportthetotaltonnagesofwastedivertedand
senttolandfill.2010wasthefirstyearforallMTAagenciestocomprehensivelyreportwastetonnage
totalsaswellasthepercentageofdivertedmaterials.AstheinclusionofC&Dwasteintothediversionre-
quirementsofExecutiveOrder4was,inthewordsofanMTArepresentative,“anafterthought,”thedata
collectionmethodsarestillbeingrefined.
MTAreportingislessdetailedforC&Dwaste;allMTAagenciessubmitasinglenumberforC&D
tonnagesdivertedratherthanbreakingthisfigureouttoindividualmaterialcategories.Assuch,itis
impossibletotellhowmuchgypsumwallboardwasdivertedfromallMTAprojects.OntheNYCTlevel,
however,thesetonnagesarebrokeninto16differentmaterialcategories,includingoneforgypsumwall-
boardandMixedC&D.AllMixedC&Dtonnagesarerecordedasbeingsenttolandfill.Recordedtonnages
comefromthetransferstationweighticketsandreceiptsfrommaterialsprocessorsorsalvageshops.Out
of106activeprojects,4projectsrecycledcleangypsumscrapgeneratedonsite,totaling128.929tons.33of
theseprojectshauledMixedC&D,someofwhichlikelycontainedcleanordirtygypsumscrapthatwas
notdivertedfromthelandfill.Impressively,57oftheseprojectswereabletodivert100%ofC&Dwaste
fromlandfill.Moreover,90ofthe106projectsrecycled90%ormoreofallwastegenerated.Contrastingthe
highoveralldiversionratesachievedbyNYCTprojectsandthepoorrecyclingratesforgypsumscrapun-
derscoreshowrecyclingdrywallrequiresextraplanningoutsideofthetraditionalC&Dhandingmethods
tobeachieved.
49
Department of Design and Construction TheNewYorkCityDepartmentofDesignandConstruction(DDC)isthecityagencyresponsible
fortheconstructionofinstitutionalbuildingslikelibraries,courthousesandselecteducationalfacilities.
AkeydifferencebetweenDDCandNYCTisthattheformerisacitydepartmentandthelatterastateau-
thority.Assuch,DDCisnotsubjecttoExecutiveOrder4.However,LocalLaw86servesasimilarpurpose
asitrequiresallcity-financedconstructionprojectstofollowthestandardsforLEEDSilvercertification
whilenotdirectlyendorsingtheprogramitself.However,DDChaspursuedLEEDstandardsformostof
theirprojectssince2001,substantialityearlierthanthepassageofLocalLaw86.Thisfactindicatesthe
agency’scommitmenttosustainablebuildingpractices.
Moreover,DDCestablishedanOfficeofSustainabilitywhichhaspublishednumerousgreen
buildingguidessincetheearly2000s,includingthe“ConstructionandDemolitionWasteManual”in
2003.ThemanualservesasaguideforboththereductionanddiversionofC&Dwaste,providescasestud-
iesofeffortsfromothercitiesonthetopicanddetailsimplementationstrategiesandresources.Whilethe
documentdoesnotaddresstheproblemsassociatedwithgypsumrecycling,itdoesacknowledgethatthe
material“couldberecovered”butcurrentlyisnotduetothelackoflocalend-markets(GruzenSamton&
CityGreenInc,2003:16).However,thedocumentdoesidentifyseveralbarrierstoC&DrecyclinginNYC,
allofwhicharerelevanttotheproblemsassociatedwithgypsumrecycling.Theseincludecircumstan-
tialbarriers,likethelackofspaceatconstructionsiteandhighlaborcostsinNYC.Pathdependencyis
alsocitedasabarrier.Theagencyacknowledgesthatthereluctanceofmanyintheconstructionindustry
tochangebehaviorpatternshindersrecycling,continuingthat“manyconstructioncompanieshave
long-standingallianceswithhaulersandprocessors/transferstations,whichmaynotbetheonesthat
canrecycleagivenproject’sdebris(5).”Thispointisofparticularrelevancetogypsum.Thoughthemate-
rialcannotberecycledifitissenttothetransferstation,itiscontinuouslysenttherebycontractorsasthis
isthewaythematerialhasalwaysbeentreated.Here,theagencyisindirectlyacknowledginghowthe
statusquohindersgypsumrecycling.
Additionally,theDDCrecognizesthat“thereislittlesolid,industry-wide,informationonre-
cyclingratesintheNYCareatouseindevelopingareasonablerecyclingrequirement(5).”Oneofthe
implementationstrategiesmentionedinthemanual,therequirementofawastemanagementplanfor
allDDCprojects,addressesthisbarrierdirectly.Accordingtotheagency,theseplanswill“encouragerecy-
clingandprovideDDCwithamechanismtotrackresults,documentsuccessstoriesandhighlightareas
wheremoreattentionisneeded(9).”TheplanrequirementsarealmostidenticaltoNYCT’sasstipulated
bySection12W,asistheintentoftheDDCtotabulatethisdataagencywideasameansofcorrectingthis
50
informationbarrier.
DDC’scommitmenttosustainablebuildingpracticesisevidentintheircurrentproject,thecon-
structionofanewPoliceAcademyfortheNYPDinCollegePoint,Queens.Theprojectoccupiesa35acre
lot,andthe850,000squarefootbuildingwillbeLEEDSilvercertifiedwhencompleted.Thelargelotsizeis
duetothefactthatCollegePointisaless-urbanizedsectionofthecity.Theamplespaceonsiteisatypical
forNYCconstructionprojects.Thelargelotsizeisalsobeneficialforgypsumrecyclingasitenableson-site
sorting.Drywallwasnotbeinginstalledatthetimeofthesitetour.However,theLEEDComplianceOf-
ficerfromTurner/STVConstruction,theprimarycontractorfortheproject,statedthattheinteriorcontrac-
torwillbeinstructedtousethe“centerpiling”wastecollectionmethod.
Astheprimecontractor,Turner/STVConstructiondevelopedthewastemanagementplanaccord-
ingtotheproject’sGeneralConditions.Theplanrequiresa75%diversionrate.Italsoliststhemateri-
alstargetedfordiversion,anddrywallisincludedalongwith20othermaterials.However,thewaste
managementmethoddetailedintheplanstatesthat“allwasteremovedfromthissitewillbeconsidered
commingledanditwillbetheresponsibilityoftheprojectsubcontractedhaulertobringwastetoanap-
provedsolidwastetransferfacilitytoconductoff-siteseparationofwastematerialspriortofinaltransport
torecycling/salvagefacilityorlandfill(Turner/STVConstruction,2011:6).
