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Physics guideFirst assessment 2016
Physics guideFirst assessment 2016
4076
International Baccalaureate, Baccalauréat International and Bachillerato Internacional are registered trademarks of the International Baccalaureate Organization.
Published February 2014
Published on behalf of the International Baccalaureate Organization, a not-for-profit educational foundation of 15 Route des Morillons, 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex, Geneva,
Switzerland by the
International Baccalaureate Organization (UK) LtdPeterson House, Malthouse Avenue, Cardiff Gate
Cardiff, Wales CF23 8GLUnited Kingdom
Website: www.ibo.org
© International Baccalaureate Organization 2014
The International Baccalaureate Organization (known as the IB) offers four high-quality and challenging educational programmes for a worldwide community of schools, aiming to create a better, more peaceful world. This publication is one of a range of materials produced to support these programmes.
The IB may use a variety of sources in its work and checks information to verify accuracy and authenticity, particularly when using community-based knowledge sources such as Wikipedia. The IB respects the principles of intellectual property and makes strenuous efforts to identify and obtain permission before publication from rights holders of all copyright material used. The IB is grateful for permissions received for material used in this publication and will be pleased to correct any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the IB, or as expressly permitted by law or by the IB’s own rules and policy. See http://www.ibo.org/copyright.
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Email: [email protected]
Diploma ProgrammePhysics guide
IB mission statementThe International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.
To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment.
These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.
Physics guide ixix
Contents
Introduction 1
Purpose of this document 1
The Diploma Programme 2
Nature of science 6
Nature of physics 12
Aims 17
Assessment objectives 18
Syllabus 19
Syllabus outline 19
Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics 20
Syllabus content 25
Assessment 130
Assessment in the Diploma Programme 130
Assessment outline—SL 132
Assessment outline—HL 133
External assessment 134
Internal assessment 136
Appendices 154
Glossary of command terms 154
Bibliography 157
Physics guide 11
Purpose of this document
Introduction
This publication is intended to guide the planning, teaching and assessment of the subject in schools. Subject teachers are the primary audience, although it is expected that teachers will use the guide to inform students and parents about the subject.
This guide can be found on the subject page of the online curriculum centre (OCC) at http://occ.ibo.org, a password-protected IB website designed to support IB teachers. It can also be purchased from the IB store at http://store.ibo.org.
Additional resourcesAdditional publications such as teacher support materials, subject reports, internal assessment guidance and grade descriptors can also be found on the OCC. Past examination papers as well as markschemes can be purchased from the IB store.
Teachers are encouraged to check the OCC for additional resources created or used by other teachers. Teachers can provide details of useful resources, for example: websites, books, videos, journals or teaching ideas.
AcknowledgmentThe IB wishes to thank the educators and associated schools for generously contributing time and resources to the production of this guide.
First assessment 2016
Physics guide22
Introduction
The Diploma Programme
The Diploma Programme is a rigorous pre-university course of study designed for students in the 16 to 19 age range. It is a broad-based two-year course that aims to encourage students to be knowledgeable and inquiring, but also caring and compassionate. There is a strong emphasis on encouraging students to develop intercultural understanding, open-mindedness, and the attitudes necessary for them to respect and evaluate a range of points of view.
The Diploma Programme modelThe course is presented as six academic areas enclosing a central core (see figure 1). It encourages the concurrent study of a broad range of academic areas. Students study: two modern languages (or a modern language and a classical language); a humanities or social science subject; an experimental science; mathematics; one of the creative arts. It is this comprehensive range of subjects that makes the Diploma Programme a demanding course of study designed to prepare students effectively for university entrance. In each of the academic areas students have flexibility in making their choices, which means they can choose subjects that particularly interest them and that they may wish to study further at university.
Figure 1Diploma Programme model
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Physics guide 3
Choosing the right combinationStudents are required to choose one subject from each of the six academic areas, although they can, instead of an arts subject, choose two subjects from another area. Normally, three subjects (and not more than four) are taken at higher level (HL), and the others are taken at standard level (SL). The IB recommends 240 teaching hours for HL subjects and 150 hours for SL. Subjects at HL are studied in greater depth and breadth than at SL.
At both levels, many skills are developed, especially those of critical thinking and analysis. At the end of the course, students’ abilities are measured by means of external assessment. Many subjects contain some element of coursework assessed by teachers.
The core of the Diploma Programme ModelAll Diploma Programme students participate in the three course elements that make up the core of the model. Theory of knowledge (TOK) is a course that is fundamentally about critical thinking and inquiry into the process of knowing rather than about learning a specific body of knowledge. The TOK course examines the nature of knowledge and how we know what we claim to know. It does this by encouraging students to analyse knowledge claims and explore questions about the construction of knowledge. The task of TOK is to emphasize connections between areas of shared knowledge and link them to personal knowledge in such a way that an individual becomes more aware of his or her own perspectives and how they might differ from others.
Creativity, action, service (CAS) is at the heart of the Diploma Programme. The emphasis in CAS is on helping students to develop their own identities, in accordance with the ethical principles embodied in the IB mission statement and the IB learner profile. It involves students in a range of activities alongside their academic studies throughout the Diploma Programme. The three strands of CAS are Creativity (arts, and other experiences that involve creative thinking), Action (physical exertion contributing to a healthy lifestyle) and Service (an unpaid and voluntary exchange that has a learning benefit for the student). Possibly more than any other component in the Diploma Programme, CAS contributes to the IB’s mission to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.
The extended essay, including the world studies extended essay, offers the opportunity for IB students to investigate a topic of special interest, in the form of a 4,000-word piece of independent research. The area of research undertaken is chosen from one of the students’ Diploma Programme subjects, or in the case of the interdisciplinary world studies essay, two subjects, and acquaints them with the independent research and writing skills expected at university. This leads to a major piece of formally presented, structured writing, in which ideas and findings are communicated in a reasoned and coherent manner, appropriate to the subject or subjects chosen. It is intended to promote high-level research and writing skills, intellectual discovery and creativity. As an authentic learning experience it provides students with an opportunity to engage in personal research on a topic of choice, under the guidance of a supervisor.
Approaches to teaching and approaches to learningApproaches to teaching and learning across the Diploma Programme refers to deliberate strategies, skills and attitudes which permeate the teaching and learning environment. These approaches and tools, intrinsically linked with the learner profile attributes, enhance student learning and assist student preparation for the Diploma Programme assessment and beyond. The aims of approaches to teaching and learning in the Diploma Programme are to:
The Diploma Programme
Physics guide4
• empower teachers as teachers of learners as well as teachers of content
• empower teachers to create clearer strategies for facilitating learning experiences in which students are more meaningfully engaged in structured inquiry and greater critical and creative thinking
• promote both the aims of individual subjects (making them more than course aspirations) and linking previously isolated knowledge (concurrency of learning)
• encourage students to develop an explicit variety of skills that will equip them to continue to be actively engaged in learning after they leave school, and to help them not only obtain university admission through better grades but also prepare for success during tertiary education and beyond
• enhance further the coherence and relevance of the students’ Diploma Programme experience
• allow schools to identify the distinctive nature of an IB Diploma Programme education, with its blend of idealism and practicality.
The five approaches to learning (developing thinking skills, social skills, communication skills, self-management skills and research skills) along with the six approaches to teaching (teaching that is inquiry-based, conceptually focused, contextualized, collaborative, differentiated and informed by assessment) encompass the key values and principles that underpin IB pedagogy.
The IB mission statement and the IB learner profileThe Diploma Programme aims to develop in students the knowledge, skills and attitudes they will need to fulfill the aims of the IB, as expressed in the organization’s mission statement and the learner profile. Teaching and learning in the Diploma Programme represent the reality in daily practice of the organization’s educational philosophy.
Academic honestyAcademic honesty in the Diploma Programme is a set of values and behaviours informed by the attributes of the learner profile. In teaching, learning and assessment, academic honesty serves to promote personal integrity, engender respect for the integrity of others and their work, and ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to demonstrate the knowledge and skills they acquire during their studies.
All coursework—including work submitted for assessment—is to be authentic, based on the student’s individual and original ideas with the ideas and work of others fully acknowledged. Assessment tasks that require teachers to provide guidance to students or that require students to work collaboratively must be completed in full compliance with the detailed guidelines provided by the IB for the relevant subjects.
For further information on academic honesty in the IB and the Diploma Programme, please consult the IB publications Academic honesty, The Diploma Programme: From principles into practice and General regulations: Diploma Programme. Specific information regarding academic honesty as it pertains to external and internal assessment components of this Diploma Programme subject can be found in this guide.