Despitethefactthatthisprojectpresentsthenear-perfectconditionsfordrywallrecycling,col-
lectingthematerialasMixedC&Dwillensurethatthescrapissenttoalandfill.TurnerConstructionis
oneofthelargestandmostinfluentialconstructioncompaniesinthefield.Turner’seffortstowardgreen
buildingpracticesareunparalleledintheindustry.Thiscommitmentextendstowastemanagement
Exhibit 30: Truck sprayer on the DDC Police Academy construction site.
51
practices.Forexample,thecompanyprovidesanonlinetrainingcourseatanominalcosttotrainindus-
tryprofessionalsonbestpracticesindevelopingwastemanagementplans.DDCalsodevelopedasample
wastemanagementplanfollowingthesameprinciplesavailableforfreeonline,yetitdoesnotmention
source-separationofdrywall.ThissamplewastemanagementplanisincludedinAppendixB.
Moreover,thePoliceAcademysitecontainedmanydifferentmeasurestomitigatenegative
environmentalimpactsproposedbytheproject.Forexample,Exhibit30depictsthesprayersalltrucksare
requiredtopassthroughbeforeleavingthesite.Thisdampensthemudandfinesthevehiclescollected
whileon-sitetominimizethepotentialpollutionthetruckscouldleaveontheoutsideroadnetworkand
surroundingair.Additionally,Turner/STVinstalledairmonitorsaroundthesitetoensurethatconstruc-
tionactivitieswerenotcompromisingthesurroundingairquality.Neitheroftheseinterventionsare
requiredinLEEDstandards.ItisclearthatbothDDCandTurner/STV“gotheextramile”toensureeach
projectutilizesthebestgreenbuildingandmanagementpractices.Ifneitherorganizationthoughtto
includethesourceseparationofgypsuminthePoliceAcademy’swastemanagementplan,thenitcanbe
assumedthatmanyintheconstructionindustryareunawareoftheconditionsnecessarytorecycleclean
gypsumscrap.Indeed,theLEEDComplianceOfficerfortheprojectwasunawarethatdrywallcould
notberecycledinthetransferstation.Shedescribedthedecisiontohavewasteseparatedoff-siteasone
madetosavethepropertyownermoney;byrelyingonthetransferstationtosortwaste,DDCwouldnot
havetopaythelaborandtransportationcostsrequiredforsource-separation.
Exhibit 31: Waste management documentation for the 95+ subcontractors on the Police Academy project.
52
AnotheroneofthebarrierstoincreasedC&DrecyclingidentifiedintheDDCWasteManage-
mentManualisthefragmentationinmanagementundertheWicksLaw,whichmakes“cooperation
andsharedresponsibilitydifficulttoorchestrate(GruzenSamton&CityGreenInc,2003:5).”Onegeneral
contractorinterviewedmentionedthathedoesnotbidonpublicprojectsbecauseofthislackofcoordina-
tion,stating“sincetheyhavenoprojectmanager,everybodyjustpassesthebucktothenextguy.”Argu-
ably,eveninprojectswherethegeneralcontractoristheprojectmanager,asisthecaseforthePolice
Academyandmostprivatejobs,thesheeramountofsubcontractorsmakesitdifficulttocoordinateand
enforceresponsibilityfortaskslikesourceseparationofdrywall.Thisisarelativelyminoraspectinthe
overallschemeofajobsite,makingiteasytoseewhythetaskdoesnotreceiveattentionbytheproject
manager.ThePoliceAcademysitehasalmost100differentsubcontractorsontheproject.Wasteman-
agementisjustoneofmanyLEEDcriteriathattheLEEDComplianceOfficerisresponsiblefortracking
throughoutthelifeoftheproject.Thedifferentsubcontractorsreporttotalwastegeneratedanddisposal
sitestoheronamonthlybasis,whichresultsinspreadsheetsandbindersatalmostcomicallylargepro-
portionsasshowninExhibit31.Again,itiseasytoseehowdrywallrecyclingcangetlostintheshuffleof
alltheothermanagementtasksrequiredtobuildthePoliceAcademyinasustainablemanner.
Analysis Oneproblemforgypsumrecyclingliesinhowthematerialisdefinedinlegislation.ThoughC&D
wasteisrecognizedasaseparatewastestreaminalllevelsoflegislationontheissue,thecomponentsof
thestream(drywall,steel,etc.)oftendifferintheirdefinitionbetweengovernmentalscales.Forexample,
the2008solidwastemasterplan“BeyondWaste”publishedbyNewYorkStatereportdefinesconcrete,
asphalt,rock,brickandsoilasasinglegroupwiththemoniker“CARBS.”The2003“WasteManagement
Manual”publishedbytheDDCgroupsconcrete,dirtbrickandasphaltinasinglecategorytitled“FillMa-
terials.”Additionally,theNewEnglandAssociationofWasteManagementOfficials(NEWMOA)identifies
asphalt,brickandconcrete“ABC”materialsintheir2009reportonC&Dwastevolumesandmanagement.
Thoughthesedifferingdefinitionsseemlikebenigninconsistencies,theyhaveahugeimpactonthedata
collectionnecessaryforunderstandingprioritiesinnationalandmorelocalizedwastemanagementand
recyclingagendas.Thenon-standardizationofthesedefinitionscreatesinformationasymmetriesthat
hindervariouseffortstostimulatemarketsforrecycledmaterials.RelevanttothisobservationisJoseph
Stiglitz’sassertionthat“imperfectinformationcancreateanimpedimenttomutuallyproductivebar-
gains(1998:13).”
AnotherexampleofthisissueisstateadoptionoftheUSGreenBuildingCouncil’sLEEDpro-
53
gramstandardsforachievingtargetedwastediversionrates.DDCconstructionprojectsadopttheLEED
standardsforwastediversionandrecycling.NeithertheLEEDstandardsnorNewYorkStatelegislation
allowsoilorfillmaterialtobeapartofthesetotals.However,cityregulationsallowthesematerialstobe
apartoftheirfinalreportingtotals.Assuch,thisisanotherdiscrepancycausedbycurrentnon-standard-
izeddefinitionofwastestreamsonthenationallevel.