Acknowledging the ideas or work of another personCoordinators and teachers are reminded that candidates must acknowledge all sources used in work submitted for assessment. The following is intended as a clarification of this requirement.
Diploma Programme candidates submit work for assessment in a variety of media that may include audio-visual material, text, graphs, images and/or data published in print or electronic sources. If a candidate uses the work or ideas of another person, the candidate must acknowledge the source using a standard style of
The Diploma Programme
Physics guide 5
referencing in a consistent manner. A candidate’s failure to acknowledge a source will be investigated by the IB as a potential breach of regulations that may result in a penalty imposed by the IB final award committee.
The IB does not prescribe which style(s) of referencing or in-text citation should be used by candidates; this is left to the discretion of appropriate faculty/staff in the candidate’s school. The wide range of subjects, three response languages and the diversity of referencing styles make it impractical and restrictive to insist on particular styles. In practice, certain styles may prove most commonly used, but schools are free to choose a style that is appropriate for the subject concerned and the language in which candidates’ work is written. Regardless of the reference style adopted by the school for a given subject, it is expected that the minimum information given includes: name of author, date of publication, title of source, and page numbers as applicable.
Candidates are expected to use a standard style and use it consistently so that credit is given to all sources used, including sources that have been paraphrased or summarized. When writing, candidates must clearly distinguish between their words and those of others by the use of quotation marks (or other method, such as indentation) followed by an appropriate citation that denotes an entry in the bibliography. If an electronic source is cited, the date of access must be indicated. Candidates are not expected to show faultless expertise in referencing, but are expected to demonstrate that all sources have been acknowledged. Candidates must be advised that audio-visual material, text, graphs, images and/or data published in print or in electronic sources that is not their own must also attribute the source. Again, an appropriate style of referencing/citation must be used.
Learning diversity and learning support requirementsSchools must ensure that equal access arrangements and reasonable adjustments are provided to candidates with learning support requirements that are in line with the IB documents Candidates with assessment access requirements and Learning diversity within the International Baccalaureate programmes/Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes.
Physics guide66
The Nature of science (NOS) is an overarching theme in the biology, chemistry and physics courses. This section, titled “Nature of science”, is in the biology, chemistry and physics guides to support teachers in their understanding of what is meant by the nature of science. The “Nature of science” section of the guide provides a comprehensive account of the nature of science in the 21st century. It will not be possible to cover in this document all the themes in detail in the three science courses, either for teaching or assessment.
It has a paragraph structure (1.1, 1.2, etc) to link the significant points made to the syllabus (landscape pages) references on the NOS. The NOS parts in the subject-specific sections of the guide are examples of a particular understanding. The NOS statement(s) above every sub-topic outline how one or more of the NOS themes can be exemplified through the understandings, applications and skills in that sub-topic. These are not a repeat of the NOS statements found below but an elaboration of them in a specific context. See the section on “Format of the syllabus”.
TechnologyAlthough this section is about the nature of science, the interpretation of the word technology is important, and the role of technology emerging from and contributing to science needs to be clarified. In today’s world, the words science and technology are often used interchangeably; however, historically this is not the case. Technology emerged before science, and materials were used to produce useful and decorative artefacts long before there was an understanding of why materials had different properties that could be used for different purposes. In the modern world the reverse is the case: an understanding of the underlying science is the basis for technological developments. These new technologies in their turn drive developments in science.
Despite their mutual dependence they are based on different values: science on evidence, rationality and the quest for deeper understanding; technology on the practical, the appropriate and the useful with an increasingly important emphasis on sustainability.
1. What is science and what is the scientific endeavour?
1.1. The underlying assumption of science is that the universe has an independent, external reality accessible to human senses and amenable to human reason.
1.2. Pure science aims to come to a common understanding of this external universe; applied science and engineering develop technologies that result in new processes and products. However, the boundaries between these fields are fuzzy.
1.3. Scientists use a wide variety of methodologies which, taken together, make up the process of science. There is no single “scientific method”. Scientists have used, and do use, different methods at different times to build up their knowledge and ideas, but they have a common understanding about what makes them all scientifically valid.
1.4. This is an exciting and challenging adventure involving much creativity and imagination as well as exacting and detailed thinking and application. Scientists also have to be ready for unplanned, surprising, accidental discoveries. The history of science shows this is a very common occurrence.
1.5. Many scientific discoveries have involved flashes of intuition and many have come from speculation or simple curiosity about particular phenomena.
Nature of science
Introduction
Nature of science
Physics guide 7
1.6. Scientists have a common terminology and a common reasoning process, which involves using deductive and inductive logic through analogies and generalizations. They share mathematics, the language of science, as a powerful tool. Indeed, some scientific explanations only exist in mathematical form.
1.7. Scientists must adopt a skeptical attitude to claims. This does not mean that they disbelieve everything, but rather that they suspend judgment until they have a good reason to believe a claim to be true or false. Such reasons are based on evidence and argument.
1.8. The importance of evidence is a fundamental common understanding. Evidence can be obtained by observation or experiment. It can be gathered by human senses, primarily sight, but much modern science is carried out using instrumentation and sensors that can gather information remotely and automatically in areas that are too small, or too far away, or otherwise beyond human sense perception. Improved instrumentation and new technology have often been the drivers for new discoveries. Observations followed by analysis and deduction led to the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe and to the theory of evolution by natural selection. In these cases, no controlled experiments were possible. Disciplines such as geology and astronomy rely strongly on collecting data in the field, but all disciplines use observation to collect evidence to some extent. Experimentation in a controlled environment, generally in laboratories, is the other way of obtaining evidence in the form of data, and there are many conventions and understandings as to how this is to be achieved.
1.9. This evidence is used to develop theories, generalize from data to form laws and propose hypotheses. These theories and hypotheses are used to make predictions that can be tested. In this way theories can be supported or opposed and can be modified or replaced by new theories.
1.10. Models, some simple, some very complex, based on theoretical understanding, are developed to explain processes that may not be observable. Computer-based mathematical models are used to make testable predictions, which can be especially useful when experimentation is not possible. Models tested against experiments or data from observations may prove inadequate, in which case they may be modified or replaced by new models.
1.11. The outcomes of experiments, the insights provided by modelling and observations of the natural world may be used as further evidence for a claim.
1.12. The growth in computing power has made modelling much more powerful. Models, usually mathematical, are now used to derive new understandings when no experiments are possible (and sometimes when they are). This dynamic modelling of complex situations involving large amounts of data, a large number of variables and complex and lengthy calculations is only possible as a result of increased computing power. Modelling of the Earth’s climate, for example, is used to predict or make a range of projections of future climatic conditions. A range of different models has been developed in this field and results from different models have been compared to see which models are most accurate. Models can sometimes be tested by using data from the past and used to see if they can predict the present situation. If a model passes this test, we gain confidence in its accuracy.
1.13. Both the ideas and the processes of science can only occur in a human context. Science is carried out by a community of people from a wide variety of backgrounds and traditions, and this has clearly influenced the way science has proceeded at different times. It is important to understand, however, that to do science is to be involved in a community of inquiry with certain common principles, methodologies, understandings and processes.
2. The understanding of science2.1. Theories, laws and hypotheses are concepts used by scientists. Though these concepts are connected,
there is no progression from one to the other. These words have a special meaning in science and it is important to distinguish these from their everyday use.
2.2. Theories are themselves integrated, comprehensive models of how the universe, or parts of it, work. A theory can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses. Predictions can be made from the theories and these can be tested in experiments or by careful observations. Examples are the germ theory of disease or atomic theory.
2.3. Theories generally accommodate the assumptions and premises of other theories, creating a consistent understanding across a range of phenomena and disciplines. Occasionally, however, a new theory will radically change how essential concepts are understood or framed, impacting other theories and causing what is sometimes called a “paradigm shift” in science. One of the most famous paradigm shifts in science occurred when our idea of time changed from an absolute frame of reference to an observer-dependent frame of reference within Einstein’s theory of relativity. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection also changed our understanding of life on Earth.
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Physics guide8
2.4. Laws are descriptive, normative statements derived from observations of regular patterns of behaviour. They are generally mathematical in form and can be used to calculate outcomes and to make predictions. Like theories and hypotheses, laws cannot be proven. Scientific laws may have exceptions and may be modified or rejected based on new evidence. Laws do not necessarily explain a phenomenon. For example, Newton’s law of universal gravitation tells us that the force between two masses is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and allows us to calculate the force between masses at any distance apart, but it does not explain why masses attract each other. Also, note that the term law has been used in different ways in science, and whether a particular idea is called a law may be partly a result of the discipline and time period at which it was developed.
2.5. Scientists sometimes form hypotheses—explanatory statements about the world that could be true or false, and which often suggest a causal relationship or a correlation between factors. Hypotheses can be tested by both experiments and observations of the natural world and can be supported or opposed.
2.6. To be scientific, an idea (for example, a theory or hypothesis) must focus on the natural world and natural explanations and must be testable. Scientists strive to develop hypotheses and theories that are compatible with accepted principles and that simplify and unify existing ideas.
2.7. The principle of Occam’s razor is used as a guide to developing a theory. The theory should be as simple as possible while maximizing explanatory power.
2.8. The ideas of correlation and cause are very important in science. A correlation is a statistical link or association between one variable and another. A correlation can be positive or negative and a correlation coefficient can be calculated that will have a value between +1, 0 and −1. A strong correlation (positive or negative) between one factor and another suggests some sort of causal relationship between the two factors but more evidence is usually required before scientists accept the idea of a causal relationship. To establish a causal relationship, ie one factor causing another, scientists need to have a plausible scientific mechanism linking the factors. This strengthens the case that one causes the other, for example smoking and lung cancer. This mechanism can be tested in experiments.
2.9. The ideal situation is to investigate the relationship between one factor and another while controlling all other factors in an experimental setting; however, this is often impossible and scientists, especially in biology and medicine, use sampling, cohort studies and case control studies to strengthen their understanding of causation when experiments (such as double-blind tests and clinical trials) are not possible. Epidemiology in the field of medicine involves the statistical analysis of data to discover possible correlations when little established scientific knowledge is available or the circumstances are too difficult to control entirely. Here, as in other fields, mathematical analysis of probability also plays a role.
3. The objectivity of science3.1. Data is the lifeblood of scientists and may be qualitative or quantitative. It can be obtained purely from
observations or from specifically designed experiments, remotely using electronic sensors or by direct measurement. The best data for making accurate and precise descriptions and predictions is often quantitative and amenable to mathematical analysis. Scientists analyse data and look for patterns, trends and discrepancies, attempting to discover relationships and establish causal links. This is not always possible, so identifying and classifying observations and artefacts (eg types of galaxies or fossils) is still an important aspect of scientific work.
3.2. Taking repeated measurements and large numbers of readings can improve reliability in data collection. Data can be presented in a variety of formats such as linear and logarithmic graphs that can be analysed for, say, direct or inverse proportion or for power relationships.
3.3. Scientists need to be aware of random errors and systematic errors, and use techniques such as error bars and lines of best fit on graphs to portray the data as realistically and honestly as possible. There is a need to consider whether outlying data points should be discarded or not.
3.4. Scientists need to understand the difference between errors and uncertainties, accuracy and precision, and need to understand and use the mathematical ideas of average, mean, mode, median, etc. Statistical methods such as standard deviation and chi-squared tests are often used. It is important to be able to assess how accurate a result is. A key part of the training and skill of scientists is in being able to decide which technique is appropriate in different circumstances.
3.5. It is also very important for scientists to be aware of the cognitive biases that may impact experimental design and interpretation. The confirmation bias, for example, is a well-documented cognitive bias that urges us to find reasons to reject data that is unexpected or does not conform to our expectations or desires, and to perhaps too readily accept data that agrees with these expectations or desires. The processes and methodologies of science are largely designed to account for these biases. However, care must always be taken to avoid succumbing to them.
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Physics guide 9
3.6. Although scientists cannot ever be certain that a result or finding is correct, we know that some scientific results are very close to certainty. Scientists often speak of “levels of confidence” when discussing outcomes. The discovery of the existence of a Higgs boson is such an example of a “level of confidence”. This particle may never be directly observable, but to establish its “existence” particle physicists had to pass the self-imposed definition of what can be regarded as a discovery—the 5-sigma “level of certainty”—or about a 0.00003% chance that the effect is not real based on experimental evidence.
3.7. In recent decades, the growth in computing power, sensor technology and networks has allowed scientists to collect large amounts of data. Streams of data are downloaded continuously from many sources such as remote sensing satellites and space probes and large amounts of data are generated in gene sequencing machines. Experiments in CERN’s Large Hadron Collider regularly produce 23 petabytes of data per second, which is equivalent to 13.3 years of high definition TV content per second.
3.8. Research involves analysing large amounts of this data, stored in databases, looking for patterns and unique events. This has to be done using software that is generally written by the scientists involved. The data and the software may not be published with the scientific results but would be made generally available to other researchers.
4. The human face of science4.1. Science is highly collaborative and the scientific community is composed of people working in science,
engineering and technology. It is common to work in teams from many disciplines so that different areas of expertise and specializations can contribute to a common goal that is beyond one scientific field. It is also the case that how a problem is framed in the paradigm of one discipline might limit possible solutions, so framing problems using a variety of perspectives, in which new solutions are possible, can be extremely useful.
4.2. Teamwork of this sort takes place with the common understanding that science should be open-minded and independent of religion, culture, politics, nationality, age and gender. Science involves the free global interchange of information and ideas. Of course, individual scientists are human and may have biases and prejudices, but the institutions, practices and methodologies of science help keep the scientific endeavour as a whole unbiased.
4.3. As well as collaborating on the exchange of results, scientists work on a daily basis in collaborative groups on a small and large scale within and between disciplines, laboratories, organizations and countries, facilitated even more by virtual communication. Examples of large-scale collaboration include:
– The Manhattan project, the aim of which was to build and test an atomic bomb. It eventually employed more than 130,000 people and resulted in the creation of multiple production and research sites that operated in secret, culminating in the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
– The Human Genome Project (HGP), which was an international scientific research project set up to map the human genome. The $3-billion project beginning in 1990 produced a draft of the genome in 2000. The sequence of the DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the internet.
– The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), organized under the auspices of the United Nations, is officially composed of about 2,500 scientists. They produce reports summarizing the work of many more scientists from all around the world.
– CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, an international organization set up in 1954, is the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. The laboratory, situated in Geneva, employs about 2,400 people and shares results with 10,000 scientists and engineers covering over 100 nationalities from 600 or more universities and research facilities.
All the above examples are controversial to some degree and have aroused emotions among scientists and the public.
4.4. Scientists spend a considerable amount of time reading the published results of other scientists. They publish their own results in scientific journals after a process called peer review. This is when the work of a scientist or, more usually, a team of scientists is anonymously and independently reviewed by several scientists working in the same field who decide if the research methodologies are sound and if the work represents a new contribution to knowledge in that field. They also attend conferences
Nature of science
Physics guide10
to make presentations and display posters of their work. Publication of peer-reviewed journals on the internet has increased the efficiency with which the scientific literature can be searched and accessed. There are a large number of national and international organizations for scientists working in specialized areas within subjects.
4.5. Scientists often work in areas, or produce findings, that have significant ethical and political implications. These areas include cloning, genetic engineering of food and organisms, stem cell and reproductive technologies, nuclear power, weapons development (nuclear, chemical and biological), transplantation of tissue and organs and in areas that involve testing on animals (see IB animal experimentation policy). There are also questions involving intellectual property rights and the free exchange of information that may impact significantly on a society. Science is undertaken in universities, commercial companies, government organizations, defence agencies and international organizations. Questions of patents and intellectual property rights arise when work is done in a protected environment.
4.6. The integrity and honest representation of data is paramount in science—results should not be fixed or manipulated or doctored. To help ensure academic honesty and guard against plagiarism, all sources are quoted and appropriate acknowledgment made of help or support. Peer review and the scrutiny and skepticism of the scientific community also help achieve these goals.
4.7. All science has to be funded and the source of the funding is crucial in decisions regarding the type of research to be conducted. Funding from governments and charitable foundations is sometimes for pure research with no obvious direct benefit to anyone, whereas funding from private companies is often for applied research to produce a particular product or technology. Political and economic factors often determine the nature and extent of the funding. Scientists often have to spend time applying for research grants and have to make a case for what they want to research.
4.8. Science has been used to solve many problems and improve humankind’s lot, but it has also been used in morally questionable ways and in ways that inadvertently caused problems. Advances in sanitation, clean water supplies and hygiene led to significant decreases in death rates but without compensating decreases in birth rates, this led to huge population increases with all the problems of resources, energy and food supplies that entails. Ethical discussions, risk–benefit analyses, risk assessment and the precautionary principle are all parts of the scientific way of addressing the common good.