ThisconflicthasmanyimplicationsforNYCinparticularasC&Dwastegeneratedinthecity
isoftenprocessedanddisposedoutsidethestate.Thisissuecanalsoobstructtheefficientflowofthese
materialsbetweenjurisdictions,whichcansubsequentlyhinderstateeffortsforstimulatingthemarkets
forrecycledgypsumscrap.Viola(2008:19)attributesthedatacaveatscreatedbyinconsistentdefinitionsof
theC&Dwastestreamas“oneofthekeybarrierstorecyclingingeneralistheinstabilityofmarketprices
andtheunreliabilityofthequantityofcertainmaterialsflowingthroughthosemarkets…inordertosell
ordisposeofrecycledmaterials,facilitiesneedtohaveaccesstogoodinformationaboutwherematerials
canbesentandwhatpricesandfeestheywillencounter…theNewYorkCitymetropolitanregionmay
lacksufficientsourcesofmarketinformation(19).”Additionally,NewYorkCitycurrentlydoeslittleto
helpwiththeinformationgapsassociatedwiththeuncertaintyprivateinstitutionsfeelaroundrecycled
gypsummarkets.
Thereluctanceofstateagenciesorgeneralcontractorstochangewastemanagementbehav-
iorcouldbedescribedbyCharlesBarnard’sconceptof“routines,”articulatedbyLevitt&Marchasthe
“forms,rule,procedures,conventions,roles,strategiesandtechnologiesaroundwhichorganizationsare
constructedandthroughwhichtheyoperate.Routinesalsoincludethestructureofbeliefs,frameworks,
paradigms,codes,culturesandknowledgethatbuttress,elaborateandcontracttheformalroutines,”
continuing,“eachroutineitselfisacollectionofroutines,learningtakesplaceinthenestedlevels(1995:
16-18).”Inotherwords,whenstateofficialsadheretothestatusquobywayofactingwithinthesepre-
scribedroutines,theyindirectlycreatedisincentivestotheirstatedgoals.
The Problem of Enforcement & Credible Commitment
TheproblemofconflictingdefinitionsofC&Dwasteseguesintoaproblemofhowtheseissuesad-
dressedinpoliciesonthedifferinglevelsofgovernment.Albrechts(2003)remindsusthat“policyforma-
tionandpolicyimplementationareinevitablytheresultofinteractionsamongapluralityofseparate
actorswithseparateinterests,goalsandstrategies(908).”Whentheseseparateinterestsexistinconflict
witheachother,ithinderstheeffectivenessofthepoliciestheyinform.Moresalienttoadiscussionof
intrastateconflictontheissueistheproblemofregulatorydiscretionofthesepolicies.Licari(2010:217)
54
definesdiscretionasthe“abilitytodecidehowpolicieswillbeimplemented,”continuingthatitis“akey
componentofbureaucraticpower.”
ThoughC&DWastemanagementissuesareaddressedbyalllevelsofgovernment,theylargely
existinanadvisorycapacitywithnodetailsofhowtoenforcerecommendationsmadebyeachagency.
Additionally,the2003WasteManagementManualpublishedbyDDCdetailstheagency’sintentto
requireallsubcontractorstosubmitwastemanagementplans.Thesewouldbecollectedandtabulated
tounderstanddiversionratesagency-wide.InapersonalemailwithasecondDDCofficialintheoffice
responsibleforoversightoftheconstructionactivities,shealludedtotheproblemofenforcingthisrule:
“AllDDCstructuresprojectsare“required”tooutlineC&Dwasteplans;however,constructionprojects
arehugeandcomplexaffairs,andI’mnotsuretheC&Dplanalwayshappens(PersonalCommunication,
12/7/11).”However,theagencyisabletoworkinthiscapacitytotrackthemonetizedenergysavingsof
LEEDprojectssince2001.Additionally,thoughNYCTleviesapenaltyfeeforcontractorswhodonotmeet
theirdiversionrequirements,aPrincipalEngineerinterviewedadmittedthatthesepenaltyfeesare“a
dropinthebucket”fortheconstructionindustrythatwhoserevenuestreamsoftenreachthebillions.
Thishighlightshowenforcementandcrediblecommitmentproblemseroderecyclingeffortsby
bothagencies.Thoughaplethoraofstate-issuedreportsandpolicydocumentsexistonthetopic,theydo
littletoinformthe“street-levelbureaucracies”suchastheDDCandNYCTofhowtheyaretoactuallyim-
plement,monitorandenforcetheordersfromhigherlevelsofgovernment(Lipsky,1980:3).Thisproblem
ofenforcementcanbeunderstoodintwoways,aseitheraPrincipal-Agentproblembetweenthepublic
andprivatesectororasanissueofcrediblecommitmentbythestate.ThepremiseofPrincipal-Agent
theoryliesinissuesofrisksharing,andarguablyriskshirking.AccordingtoEisenhart(2007),agency
problemsoccurwhen“cooperatingpartieshavedifferentgoalsanddivisionoflaborinwhichoneparty
(theprincipal)delegatesworktoanother(theagent),whoperformsthatwork(58).”Agencyproblemsof-
tenarisewhenthissaidworkisundercontractualobligation.InthecaseoftheDDC,thestateagencyde-
lineatestheworkoftheconstructionsectortotherealmoftheprivate,effectivelyshiftingthenumerous
monetaryrisksinvolvedwithconstructionworkfromthestatetotheprivatesector.Thisisdonethrough
contractualcommitments.Stiglitzremindsusthat“governmentistheprimaryenforcerofcontracts.It
usesitsmonopolyonthelegaluseofforcetocreatethepossibilityofprivatecommitment.Thereisno
one,however,whosejobitistoguardtheguardian(1998:10).”Additionally,Eisenhartspeaksdirectly
toenforcementissuesinherbeliefthatagencyproblemarisewhenthedesiresorgoalsoftheprincipal
andagentconflictanditisdifficultorexpensivefortheprincipaltoverifywhattheagentisactually
doing(59).ThispointisrelatedtoStiglitz’sconclusionthat“thegovernmentcannotmakecommitments
becauseitalwayshasthepossibilityofchangingitsmind,andearlier‘agreements’cannotbeenforced
55
(1998:10).”ThisinabilityofgovernmenttomakecommitmentsonC&Dwastemanagementissuescauses
“highcostsforcreatingnext-bestcredibility-enhancingmechanismswithinthegovernment,”suchas
expensiveandlengthyMasterPlanswithnomentionofimplementationmeasures(10).DouglassNorth
(n/d)assertsthatcrediblecommitmentsareanessentialrequirementto“permittheincreasinglycomplex
contractingessentialtocreatingandrealizingthepotentialofmoreproductivetechnologies(17),”suchas
thosenecessaryforincreasedrecyclingofC&Dwaste.Importantly,Stiglitznotesthatempiricalevidence,
atleastbeyondananecdoteortwo,andtheoreticalanalysisshouldhavebeenabletoshedlightonthe
meritofalternativepolicies(1998:5).”Thisspeakstohowthepersonalanecdotesofthecityagentsquoted
inthispaperhavethepowertocontesttheofficialdocumentsofthestateandchangethestatusquo.
Barenklau(2005:4)identifiestheseissuesasduetoa“lackofempiricalresearchthatincorporatessocial
interactionsintomoderndecision-theoreticbehavioralmodelsinordertomeasuretheimpactsofthese
interactionsontechnologyadoption.”
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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
Key Findings Beforepresentingthekeyfindingsarerecommendations,itisworthwhiletorevisittheoriginal
goalsofthisthesisproject.ThisresearchwasinspiredbyInitiative5ofPlaNYC2030’sSolidWastesection,
specificallytheintentoftheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitytosolvetheprob-
lemofthenearly0%recyclingrateofcleangypsumwallboardscrapinNYC.Drawingfromthisinspira-
tion,thisthesisprojectwasdesignedwithtwogoalsinmind.First,tofindthereasonsforthepoordrywall
recyclingrate.Secondly,torecommendhowthecitycancorrectthisproblemwiththedevelopmentof
newpolicy.
Thisresearchdiscoveredthattheenvironmentalbenefitsofrecyclinggypsumscrapmightnot
outweightheenvironmentalandeconomiccostsofdoingso.Thoughgypsumisanaturalresource,the
miningofthemineralisthroughaquarryprocessthatdoesnotposegreatenvironmentalthreatstothe
surroundingarea.Moreover,theUSistheleadingproducerofthemineral,whichisfoundinabundance
throughouttheworld.Additionally,sincegypsumscrapmustbetakenofftheconstructionsitebyasepa-
ratetrucktripandthentravelmanymilesupstatetotheonegypsumrecyclerinNewYork,theactivity
resultsinhighemissionscosts.Moreover,thepurityofrecycledgypsumpalesincomparisonwithsyn-
theticgypsum,aby-productofemissionscontrolsforcoal-firedpowerplants,whichwillforevercomprise
thevalueofrecycledscrap.Thoughgypsumproduceshydrogensulfideinthetransferstationandinthe
landfill,thisisjustanuisanceconditionandnotapublichealththreat.Thegasisproducedatsuchlow
levelsthatitsimplymakestheselandfillssmelllikerotteneggsonrainy,humidandwindydays.
Additionally,mandatingtherecyclingofthematerialwillposeeconomicburdensthroughout
thesupplychain.Generalcontractorswillhavetopayforadditionaltransportationandlaborcosts,while
transferstationoperatorswillhavetoinvestinnewandexpensivetechnologies.Aregulatorysolution
tothegypsumproblemthatsatisfiesallstakeholderswouldbedifficulttofind.Hamilton(2005)recog-
nizesthisasacommondilemmainpolicydevelopment,notingthat“theperceivedflawsinregulation
emergemorefrompoliticsthanfromlackofforesight(252).”Lee(1999)reinforcesthisnotion,stating“the
mostcommoncureforenvironmentalproblemsistorecommendplanning,”continuing,“whilesorting
outacomplexsituationusuallyopensupopportunitiesforcollaborationthatwereobscuredbyconflict,
57
planningilluminatesirreconcilabledifferencestoo(12).”Moreover,itisdifficultforrecyclingtobemade
cost-effectivewithoutencouragingthegrowthofendmarketswithintheNYCmetropolitanregion.
Whilethiswouldbeaworthyeffortitisperhapsnotthebestuseofgovernmentfundsgiventhattheuse
ofvirgingypsumpresentslessofanenvironmentalthreatthanmanyotherbuildingmaterials.
Moreover,barrierstogypsumrecyclingexistatallpointsofthesupplychain,NYCagencieshave
theabilitytodirectlyinfluenceonlyafewoftheseissues.Thisisduetoboththenatureoftheproblem
andtheenvironmentalandpoliticalconstraintsinNYC.Onemethodforgovernmentinterventionon
recycleddrywallmarketsisbybanninggypsumscrapfromC&Dlandfills.Analyzingtheapplicabilityof
thisprecedentforNYCnicelyillustratesthecomplexityofpolicycreationinthecity’suniquecontext.
ThestateofMassachusettsbanneddrywallfromtheirC&Dlandfillsin2009.Thisregulation
wassuccessfulinpartduetothefactthatstateregulationsrequireC&Dwastetopassthroughmaterials
processingfacilities.Thesortingmethodsofthesefacilitiesallowdrywalltoremainintactandbesent
toagypsumrecycler,meaningthatcontractorswerestillabletousetheMixedC&Dmethodandremain
incompliancewiththenewlegislation.SimilarlegislationinNYCwouldforcegeneralcontractorsto
changetheirbehaviorratherthanwastehandlers.Thiscouldbeperceivedbythesestakeholdersaspre-
sentingthemwithanunnecessaryfinancialburden.Tocircumventthisproblem,DSNYandDCPcould
establishnewgypsumrecyclingfacilitieswithinNYC.Thiswouldlowerthecostofsource-separationto
generalcontractorsbyreducingassociatedtransportationcosts.However,thisisnotaviableoptionbe-
causethelackofdevelopableareainthecitylimitsthepotentialfornewindustriallanduses.Secondly,
statelawrequiresthatallC&Dmaterialfirstpassthroughatransferstationwhichrendersthematerial
unrecoverable.Finally,sincetherearenoC&DlandfillsinNYC,thecitylackstheabilitytobandrywall
fromthelandfillinthefirstplace.
Thoughcityofficialscouldworkwithstateagenciestoinstituteadrywallbanfromupstate
landfillsorchangethelegaldefinitionofthematerial,manycityofficialsinterviewedcitedthisasa
“worthless”effortduetothepoliticaltensionbetweencityandstateagencies,orthe“upstate/downstate
divide.”Whileitisimportanttoacknowledgetheexistenceofthesepoliticaltensions,itisunproductive
toassumetheyrestrictanyconsensus.Additionally,NYCT,DECandESDarethreestateagenciesactively
workingontheissue,indicatingthatcollaborationonthisissuemorefeasiblethanothers.