5. Scientific literacy and the public understanding of science
5.1. An understanding of the nature of science is vital when society needs to make decisions involving scientific findings and issues. How does the public judge? It may not be possible to make judgments based on the public’s direct understanding of a science, but important questions can be asked about whether scientific processes were followed and scientists have a role in answering such questions.
5.2. As experts in their particular fields, scientists are well placed to explain to the public their issues and findings. Outside their specializations, they may be no more qualified than ordinary citizens to advise others on scientific issues, although their understanding of the processes of science can help them to make personal decisions and to educate the public as to whether claims are scientifically credible.
5.3. As well as comprising knowledge of how scientists work and think, scientific literacy involves being aware of faulty reasoning. There are many cognitive biases/fallacies of reasoning to which people are susceptible (including scientists) and these need to be corrected whenever possible. Examples of these are the confirmation bias, hasty generalizations, post hoc ergo propter hoc (false cause), the straw man fallacy, redefinition (moving the goal posts), the appeal to tradition, false authority and the accumulation of anecdotes being regarded as evidence.
5.4. When such biases and fallacies are not properly managed or corrected, or when the processes and checks and balances of science are ignored or misapplied, the result is pseudoscience. Pseudoscience is the term applied to those beliefs and practices that claim to be scientific but do not meet or follow the standards of proper scientific methodologies, ie they lack supporting evidence or a theoretical framework, are not always testable and hence falsifiable, are expressed in a non-rigorous or unclear manner and often fail to be supported by scientific testing.
5.5. Another key issue is the use of appropriate terminology. Words that scientists agree on as being scientific terms will often have a different meaning in everyday life and scientific discourse with the public needs to take this into account. For example, a theory in everyday use means a hunch or speculation, but in science an accepted theory is a scientific idea that has produced predictions that have been thoroughly tested in many different ways. An aerosol is just a spray can to the general public, but in science it is a suspension of solid or liquid particles in a gas.
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5.6. Whatever the field of science—whether it is in pure research, applied research or in engineering new technology—there is boundless scope for creative and imaginative thinking. Science has achieved a great deal but there are many, many unanswered questions to challenge future scientists.
The flow chart below is part of an interactive flow chart showing the scientific process of inquiry in practice. The interactive version can be found at “How science works: The flowchart.” Understanding Science. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 1 February 2013 <http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/scienceflowchart>.
Figure 2
Pathways to scientific discovery
Physics guide1212
Nature of physics
Introduction
“Physics is a tortured assembly of contrary qualities: of scepticism and rationality, of freedom and revolution, of passion and aesthetics, and of soaring imagination and trained common sense.”
Leon M Lederman (Nobel Prize for Physics, 1988)
Physics is the most fundamental of the experimental sciences, as it seeks to explain the universe itself from the very smallest particles—currently accepted as quarks, which may be truly fundamental—to the vast distances between galaxies.
Classical physics, built upon the great pillars of Newtonian mechanics, electromagnetism and thermodynamics, went a long way in deepening our understanding of the universe. From Newtonian mechanics came the idea of predictability in which the universe is deterministic and knowable. This led to Laplace’s boast that by knowing the initial conditions—the position and velocity of every particle in the universe—he could, in principle, predict the future with absolute certainty. Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism described the behaviour of electric charge and unified light and electricity, while thermodynamics described the relation between energy transferred due to temperature difference and work and described how all natural processes increase disorder in the universe.
However, experimental discoveries dating from the end of the 19th century eventually led to the demise of the classical picture of the universe as being knowable and predictable. Newtonian mechanics failed when applied to the atom and has been superseded by quantum mechanics and general relativity. Maxwell’s theory could not explain the interaction of radiation with matter and was replaced by quantum electrodynamics (QED). More recently, developments in chaos theory, in which it is now realized that small changes in the initial conditions of a system can lead to completely unpredictable outcomes, have led to a fundamental rethinking in thermodynamics.
While chaos theory shows that Laplace’s boast is hollow, quantum mechanics and QED show that the initial conditions that Laplace required are impossible to establish. Nothing is certain and everything is decided by probability. But there is still much that is unknown and there will undoubtedly be further paradigm shifts as our understanding deepens.
Despite the exciting and extraordinary development of ideas throughout the history of physics, certain aspects have remained unchanged. Observations remain essential to the very core of physics, sometimes requiring a leap of imagination to decide what to look for. Models are developed to try to understand observations, and these themselves can become theories that attempt to explain the observations. Theories are not always directly derived from observations but often need to be created. These acts of creation can be compared to those in great art, literature and music, but differ in one aspect that is unique to science: the predictions of these theories or ideas must be tested by careful experimentation. Without these tests, a theory cannot be quantified. A general or concise statement about how nature behaves, if found to be experimentally valid over a wide range of observed phenomena, is called a law or a principle.
The scientific processes carried out by the most eminent scientists in the past are the same ones followed by working physicists today and, crucially, are also accessible to students in schools. Early in the development of science, physicists were both theoreticians and experimenters (natural philosophers). The body of scientific knowledge has grown in size and complexity, and the tools and skills of theoretical and experimental physicists have become so specialized that it is difficult (if not impossible) to be highly proficient in both
Nature of physics
Physics guide 13
areas. While students should be aware of this, they should also know that the free and rapid interplay of theoretical ideas and experimental results in the public scientific literature maintains the crucial links between these fields.
At the school level both theory and experiments should be undertaken by all students. They should complement one another naturally, as they do in the wider scientific community. The Diploma Programme physics course allows students to develop traditional practical skills and techniques and increase their abilities in the use of mathematics, which is the language of physics. It also allows students to develop interpersonal and digital communication skills which are essential in modern scientific endeavour and are important life-enhancing, transferable skills in their own right.
Alongside the growth in our understanding of the natural world, perhaps the more obvious and relevant result of physics to most of our students is our ability to change the world. This is the technological side of physics, in which physical principles have been applied to construct and alter the material world to suit our needs, and have had a profound influence on the daily lives of all human beings. This raises the issue of the impact of physics on society, the moral and ethical dilemmas, and the social, economic and environmental implications of the work of physicists. These concerns have become more prominent as our power over the environment has grown, particularly among young people, for whom the importance of the responsibility of physicists for their own actions is self-evident.
Physics is therefore, above all, a human activity, and students need to be aware of the context in which physicists work. Illuminating its historical development places the knowledge and the process of physics in a context of dynamic change, in contrast to the static context in which physics has sometimes been presented. This can give students insights into the human side of physics: the individuals; their personalities, times and social milieux; their challenges, disappointments and triumphs.
The Diploma Programme physics course includes the essential principles of the subject but also, through selection of an option, allows teachers some flexibility to tailor the course to meet the needs of their students. The course is available at both SL and HL, and therefore accommodates students who wish to study physics as their major subject in higher education and those who do not.
Teaching approachThere are a variety of approaches to the teaching of physics. By its very nature, physics lends itself to an experimental approach, and it is expected that this will be reflected throughout the course. The order in which the syllabus is arranged is not the order in which it should be taught, and it is up to individual teachers to decide on an arrangement that suits their circumstances. Sections of the option material may be taught within the core or the additional higher level (AHL) material if desired, or the option material can be taught as a separate unit.
Science and the international dimensionScience itself is an international endeavour—the exchange of information and ideas across national boundaries has been essential to the progress of science. This exchange is not a new phenomenon but it has accelerated in recent times with the development of information and communication technologies. Indeed, the idea that science is a Western invention is a myth—many of the foundations of modern-day science were laid many centuries ago by Arabic, Indian and Chinese civilizations, among others. Teachers are encouraged to emphasize this contribution in their teaching of various topics, perhaps through the use of timeline websites. The scientific method in its widest sense, with its emphasis on peer review, open-mindedness and freedom of thought, transcends politics, religion, gender and nationality. Where appropriate within certain topics, the syllabus details sections in the group 4 guides contain links illustrating the international aspects of science.
Nature of physics
Physics guide14
On an organizational level, many international bodies now exist to promote science. United Nations bodies such as UNESCO, UNEP and WMO, where science plays a prominent part, are well known, but in addition there are hundreds of international bodies representing every branch of science. The facilities for large-scale research in, for example, particle physics and the Human Genome Project are expensive, and only joint ventures involving funding from many countries allow this to take place. The data from such research is shared by scientists worldwide. Group 4 teachers and students are encouraged to access the extensive websites and databases of these international scientific organizations to enhance their appreciation of the international dimension.
Increasingly there is a recognition that many scientific problems are international in nature and this has led to a global approach to research in many areas. The reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are a prime example of this. On a practical level, the group 4 project (which all science students must undertake) mirrors the work of real scientists by encouraging collaboration between schools across the regions.
The power of scientific knowledge to transform societies is unparalleled. It has the potential to produce great universal benefits, or to reinforce inequalities and cause harm to people and the environment. In line with the IB mission statement, group 4 students need to be aware of the moral responsibility of scientists to ensure that scientific knowledge and data are available to all countries on an equitable basis and that they have the scientific capacity to use this for developing sustainable societies.
Students’ attention should be drawn to sections of the syllabus with links to international-mindedness. Examples of issues relating to international-mindedness are given within sub-topics in the syllabus content. Teachers could also use resources found on the Global Engage website (http://globalengage. ibo.org).
Distinction between SL and HLGroup 4 students at standard level (SL) and higher level (HL) undertake a common core syllabus, a common internal assessment (IA) scheme and have some overlapping elements in the option studied. They are presented with a syllabus that encourages the development of certain skills, attributes and attitudes, as described in the “Assessment objectives” section of the guide.
While the skills and activities of group 4 science subjects are common to students at both SL and HL, students at HL are required to study some topics in greater depth, in the additional higher level (AHL) material and in the common options. The distinction between SL and HL is one of breadth and depth.
Prior learningPast experience shows that students will be able to study a group 4 science subject at SL successfully with no background in, or previous knowledge of, science. Their approach to learning, characterized by the IB learner profile attributes, will be significant here.
However, for most students considering the study of a group 4 subject at HL, while there is no intention to restrict access to group 4 subjects, some previous exposure to formal science education would be necessary. Specific topic details are not specified but students who have undertaken the IB Middle Years Programme (MYP) or studied an equivalent national science qualification or a school-based science course would be well prepared for an HL subject.
Links to the Middle Years ProgrammeStudents who have undertaken the MYP science, design and mathematics courses will be well prepared for group 4 subjects. The alignment between MYP science and Diploma Programme group 4 courses allows for a smooth transition for students between programmes. The concurrent planning of the new group 4 courses and MYP: Next Chapter (both launched in 2014) has helped develop a closer alignment.
Nature of physics
Physics guide 15
Scientific inquiry is central to teaching and learning science in the MYP. It enables students to develop a way of thinking and a set of skills and processes that, while allowing them to acquire and use knowledge, equip them with the capabilities to tackle, with confidence, the internal assessment component of group 4 subjects. The vision of MYP sciences is to contribute to the development of students as 21st-century learners. A holistic sciences programme allows students to develop and utilize a mixture of cognitive abilities, social skills, personal motivation, conceptual knowledge and problem-solving competencies within an inquiry-based learning environment (Rhoton 2010). Inquiry aims to support students’ understanding by providing them with opportunities to independently and collaboratively investigate relevant issues through both research and experimentation. This forms a firm base of scientific understanding with deep conceptual roots for students entering group 4 courses.
In the MYP, teachers make decisions about student achievement using their professional judgment, guided by criteria that are public, precise and known in advance, ensuring that assessment is transparent. The IB describes this approach as “criterion-related”—a philosophy of assessment that is neither “norm-referenced” (where students must be compared to each other and to an expected distribution of achievement) nor “criterion-referenced” (where students must master all strands of specific criteria at lower achievement levels before they can be considered to have achieved the next level). It is important to emphasize that the single most important aim of MYP assessment (consistent with the PYP and DP) is to support curricular goals and encourage appropriate student learning. Assessments are based upon evaluating course aims and objectives and, therefore, effective teaching to the course requirements also ensures effective teaching for formal assessment requirements. Students need to understand what the assessment expectations, standards and practices are and these should all be introduced early and naturally in teaching, as well as in class and homework activities. Experience with criterion-related assessment greatly assists students entering group 4 courses with understanding internal assessment requirements.
MYP science is a concept-driven curriculum, aimed at helping the learner construct meaning through improved critical thinking and the transfer of knowledge. At the top level are key concepts which are broad, organizing, powerful ideas that have relevance within the science course but also transcend it, having relevance in other subject groups. These key concepts facilitate both disciplinary and interdisciplinary learning as well as making connections with other subjects. While the key concepts provide breadth, the related concepts in MYP science add depth to the programme. The related concept can be considered to be the big idea of the unit which brings focus and depth and leads students towards the conceptual understanding.
Across the MYP there are 16 key concepts with the three highlighted below the focus for MYP science.
The key concepts across the MYP curriculum
Aesthetics Change Communication Communities
Connections Creativity Culture Development
Form Global interactions Identity Logic
Perspective Relationships Systems Time, place and space
MYP students may in addition undertake an optional onscreen concept-based assessment as further preparation for Diploma Programme science courses.
Nature of physics
Physics guide16
Science and theory of knowledgeThe theory of knowledge (TOK) course (first assessment 2015) engages students in reflection on the nature of knowledge and on how we know what we claim to know. The course identifies eight ways of knowing: reason, emotion, language, sense perception, intuition, imagination, faith and memory. Students explore these means of producing knowledge within the context of various areas of knowledge: the natural sciences, the social sciences, the arts, ethics, history, mathematics, religious knowledge systems and indigenous knowledge systems. The course also requires students to make comparisons between the different areas of knowledge, reflecting on how knowledge is arrived at in the various disciplines, what the disciplines have in common, and the differences between them.
TOK lessons can support students in their study of science, just as the study of science can support students in their TOK course. TOK provides a space for students to engage in stimulating wider discussions about questions such as what it means for a discipline to be a science, or whether there should be ethical constraints on the pursuit of scientific knowledge. It also provides an opportunity for students to reflect on the methodologies of science, and how these compare to the methodologies of other areas of knowledge. It is now widely accepted that there is no one scientific method, in the strict Popperian sense. Instead, the sciences utilize a variety of approaches in order to produce explanations for the behaviour of the natural world. The different scientific disciplines share a common focus on utilizing inductive and deductive reasoning, on the importance of evidence, and so on. Students are encouraged to compare and contrast these methods with the methods found in, for example, the arts or in history.
In this way there are rich opportunities for students to make links between their science and TOK courses. One way in which science teachers can help students to make these links to TOK is by drawing students’ attention to knowledge questions that arise from their subject content. Knowledge questions are open-ended questions about knowledge such as:
• How do we distinguish science from pseudoscience?
• When performing experiments, what is the relationship between a scientist’s expectation and their perception?
• How does scientific knowledge progress?
• What is the role of imagination and intuition in the sciences?
• What are the similarities and differences in methods in the natural sciences and the human sciences?
Examples of relevant knowledge questions are provided throughout this guide within the sub-topics in the syllabus content. Teachers can also find suggestions of interesting knowledge questions for discussion in the “Areas of knowledge” and “Knowledge frameworks” sections of the TOK guide. Students should be encouraged to raise and discuss such knowledge questions in both their science and TOK classes.
Physics guide 1717
Aims
Group 4 aimsThrough studying biology, chemistry or physics, students should become aware of how scientists work and communicate with each other. While the scientific method may take on a wide variety of forms, it is the emphasis on a practical approach through experimental work that characterizes these subjects.
The aims enable students, through the overarching theme of the Nature of science, to:
1. appreciate scientific study and creativity within a global context through stimulating and challenging opportunities
2. acquire a body of knowledge, methods and techniques that characterize science and technology
3. apply and use a body of knowledge, methods and techniques that characterize science and technology
4. develop an ability to analyse, evaluate and synthesize scientific information
5. develop a critical awareness of the need for, and the value of, effective collaboration and communication during scientific activities
6. develop experimental and investigative scientific skills including the use of current technologies
7. develop and apply 21st-century communication skills in the study of science
8. become critically aware, as global citizens, of the ethical implications of using science and technology
9. develop an appreciation of the possibilities and limitations of science and technology
10. develop an understanding of the relationships between scientific disciplines and their influence on other areas of knowledge.
Introduction
Physics guide1818
Introduction
The assessment objectives for biology, chemistry and physics reflect those parts of the aims that will be formally assessed either internally or externally. These assessments will centre upon the nature of science. It is the intention of these courses that students are able to fullfill the following assessment objectives:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:
a. facts, concepts and terminology
b. methodologies and techniques
c. communicating scientific information.
2. Apply:
a. facts, concepts and terminology
b. methodologies and techniques
c. methods of communicating scientific information.
3. Formulate, analyse and evaluate:
a. hypotheses, research questions and predictions
b. methodologies and techniques
c. primary and secondary data
d. scientific explanations.