Exhibit32locatestheseproblemsandrecommendationspresentedinthischapterattheirpar-
ticularpointsonthegypsumsupplychain.Thisvisuallydescribeshowthetwointeractwitheachother
andexistwithinasystemratherthanasisolatedissues.TerriMatthews,aSeniorPolicyAdvisoratDDC,
reiteratedthisidea,stating:“withoutanalysisoftheentiresystemofwhichagovernmentalactorisa
part,thereisnowaytoexpressissuesandsolvethemsystematically.”
58
Extraction
Manufacture
Consumption
Gypsum Recycler
Landfill
End Markets
Transfer Station
SourceSeparated
MixedC&D
Cement Drywall Agricultural input
Waste option 1
Waste option 2
1 Natural gypsum is abundant and cheap to extract
Gypsum cannot be recycled unless it is source-separated from other waste materials on the construction site
It is cheaper and more convienent for contractors to dispose of drywall as Mixed C&D rather than sort it on site
Given the fragmentation of the construction industry, it is sometimes difficult to coordinate all contractors in the pre-planning necessary to recycle gypsum
Gypsum is not recoverable if it passes through the transfer station
There is only one gypsum recycler in New York State. This requires the material be transported long distances to be recycled
The transfer station and the landfill environment causes gypsum to emit a hydrogen sulfide gas, the odor of which creates a public nuisance condition
Cement plants are the only industry of three primary end-markets for recycled gypsum that accept recycled “dirty scrap”
It is cheaper for drywall manufactures to use synthetic gypsum in the production of “recycled content” drywall that satisfies LEED requirements
As the private sector handles all commercial waste, it is difficult for DSNY to mandate that gypsum scrap be recycled
More data is needed to understand the cost mechanics of recycling gypsum
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1 Implement Urban Greenʼs recommendation that source separation of gypsum be included in the NYC Building Code
Influence New York State to ban drywall or tax upstate landfills
Expand the use of mobile shredders in NYC
Require that all city buildings be designed to fit standard drywall dimensions
Encourage drywall producers to manufacture according to building designs
Refine data collection practices of city agencies on C&D waste
Re-examine if gypsum recycling should be included in PlaNYC
2
3
4
5
6
1
4
9
11
2 3
5
6
7 78
10
Government oversight
1
2
34
6 7
BARRIERS
PROPOSED SOLUTIONS
7
5
RECYCLING
SOURCE REDUCTION
MANAGEMENT
Exhibit 32: The gypsum supply chain in NYC, identifying barriers to gypsum recycling and potential government interventions.
59
Recommendations: How can NYC incentivize drywall recycling? Whilethisprojectinitiallyaimedtoanswerthequestion“howcanNYCincentivizegypsum
recycling,”overthecourseoftheresearchthequestionbecame“shouldNYCincentivizegypsumrecy-
cling?”Geiser(2001)pointsoutthat“whilerecyclingsurelyprovidesbothsocialandeconomicbenefits,
increasingthecurrentrecoveryrateswillrequireovercomingsignificantstructuralbarriers;developing
newinstitutionalinfrastructures;andredesigningproducts,processesandmaterials.Indeed,itisadaunt-
ingtasktorestructurelargesectorsofthematerialseconomythatareprimarilylinearandopenand
convertthemintocontainedeconomysystemsbasedonclosed-looprecycling(216).”Hecontinuestosay
thatwhilerecyclingdoespresentahostofbenefits,anevenbetterwaytoachievethesesamebenefitsis
tousefewermaterialsinthefirstplace(236).”GeiserevokesaquotebyMichaelMcDonoughtoreiterate
thepoint:“weshouldrecycle,butitisnotthefirstthingweshoulddo.Itisthelast.Redesignfirst,then
reduce,andfinallyrecycle,ifthereisnootheralternative(215).”
Asthisshiftinthoughtcamelateintheresearch,thefollowingrecommendationsforNYCagen-
ciesincludebothrecyclingandsource-reductionmethods.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatNYC
agencieshavelittlecapacityforthesourcereductionofdrywallwaste.Nevertheless,therecommenda-
tionsoffermanagement,recyclingandsource-reductionmethodsfordecreasingtheamountofdrywall
wasteproducedinNYC.
Recycling
Implement Urban Green’s recommendation that source separation be included in the NYC Building Code.TheGreenCodesTaskForcereportcoordinatedgovernment,industryandcivilsocietystake-
holdersinextensiveresearchonfeasibleoptionsforgreeningNYC’sbuiltenvironment.Thegroup’swork
ongypsumrecyclingapproachedthesubjectfromeconomic,environmentalandpoliticalanglesand
concludedthat“requiringsitesortingof{gypsum}willlikelypushdiversionratestotheirhighestpracti-
calpoint(UrbanGreen,2010:RC1,3).”Itisunclear,however,whythisissuewasincludedinPlaNYC
ratherthandirectlygoingthroughtheCityCouncil.Nevertheless,thisrecommendationisthebestway
forNYCtorequiredrywallrecyclingduetothelackofdirectcontroloftheC&Dwastestream.Theissu-
anceofbuildingpermitsisoneregulatorypathwaythatfallsexclusivelyunderthecity’spurview.
60
Influence New York State to ban drywall from upstate landfills or institute a landfill tax ManytransferstationoperatorsdisposeofresidualMixedC&Dinupstatelandfills.Assuch,
thismovewouldprovideanimpetusfortransferstationstoinvestintechnologytoseparategypsum
fromloadsheadingtothelandfill.
Insteadofadirectmaterialsban,thestatecouldimposeapertontaxforallMixedC&Dloadstakentothe
landfill.ThisprecedentcomesfromtheUKandmanyEuropeanstates.Thesetaxesdoublethetipping
costsofC&Dlandfills,soifitcostacontractor$90/tontodisposeofMixedC&Dinalandfill,thetaxwould
pushthesecostsupto$180/ton.InthewordsofPatrickManning,theCEOofGypsumRecyclingAmerica,
thisregulationcatalyzed“95%ofEuropeancontractorstobecomerecyclersovernightsincetheycould
nolongeraffordtolandfilltheirwastes.”