4. Demonstrate the appropriate research, experimental, and personal skills necessary to carry out insightful and ethical investigations.
Assessment objectives
Physics guide 1919
Syllabus outline
Syllabus
Syllabus component
Recommendedteaching hours
SL HL
Core1. Measurements and uncertainties
2. Mechanics
3. Thermal physics
4. Waves
5. Electricity and magnetism
6. Circular motion and gravitation
7. Atomic, nuclear and particle physics
8. Energy production
95
5
22
11
15
15
5
14
8
Additional higher level (AHL)9. Wave phenomena
10. Fields
11. Electromagnetic induction
12. Quantum and nuclear physics
60
17
11
16
16
OptionA. Relativity
B. Engineering physics
C. Imaging
D. Astrophysics
15
15
15
15
15
25
25
25
25
25
Practical scheme of workPractical activities
Individual investigation (internal assessment – IA)
Group 4 project
40
20
10
10
60
40
10
10
Total teaching hours 150 240
The recommended teaching time is 240 hours to complete HL courses and 150 hours to complete SL courses as stated in the document General regulations: Diploma Programme for students and their legal guardians (page 4, article 8.2).
Physics guide2020
Syllabus
Format of the syllabusThe format of the syllabus section of the group 4 guides is the same for each subject. This new structure gives prominence and focus to the teaching and learning aspects.
Topics or optionsTopics are numbered and options are indicated by a letter. For example, “Topic 8: Energy production”, or “Option D: Astrophysics”.
Sub-topicsSub-topics are numbered as follows, “6.1 – Circular motion”. Further information and guidance about possible teaching times are contained in the teacher support material.
Each sub-topic begins with an essential idea. The essential idea is an enduring interpretation that is considered part of the public understanding of science. This is followed by a section on the “Nature of science”. This gives specific examples in context illustrating some aspects of the nature of science. These are linked directly to specific references in the “Nature of science” section of the guide to support teachers in their understanding of the general theme to be addressed.
Under the overarching “Nature of science” theme there are two columns. The first column lists “Understandings”, which are the main general ideas to be taught. There follows an “Applications and skills” section that outlines the specific applications and skills to be developed from the understandings. A “Guidance” section gives information about the limits and constraints and the depth of treatment required for teachers and examiners. The contents of the “Nature of science” section above the two columns and contents of the first column are all legitimate items for assessment. In addition, some assessment of international-mindedness in science, from the content of the second column, will be assessed as in the previous course.
The second column gives suggestion to teachers about relevant references to international-mindedness. It also gives examples of TOK knowledge questions (see Theory of knowledge guide published 2013) that can be used to focus students’ thoughts on the preparation of the TOK prescribed essay title. The links section may link the sub-topic to other parts of the subject syllabus, to other Diploma Programme subject guides or to real-world applications. Finally, the “Aims” section refers to how specific group 4 aims are being addressed in the sub-topic.
Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics
Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics
Physics guide 21
Format of the guideTopic 1: <Title>
Essential idea: This lists the essential idea for each sub-topic.
1.1 Sub-topic
Nature of science: Relates the sub-topic to the overarching theme of NOS.
Understandings:
• This section will provide specifics of the content requirements for each sub-topic.
Applications and skills:
• The content of this section gives details of how students are to apply the understandings. For example, these applications could involve demonstrating mathematical calculations or practical skills.
Guidance:
• This section will provide specifics and give constraints to the requirements for the understandings and applications and skills.
Data booklet reference:
• This section will include links to specific sections in the data booklet.
International-mindedness:
• Ideas that teachers can easily integrate into the delivery of their lessons.
Theory of knowledge:
• Examples of TOK knowledge questions.
Utilization:
• Links to other topics within the Physics guide, to a variety of real-world applications and to other Diploma Programme courses.
Aims:
• Links to the group 4 subject aims.
Group 4 experimental skillsI hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.
Confucius
Integral to the experience of students in any of the group 4 courses is their experience in the classroom laboratory or in the field. Practical activities allow students to interact directly with natural phenomena and secondary data sources. These experiences provide the students with the opportunity to design investigations, collect data, develop manipulative skills, analyse results, collaborate with peers and evaluate and communicate their findings. Experiments can be used to introduce a topic, investigate a phenomenon or allow students to consider and examine questions and curiosities.
Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics
Physics guide22
By providing students with the opportunity for hands-on experimentation, they are carrying out some of the same processes that scientists undertake. Experimentation allows students to experience the nature of scientific thought and investigation. All scientific theories and laws begin with observations.
It is important that students are involved in an inquiry-based practical programme that allows for the development of scientific inquiry. It is not enough for students just to be able to follow directions and to simply replicate a given experimental procedure; they must be provided with the opportunities for genuine inquiry. Developing scientific inquiry skills will give students the ability to construct an explanation based on reliable evidence and logical reasoning. Once developed, these higher order thinking skills will enable students to be lifelong learners and scientifically literate.
A school’s practical scheme of work should allow students to experience the full breadth and depth of the course including the option. This practical scheme of work must also prepare students to undertake the independent investigation that is required for the internal assessment. The development of students’ manipulative skills should involve them being able to follow instructions accurately and demonstrate the safe, competent and methodical use of a range of techniques and equipment.
The “Applications and skills” section of the syllabus lists specific lab skills, techniques and experiments that students must experience at some point during their study of the group 4 course. Other recommended lab skills, techniques and experiments are listed in the “Aims” section of the syllabus outline.
Aim 6 of the group 4 subjects directly relates to the development of experimental and investigative skills.
Mathematical requirementsAll Diploma Programme physics students should be able to:
• perform the basic arithmetic functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
• carry out calculations involving means, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios, approximations and reciprocals
• carry out manipulations with trigonometric functions
• carry out manipulations with logarithmic and exponential functions (HL only)
• use standard notation (for example, 3.6 × 106)
• use direct and inverse proportion
• solve simple algebraic equations
• solve linear simultaneous equations
• plot graphs (with suitable scales and axes) including two variables that show linear and non-linear relationships
• interpret graphs, including the significance of gradients, changes in gradients, intercepts and areas
• draw lines (either curves or linear) of best fit on a scatter plot graph
• on a best-fit linear graph, construct linear lines of maximum and minimum gradients with relative accuracy (by eye) taking into account all uncertainty bars
• interpret data presented in various forms (for example, bar charts, histograms and pie charts)
• represent arithmetic mean using x-bar notation (for example, x)
• express uncertainties to one or two significant figures, with justification.
Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics
Physics guide 23
Data bookletThe data booklet must be viewed as an integral part of the physics programme and should be used throughout the delivery of the course and not just reserved for use during the external assessments. The data booklet contains useful equations, constants, data, structural formulae and tables of information. Explicit links have been provided in the “Syllabus outline” section of the subject guide that provide direct references to information in the data booklet which will allow students to become familiar with its use and contents. It is suggested that the data booklet be used for all in-class study and school-based assessments.
For both SL and HL external assessments, clean copies of the data booklet must be made available to both SL and HL candidates for all papers.
Use of information communication technologyThe use of information communication technology (ICT) is encouraged throughout all aspects of the course in relation to both the practical programme and day-to-day classroom activities. Teachers should make use of the ICT pages of the teacher support materials (TSM).
Planning your courseThe syllabus as provided in the subject guide is not intended to be a teaching order. Instead it provides detail of what must be covered by the end of the course. A school should develop a scheme of work that best works for its students. For example, the scheme of work could be developed to match available resources, to take into account student prior learning and experience, or in conjunction with other local requirements.
HL teachers may choose to teach the core and AHL topics at the same time or teach them in a spiral fashion, by teaching the core topics in year one of the course and revisiting the core topics through the delivery of the AHL topics in year two of the course. The option topic could be taught as a stand-alone topic or could be integrated into the teaching of the core and/or AHL topics.
However the course is planned, adequate time must be provided for examination revision. Time must also be given for students to reflect on their learning experience and their growth as learners.
Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics
Physics guide24
The IB learner profileThe physics course contributes to the development of the IB learner profile. By following the course, students will have addressed the attributes of the IB learner profile. For example, the requirements of the internal assessment provide opportunities for students to develop every aspect of the profile. For each attribute of the learner profile, a number of references from the group 4 courses are given below.