Beforeenactingabanortax,itisimportanttonotethatthisregulationaffectstransferstationop-
eratorsratherthangeneralcontractors.Operatorscouldbypasstheextracostsimposedbythislegislation
inthreedifferentways.First,theycouldutilizeoutofstateC&Dlandfills.Thisbecamecommonpractice
orbothputrescibleandnon-putrescibletransferstationoperatorsinNYCafterthe2001closureofFresh
Kills.Thisdecisionwouldcomefromweighingthecostoftechnologicalinvestmentrequiredtoseparate
gypsumversusthetransportationcoststootherlandfillsintheregion.Secondly,theycouldpushthe
burdenontogeneralcontractorsbybanningdrywallscrapfromMixedC&Dloads.Thismovewouldpush
thefinancialburdenofgypsumrecyclingontogeneralcontractors.However,itwouldincreasediversion
ratesasgeneralcontractorscannotsendtheirwastetoout-of-statetransferstationstobypasstheregula-
tion.
Expand the use of mobile shredders in NYC Mobilegypsumshredders,likethoseusedbyGypsumRecyclingAmericacouldsubstantially
increasediversionrateswithoutdramaticallyraisingcoststocontractors.Thetechnologyoccupiesless
spacethanstandardgypsumshredders,whichisidealforthespaceconstraintsinNYC.Additionally,
operatorscouldmovetheshredderstoareaswithhighconstructionactivitytoreducethetransportation
coststocontractors.NYCcouldpromotetheuseofthistechnologybyawardingpriorityforsuchbusiness
applyingforgrantprogramsand/ortaxsubsidiesthroughtheNewYorkCityEconomicDevelopment
Corporation.
Toconformtospaceconstraints,thesemobileunitscouldbesitedinthecity-operatedMarine
TransferStations.The2006SolidWasteManagementPlanindicatedDSNY’sintenttousetheMarine
TransferStationstohandlesomeC&Dwasteafterreducingtheprocessingcapacityofahandfulofpri-
vatetransferstations.AstheMarineTransferStationsprovidethespacerequiredforthemobileunitsto
operate,thecitycouldrentoutspacetooperatorstheshredders.Thissolutionwouldprovideadditional
revenueforDSNYwhilealsocorrectingthegypsumproblem.
2
3
61
Source Reduction
Require that all city buildings be designed to fit standard drywall dimensionsThisstrategyreducestheamountofdrywallwastegeneratedratherthandiversionrates.
WhilethisdoesnotinfluencetheinherentbarrierstogypsumrecyclinginNYC’swastemanagement
system,thisrecommendationdoesworktowardthegoalofkeepinggypsumwasteoutofthelandfill.Ad-
ditionally,the2003WasteManagementManualbyDDCrecommendsthatbuildingsbedesignedto“ma-
terialsizesasmuchaspractical,toavoidcut-offwasteinplywood,gypsumboard,etc(GruzmanSamton&
CityGreen,16).LocalLaw86couldbeupdatedwiththisrequirementtoachievethisgoal.Onedrawback
ofthislegislationisthatitwouldreducethecreativecapacityofthearchitect,whichwouldproduce
negativerepercussionsfortheaestheticofthecity.Consideringthisdrawback,itisnotrecommended
thattheBuildingCodeberevisedtorequirethatallstructuresaredesignedtofitdrywalldimensions.
Encourage drywall producers to manufacture according to building designs DDCcouldworkwithdrywallproducerstocustomorderdrywallsheetsaccordingtothe
buildingdimensionsforeachproject.GiventhelargescaleofmanyDDCprojects,custom-cuttingthese
orderswouldbeeconomicallyfeasiblefordrywallmanufacturers.Thissupply-sidestrategycouldbe
repeatedthroughoutothercityandstateagencies,suchastheDormitoryAuthorityoftheStateofNew
York(DASNY)andNYCT.Thiscouldalsoencouragetheprivatesectortodemandthesameservicefrom
producers.Currently,evenifbuildingsaredesignedaccordingstandarddrywallsizes,eachsheetmustbe
cuttoaccommodatedoors,windows,electricaloutletsandotherbuildingamenities.Giventhatdrywall
manufacturersrecyclenearly100%ofpre-consumerwaste,itwouldbebeneficialtokeepthesescrapson
theproductionfloorratherthanontheconstructionsite.
Importantly,implementingthisstrategywouldrequiresignificantnegotiationwithdrywall
producers.Castsareusedbymanufacturerstoshapedrywallsheetsinspecificsizes.Assuch,producers
wouldhavetoinvestintheproductionofnewcaststomeetthisdemand.Ifgovernmentagencieswere
willingtosubsidizethesecostsforproducers,thisstrategycouldbeveryeffectiveinreducingtheamount
ofdrywallwasteonconstructionsites.SincetherearenodrywallproducersinNYC,however,thisrecom-
mendationmightbebestimplementedonthestatelevel.
4
5
62
Management
Refine data collection practices of city agencies on C&D waste Lackofknowledgeontheamountofgeneratedandrecycleddrywallwastehinderstheability
ofindustrystakeholderstoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsoftheactivity.Usually,alackofinformation
resultsinresistancetochangebehaviororadoptanewtechnology.Thisisespeciallythecasefordrywall
recycling,generalcontractorsandtransferstationoperatorsinterviewedperceivedtheactivitytopresent
asignificantfinancialburden.
WhilelargecorporationslikeWasteManagementhavedataonthelevelonindividualmaterial
flows,thisisproprietaryinformationandnotpubliclyavailable.NYCTalreadycollectsthisinforma-
tiononanagency-widescale.DDCstatedtheirintenttodoso,yettheycurrentlylacktheinstitutional
capacitytoimplementthisprocedure.Thisisinpartduetothefactthatmanyofthewastemanagement
plansandfollow-updocumentssubmittedbycontractorsarepapercopies.Filingthisinformationinan
‘analog’ratherthandigitalmannerhindersit’saccessibility.Thus,whileitseemslikeasmalldetail,the
DDCshouldrequirethatalldiversionratesberecordeddigitally.AsLEEDreportingrequiresmaterial-
specificdiversionratesandmostDDCprojectsachieveLEEDstandards,thisinitiativecouldeasilybemet
bystreamliningLEEDdocumentationwithintra-agencyrecordkeeping.
Additionally,DSNYquarterlytransferstationreportsrecordtotaltonnagesdivertedandsent
tolandfillbyallC&Dtransferstationsinthecity.DSNYcouldrequirethesereportstobebrokenoutby
materialtypetogetabetterpictureofgypsumtonnageflows.SimilartotheDDCcase,transferstation
operatorsalreadyrecordthisinformationforLEEDreportingstandards.
Re-examine if gypsum recycling should be included in PlaNYC Thelastrecommendationisperhapsthemostimportant.Matthewswarnsthatgovernment
interventiononissueslikethegypsumproblemcaneithertaketheformofmanagementredesignsor
enactmentofnewlegislation.Shewarnsthat“bothmanagementtoolsandlegislationfunctionlike
hammersinthehandofsomeonewhoseeseverythingasanail.Thedefaultapproachesareparticularly
problematicforthebuiltenvironment:onecannotfixtheproblembecauseofitslimitednatureandthe
othercanmakematterswithinthesystemworse.“
Indeed,thereareseveralfactorsofthegypsumproblemthatcannotbecorrectedbygovernment
action.Forexample,whilerequiringthatgypsumbesource-separatedinthebuildingcodewouldno
doubtincreasethematerial’sdiversionrate,itwouldalsogeneratemanynewtrucktrips.Itisclearthat
foramaterialasseeminglybenignasgypsum,thecurrentpoliticalculturedoesnotpermit/requireafull
andhonestanalysisofwhathappenswhenweenactlawsaffectingthebuiltenvironment.Addition-
6
7
63
ally,legislatingtheuseofrecycledcontentdrywallmaynotimpactthegypsumrecyclingratesduetothe
manybenefitssyntheticgypsumhasoverrecycledscrapformanufacturers.Moreover,stringentpurity
standardsessentiallystipulatethatcleanscrapistheonlyviablecandidateforrecycling.Thismeansthat
despitetheH2Sproblemposedbylandfillingdrywall,acertainpercentageofthematerialwillalways
enterthisenvironment.Thismeansthattheprocessingcapacityforsendingscraptolandfillcannotbe
legislatedaway.
Thisresearchelicitedahostofthesetrade-offissues.Italsoreveledthatgypsumisoneofthemost
abundantmineralsontheplanet.Surfaceminingproducesnosevereenvironmentalthreats,saveforthe
extractionofanaturalresource.Theseinsightsbegthequestion:shouldcorrectingthegypsumproblem
beapriorityforNYCagencies?OneDSNYofficialopinedthattheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanning
andSustainabilityoften“statesprioritieswithoutanyunderstandingofwhatisnecessarytoachieve
thesegoals.”NodoubttheinclusionofInitiative5intoPlaNYC2030wasdonewiththebestintentions.
TheultimategoalofthePlanis,afterall,tobuilda“Greener,GreaterNewYork.”Extensiveresearchon
thissingleaspectoftheplan,however,revealedthatthiseffortisperhapsnotnecessarytoachievethis
goal.
InthewordsofDavidHarvey,“politicalstrugglesandargumentsmay,undertheplanner’sinflu-
ence,bereducedtotechnicalargumentsforwhicha‘rational’solutioncaneasilybefound(1985:177).”
Harvey’snotionisratherpoignantforthisresearch.SavefortheproductionofH2Sinthelandfilland
transferstation,theissueofpoorgypsumrecyclingrateshavenostrong‘technical’argumentproviding
animpetusforcityagenciestocorrecttheproblemwithlegislation.Inotherwords,theissuedoesnot
presentacrisissituationwhichnecessitatesagovernmentresponse.Theissuedoes,however,havemany
politicalargumentspreventingthenecessarycoordinationtocorrecttheproblem.Theseconditionsmake
findingarationalregulatorysolutiontothegypsumproblemdifficult.Thisisnottosaythatgypsum
recyclingeffortsshouldbeabandoned,ratherthatgovernmentinterventionwillnotprovidetheoptimal
solutiontotheproblem.
Assuch,thisresearchhasimplicationsforplanningbeyondthescopeofthegypsumproblem.
Rittel&Webber(1973)arguethatsincetheinceptionofthediscipline,plannershaveoperatedwithideal-
izedmodelsthatobscurehowpolicydevelopmentactuallyoccurs.Whiletherehavebeenmanyitera-
tionsofthesemodels,nonehaveadequatelyaddressedthecomplexityandinherentlypoliticalnatureof
theprocessofimplementingplansintotangiblepolicymeasures.Accordingtotheauthors,“theprob-
lemsofgovernmentalplanning-andespeciallythoseofsocialorpolicyplanning-areilldefined,”con-
tinuing,“theinformationneededtounderstandtheproblemdependsuponone’sideaforsolvingit(161).”
Whilerecyclingisalwaysseenasapositivethingforgovernmentagenciestopromote,gypsumisnot
amaterialthatwarrantstheextensivegovernmenteffortstoovercomethemanybarriersthathinder
itsrecycling.Theplaceforplanninginthisscenarioistoweighthecaseofgypsumagainstthemany
64
otherproblemsvyingforgovernmentfundsandbrainpower.Rittel&Webbercontinue,“wehavecome
tothinkabouttheplanningtaskinverydifferentwaysinrecentyears.Wehavebeenlearningtoask
whetherwhatwearedoingistherightthingtodo.Thatistosay,wehavebeenlearningtoaskquestion
abouttheoutputsofactionsandtoposeproblemstatementsinvaluativeframeworks.”Despitethefact
thattheseexaminationsdotakeawhole-systemsapproachasadvocatedbySchnaibergandGeiser,Rittel
&Webberargue,paradoxically,that“ithasbecomelessapparentwhereproblemcenterslie,andlessap-
parentwhereandhowweshouldinterveneevenifwedohappentoknowwhataimsweseek(159).”
Buildingfromtheseobservations,theprimaryconclusionofthisresearchisthatgypsumrecycling
shouldnotbeincludedinPlaNYC.Ifanyeffortistakenatall,itshouldbesourcereductionratherthan
recycling.Additionally,thesefindingsshowthattheenvironmentalandeconomictrade-offsnecessary
forrecyclinggypsumoutweightheneedforconservingthematerial.Asecondaryconclusionisthat
plannersshouldpayrenewedattentionongoalsetting.Ifthegoalofgypsumrecyclingshouldnothave
beenincludedinPlaNYC,thenperhapsthereareothergoalssetforthinthePlanthataremisdirected.