Learner profile attribute
Biology, chemistry and physics
Inquirers Aims 2 and 6
Practical work and internal assessment
Knowledgeable Aims 1 and 10, international-mindedness links
Practical work and internal assessment
Thinkers Aims 3 and 4, theory of knowledge links
Practical work and internal assessment
Communicators Aims 5 and 7, external assessment
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project
Principled Aims 8 and 9
Practical work and internal assessment, ethical behaviour/practice (Ethical practice poster, Animal experimentation policy), academic honesty
Open-minded Aims 8 and 9, international-mindedness links
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project
Caring Aims 8 and 9
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project, ethical behaviour/practice (Ethical practice poster, Animal experimentation policy)
Risk-takers Aims 1 and 6
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project
Balanced Aims 8 and 10
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project and field work
Reflective Aims 5 and 9
Practical work and internal assessment analysis, and group 4 project
Physics guide 2525
Syllabus
Recommended teaching hours
Core 95 hours
Topic 1: Measurements and uncertainties 5
1.1 – Measurements in physics
1.2 – Uncertainties and errors
1.3 – Vectors and scalars
Topic 2: Mechanics 22
2.1 – Motion
2.2 – Forces
2.3 – Work, energy and power
2.4 – Momentum and impulse
Topic 3: Thermal physics 11
3.1 – Thermal concepts
3.2 – Modelling a gas
Topic 4: Waves 15
4.1 – Oscillations
4.2 – Travelling waves
4.3 – Wave characteristics
4.4 – Wave behaviour
4.5 – Standing waves
Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism 15
5.1 – Electric fields
5.2 – Heating effect of electric currents
5.3 – Electric cells
5.4 – Magnetic effects of electric currents
Syllabus content
Syllabus content
Physics guide26
Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation 5
6.1 – Circular motion
6.2 – Newton’s law of gravitation
Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics 14
7.1 – Discrete energy and radioactivity
7.2 – Nuclear reactions
7.3 – The structure of matter
Topic 8: Energy production 8
8.1 – Energy sources
8.2 – Thermal energy transfer
Additional higher level (AHL) 60 hours
Topic 9: Wave phenomena 17
9.1 – Simple harmonic motion
9.2 – Single-slit diffraction
9.3 – Interference
9.4 – Resolution
9.5 – Doppler effect
Topic 10: Fields 11
10.1 – Describing fields
10.2 – Fields at work
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction 16
11.1 – Electromagnetic induction
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
11.3 – Capacitance
Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics 16
12.1 – The interaction of matter with radiation
12.2 – Nuclear physics
Syllabus content
Physics guide 27
Options 15 hours (SL)/25 hours (HL)A: Relativity
Core topicsA.1 – The beginnings of relativity
A.2 – Lorentz transformations
A.3 – Spacetime diagrams
Additional higher level topicsA.4 – Relativistic mechanics (HL only)
A.5 – General relativity (HL only)
B: Engineering physics
Core topicsB.1 – Rigid bodies and rotational dynamics
B.2 – Thermodynamics
Additional higher level topicsB.3 – Fluids and fluid dynamics (HL only)
B.4 – Forced vibrations and resonance (HL only)
Option C: Imaging
Core topicsC.1 – Introduction to imaging
C.2 – Imaging instrumentation
C.3 – Fibre optics
Additional higher level topicsC.4 – Medical imaging (HL only)
Option D: Astrophysics
Core topicsD.1 – Stellar quantities
D.2 – Stellar characteristics and stellar evolution
D.3 – Cosmology
Additional higher level topicsD.4 – Stellar processes (HL only)
D.5 – Further cosmology (HL only)
Physics guide28
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rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Sc
ient
ific
colla
bora
tion
is a
ble
to b
e tr
uly
glob
al w
ithou
t the
rest
rictio
ns
of n
atio
nal b
orde
rs o
r lan
guag
e du
e to
the
agre
ed s
tand
ards
for d
ata
repr
esen
tatio
n
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•W
hat h
as in
fluen
ced
the
com
mon
lang
uage
use
d in
sci
ence
? To
wha
t ext
ent
does
hav
ing
a co
mm
on s
tand
ard
appr
oach
to m
easu
rem
ent f
acili
tate
the
shar
ing
of k
now
ledg
e in
phy
sics
?
Topi
c 1:
Mea
sure
men
t and
unc
erta
intie
s 5
hour
s
Core
Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties
Physics guide 29
1.1
– M
easu
rem
ents
in p
hysi
cs
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•U
sing
SI u
nits
in th
e co
rrec
t for
mat
for a
ll re
quire
d m
easu
rem
ents
, fin
al a
nsw
ers
to c
alcu
latio
ns a
nd p
rese
ntat
ion
of ra
w a
nd p
roce
ssed
dat
a
•U
sing
sci
entif
ic n
otat
ion
and
met
ric m
ultip
liers
•Q
uotin
g an
d co
mpa
ring
ratio
s, v
alue
s and
app
roxi
mat
ions
to th
e ne
ares
t ord
er
of m
agni
tude
•Es
timat
ing
quan
titie
s to
an
appr
opria
te n
umbe
r of s
igni
fican
t fig
ures
Gui
danc
e:
•SI
uni
t usa
ge a
nd in
form
atio
n ca
n be
foun
d at
the
web
site
of B
urea
u In
tern
atio
nal d
es P
oids
et M
esur
es
•St
uden
ts w
ill n
ot n
eed
to k
now
the
defin
ition
of S
I uni
ts e
xcep
t whe
re
expl
icitl
y st
ated
in th
e re
leva
nt to
pics
in th
is g
uide
•Ca
ndel
a is
not
a re
quire
d SI
uni
t for
this
cou
rse
•G
uida
nce
on a
ny u
se o
f non
-SI u
nits
suc
h as
eV,
MeV
c-2
, ly
and
pc w
ill b
e pr
ovid
ed in
the
rele
vant
topi
cs in
this
gui
de
•Fu
rthe
r gui
danc
e on
how
sci
entif
ic n
otat
ion
and
sign
ifica
nt fi
gure
s ar
e us
ed in
ex
amin
atio
ns c
an b
e fo
und
in th
e Te
ache
r sup
port
mat
eria
l
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•M
etric
(SI)
mul
tiplie
rs c
an b
e fo
und
on p
age
5 of
the
phys
ics
data
boo
klet
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
is to
pic
is a
ble
to b
e in
tegr
ated
into
any
topi
c ta
ught
at t
he s
tart
of t
he
cour
se a
nd is
impo
rtan
t to
all t
opic
s
•St
uden
ts s
tudy
ing
mor
e th
an o
ne g
roup
4 s
ubje
ct w
ill b
e ab
le to
use
thes
e sk
ills
acro
ss a
ll su
bjec
ts
•Se
e M
athe
mat
ical
stud
ies S
L su
b-to
pics
1.2
–1.4
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
and
3: t
his
is a
n es
sent
ial a
rea
of k
now
ledg
e th
at a
llow
s sc
ient
ists
to
colla
bora
te a
cros
s th
e gl
obe
•A
im 4
and
5: a
com
mon
app
roac
h to
exp
ress
ing
resu
lts o
f ana
lysi
s,
eval
uatio
n an
d sy
nthe
sis
of s
cien
tific
info
rmat
ion
enab
les
grea
ter s
harin
g an
d co
llabo
ratio
n
Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties
Physics guide30
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
cien
tists
aim
tow
ards
des
igni
ng e
xper
imen
ts th
at c
an g
ive
a “t
rue
valu
e” fr
om th
eir m
easu
rem
ents
, but
due
to th
e lim
ited
prec
isio
n in
mea
surin
g de
vice
s,
they
oft
en q
uote
thei
r res
ults
with
som
e fo
rm o
f unc
erta
inty
.
1.2
– U
ncer
tain
ties
and
err
ors
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Unc
erta
intie
s: “A
ll sc
ient
ific
know
ledg
e is
unc
erta
in…
if y
ou h
ave
mad
e up
you
r min
d al
read
y, y
ou m
ight
not
sol
ve it
. Whe
n th
e sc
ient
ist t
ells
you
he
does
not
kno
w th
e an
swer
, he
is a
n ig
nora
nt m
an. W
hen
he te
lls y
ou h
e ha
s a
hunc
h ab
out h
ow it
is g
oing
to w
ork,
he
is u
ncer
tain
abo
ut it
. Whe
n he
is p
rett
y su
re o
f how
it is
goi
ng to
wor
k,
and
he te
lls y
ou, ‘
This
is th
e w
ay it
’s go
ing
to w
ork,
I’ll
bet,’
he
still
is in
som
e do
ubt.