AccordingtoRittel&Webber,“goal-findingisturningouttobeanextraordinaryobstinatetask.Because
goal-findingisoneofthecentralfunctionsofplanning,weshallshortlywanttoaskwhythatmustbeso
(157).”
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APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
(4November2011&23January2012)BR Fries Construction (General Contracting Company)Owner
(17November2011)New York City Department of Design & Construction SeniorPolicyAdvisor
(29November2011)New York City Transit AuthorityPrincipalEngineer
(6December2011)Group PMX (Construction Management)Owner
(13December2011)NYC Department of Design & ConstructionDirectorofSustainability
(7December2011)NYC Department of Sanitation DirectorofSpecialProjects:BureauofLongTermExport
(10January2012)Mayors Office of Long Term Planning & Sustainability UrbanFellow
(12January2012)Columbia Urban Planning Masters ‘08Author:ConstructionandDemolitionWasteinNewYorkCity:OvercomingtheBarrierstoIncreasedRecycling
(17January2012)Empire State Development CorporationEconomicDevelopmentSpecialist
(18January2012)NYC Department of City PlanningCityPlanner
(25January2012)Cooper Tank Recycling (C&D Transfer Station)GeneralManager
(26January2012)Gypsum Recycling USA CEO(30January2012)BR Fries Construction
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ProjectSuperintendent
(15February2012)Department of Sanitation (DSNY)DeputyDirector
(17February2012)NYC Department of Design & ConstructionProjectManager
(17February2012)Turner/STV ConstructionLEEDComplianceOfficer
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APPENDIX B: SAMPLE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN (DDC)
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D D C – S A M P L E C & D W A S T E M A N A G E M E N T P L A N June 2003
SAMPLE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
A sample C&D Waste Management Plan appears on the following pages. It indicates the topics to be covered and the type of information that would be appropriate. Dummy information has been included toillustrate the Plan.
S A M P L E W A S T E M A N A G E M E N T P L A N
This is a Sample Waste Management Plan. You may use this as a guide in developing your own.
Contractor: Very Best Construction Company Prepared May 1, 2003 / Revised July 3, 2003Project: Renovation/Addition to Big Building, Queens, N.Y.Designated Recycling Coordinator: Joe Doe
Waste Management Goals · This project will recycle, reuse or salvage at least 75%, by weight, of the waste generated on site.
Waste Prevention Measures · Five large rooms on the 1st Floor, near the service elevator, have been designated for storage of delivered
material and equipment until it is needed. These rooms are dry and lockable. Each Prime Contractor has been assigned one of these rooms.
· Reusable metal forms will be used for the concrete structural elements. · Each major vendor will be sent a letter requesting their cooperation in planning for minimal or take-back
packaging, and just-in-time delivery. The Recycling Coordinator will provide a draft letter to each PrimeContractor for their use.
· A mock-up of the ceiling, soffit, ductwork and lighting shown on detail xyz will be built for coordination and review before proceeding with this work.
Reuse and Salvage Items (Included on the chart below) · The paneled doors from the existing offices will be reused per the documents.· Excavation rock will be crushed and used as fill on site.· Shelving removed from the library will be donated to Dick and Jane School
Communication Plan · Waste prevention and recycling activities will be discussed at each job meeting.· The recycling coordinator will give each contractor and subcontractor a copy of the Waste Management Plan,
provide instruction in appropriate separation and handling procedures and show them the recycling areas. · Prime contractors will be expected to make sure that their workers comply with the Waste Management Plan.· All recycling containers will be labeled in English and Spanish, with acceptable / unacceptable materials posted.
Each sign will have a representative picture of the materials to be recycled.· If methods or container locations change during the course of the project, the Recycling Coordinator will notify
each contractor and subcontractor in writing.
Contamination Prevention Measures· Small roll-off containers convenient to work areas will be used; Very Best Contracting will periodically
consolidate the contents in the appropriate dumpsters. Garbage containers for non-recyclable materials will be located adjacent to recycling containers.
Sample Waste Management Plan1
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D D C – S A M P L E C & D W A S T E M A N A G E M E N T P L A N June 2003
If any containers are near the driveway, they will be securely covered when not supervised. An eating area has been designated on site, and workers will not be permitted to eat elsewhere in the building.
Documentation to be Provided
Recycling Reports; Weight tickets and receipts from companies listed below. Letter from Waste Corp., certifying the overall percentage of mixed C&D waste that they recycle.
EXPECTED PROJECT WASTE, DISPOSAL/RECYCLING/REUSE AND HANDLING Demolition Phase Percentage of material to be Recycled, Salvaged or Reused
Material Quantity %
Recycle/Salvage/Processing Company On-Site Handling Procedure
Concrete Recycle: XYZ Company Deposit in concrete bin. Rebar OK
Ceiling tile Recycle: Armstrong Industries Collect on pallets, each floor
Steel/Metals Recycle: NY Metals Deposit in metals container
Paneled Wood Doors Reuse per documents Collect in room A; Protect until reused
Library Shelving Salvage: Donate to Dick and Jane School
Remove in sections and store in room B for School pick-up
Mixed C&D waste 8 tons recycled 12 tons landfill
40% Sort/Disposal: Waste Corp. Deposit in general dumpster
Garbage/Other waste 0 Landfill Deposit in container X Construction Phase
Material Quantity %
Recycle/Salvage/Processing Company On-Site Handling Procedure
Excavated Rock Reuse on site as fill Collect for crushing by Inert Inc.
Cardboard packaging Recycle: Tri-State Paper Collect on each floor for bundling
Steel/Metals Recycle: NY Metals Deposit in metals container
Mixed C&D waste 4 tons recycled 6 tons landfill
40% Sort/Disposal: Waste Corp. Deposit in general dumpster
Garbage/Other waste 0 Landfill Deposit in container X
Summary – Expected C & D Waste and Diversion Rate Total C & D Waste x Tons Total waste expected to be generated in demo and construction
Total Recycled + y Tons Materials to be diverted from landfills, by salvage, reuse and recycling
Diversion Rate y/x % Percentage of project’s waste expected to be diverted from landfills
This Plan has been prepared with the knowledge and cooperation of the demolition subcontractor, DDD Demo, and the other Prime Contractors on the project: EEE Electrical Contracting; MMM Mechanical; and PPP Plumbing Ltd. Signed: _________________, Very Best Construction Company July 1, 2003
Sample Waste Management Plan 2