And
it is
of p
aram
ount
impo
rtan
ce, i
n or
der t
o m
ake
prog
ress
, tha
t we
reco
gniz
e th
is
igno
ranc
e an
d th
is d
oubt
. Bec
ause
we
have
the
doub
t, w
e th
en p
ropo
se lo
okin
g in
new
dire
ctio
ns fo
r new
idea
s.” (3
.4)
Feyn
man
, Ric
hard
P. 1
998.
The
Mea
ning
of I
t All:
Tho
ught
s of a
Citi
zen-
Scie
ntist
. Rea
ding
, Mas
sach
uset
ts, U
SA. P
erse
us. P
13.
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ra
ndom
and
sys
tem
atic
err
ors
•A
bsol
ute,
frac
tiona
l and
per
cent
age
unce
rtai
ntie
s
•Er
ror b
ars
•U
ncer
tain
ty o
f gra
dien
t and
inte
rcep
ts
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ex
plai
ning
how
rand
om a
nd s
yste
mat
ic e
rror
s ca
n be
iden
tifie
d an
d re
duce
d
•Co
llect
ing
data
that
incl
ude
abso
lute
and
/or f
ract
iona
l unc
erta
intie
s an
d st
atin
g th
ese
as a
n un
cert
aint
y ra
nge
(exp
ress
ed a
s: be
st e
stim
ate
± un
cert
aint
y ra
nge)
•Pr
opag
atin
g un
cert
aint
ies
thro
ugh
calc
ulat
ions
invo
lvin
g ad
ditio
n,
subt
ract
ion,
mul
tiplic
atio
n, d
ivis
ion
and
rais
ing
to a
pow
er
•D
eter
min
ing
the
unce
rtai
nty
in g
radi
ents
and
inte
rcep
ts
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•“O
ne a
im o
f the
phy
sica
l sci
ence
s ha
s be
en to
giv
e an
exa
ct p
ictu
re o
f the
m
ater
ial w
orld
. One
ach
ieve
men
t of p
hysi
cs in
the
twen
tieth
cen
tury
has
bee
n to
pro
ve th
at th
is a
im is
una
ttai
nabl
e.” –
Jaco
b Br
onow
ski.
Can
scie
ntis
ts e
ver
be tr
uly
cert
ain
of th
eir d
isco
verie
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•St
uden
ts s
tudy
ing
mor
e th
an o
ne g
roup
4 s
ubje
ct w
ill b
e ab
le to
use
thes
e sk
ills
acro
ss a
ll su
bjec
ts
Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties
Physics guide 31
1.2
– U
ncer
tain
ties
and
err
ors
Gui
danc
e:
•A
naly
sis
of u
ncer
tain
ties
will
not
be
expe
cted
for t
rigon
omet
ric o
r log
arith
mic
fu
nctio
ns in
exa
min
atio
ns
•Fu
rthe
r gui
danc
e on
how
unc
erta
intie
s, e
rror
bar
s an
d lin
es o
f bes
t fit
are
used
in
exa
min
atio
ns c
an b
e fo
und
in th
e Te
ache
r sup
port
mat
eria
l
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•If
ya
b=
±
then
y
ab
∆=
∆+
∆
•If
yab c
=
then
y y
a ab b
c c∆
=∆
+∆
+∆
•If
yan
=
then
y y
na a
∆=
∆
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: it i
s im
port
ant t
hat s
tude
nts
see
scie
ntifi
c er
rors
and
unc
erta
intie
s no
t on
ly a
s th
e ra
nge
of p
ossi
ble
answ
ers
but a
s an
inte
gral
par
t of t
he s
cien
tific
pr
oces
s
•A
im 9
: the
pro
cess
of u
sing
unc
erta
intie
s in
cla
ssic
al p
hysi
cs c
an b
e co
mpa
red
to th
e vi
ew o
f unc
erta
intie
s in
mod
ern
(and
par
ticul
arly
qua
ntum
) phy
sics
Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties
Physics guide32
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
ome
quan
titie
s hav
e di
rect
ion
and
mag
nitu
de, o
ther
s hav
e m
agni
tude
onl
y, a
nd th
is u
nder
stan
ding
is th
e ke
y to
cor
rect
man
ipul
atio
n of
qua
ntiti
es. T
his s
ub-
topi
c w
ill h
ave
broa
d ap
plic
atio
ns a
cros
s m
ultip
le fi
elds
with
in p
hysi
cs a
nd o
ther
sci
ence
s.
1.3
– Ve
ctor
s an
d sc
alar
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mod
els:
Firs
t men
tione
d ex
plic
itly
in a
sci
entif
ic p
aper
in 1
846,
sca
lars
and
vec
tors
refle
cted
the
wor
k of
sci
entis
ts a
nd m
athe
mat
icia
ns a
cros
s th
e gl
obe
for o
ver 3
00 y
ears
on
repr
esen
ting
mea
sure
men
ts in
thre
e-di
men
sion
al s
pace
. (1.
10)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ve
ctor
and
sca
lar q
uant
ities
•Co
mbi
natio
n an
d re
solu
tion
of v
ecto
rs
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•So
lvin
g ve
ctor
pro
blem
s gr
aphi
cally
and
alg
ebra
ical
ly
Gui
danc
e:
•Re
solu
tion
of v
ecto
rs w
ill b
e lim
ited
to tw
o pe
rpen
dicu
lar d
irect
ions
•Pr
oble
ms
will
be
limite
d to
add
ition
and
sub
trac
tion
of v
ecto
rs a
nd th
e m
ultip
licat
ion
and
divi
sion
of v
ecto
rs b
y sc
alar
s
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Ve
ctor
not
atio
n fo
rms
the
basi
s of
map
ping
acr
oss
the
glob
e
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•W
hat i
s th
e na
ture
of c
erta
inty
and
pro
of in
mat
hem
atic
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•N
avig
atio
n an
d su
rvey
ing
(see
Geo
grap
hy S
L/H
L sy
llabu
s: G
eogr
aphi
c sk
ills)
•Fo
rce
and
field
str
engt
h (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ics 2
.2, 5
.1, 6
.1 a
nd 1
0.1)
•Ve
ctor
s (s
ee M
athe
mat
ics H
L su
b-to
pic
4.1;
Mat
hem
atic
s SL
sub
-top
ic 4
.1)
Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties
Physics guide 33
1.3
– Ve
ctor
s an
d sc
alar
s
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
AV
AH
θ
A
•A
Aco
sH
θ=
•A
Asi
nv
θ=
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
and
3: t
his
is a
fund
amen
tal a
spec
t of s
cien
tific
lang
uage
that
allo
ws
for
spat
ial r
epre
sent
atio
n an
d m
anip
ulat
ion
of a
bstr
act c
once
pts
Core
Physics guide34
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
otio
n m
ay b
e de
scrib
ed a
nd a
naly
sed
by th
e us
e of
gra
phs
and
equa
tions
.
2.1
– M
otio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obs
erva
tions
: The
idea
s of
mot
ion
are
fund
amen
tal t
o m
any
area
s of
phy
sics
, pro
vidi
ng a
link
to th
e co
nsid
erat
ion
of fo
rces
and
thei
r im
plic
atio
n. T
he k
inem
atic
equ
atio
ns
for u
nifo
rm a
ccel
erat
ion
wer
e de
velo
ped
thro
ugh
care
ful o
bser
vatio
ns o
f the
nat
ural
wor
ld. (
1.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•D
ista
nce
and
disp
lace
men
t
•Sp
eed
and
velo
city
•A
ccel
erat
ion
•G
raph
s de
scrib
ing
mot
ion
•Eq
uatio
ns o
f mot
ion
for u
nifo
rm a
ccel
erat
ion
•Pr
ojec
tile
mot
ion
•Fl
uid
resi
stan
ce a
nd te
rmin
al s
peed
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
eter
min
ing
inst
anta
neou
s an
d av
erag
e va
lues
for v
eloc
ity, s
peed
and
ac
cele
ratio
n
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
usin
g eq
uatio
ns o
f mot
ion
for u
nifo
rm a
ccel
erat
ion
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
mot
ion
grap
hs
•D
eter
min
ing
the
acce
lera
tion
of fr
ee-f
all e
xper
imen
tally
•A
naly
sing
pro
ject
ile m
otio
n, in
clud
ing
the
reso
lutio
n of
ver
tical
and
hor
izon
tal
com
pone
nts
of a
ccel
erat
ion,
vel
ocity
and
dis
plac
emen
t
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribin
g th
e ef
fect
of f
luid
resi
stan
ce o
n fa
lling
obj
ects
or
proj
ectil
es, i
nclu
ding
reac
hing
term
inal
spe
ed
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•In
tern
atio
nal c
oope
ratio
n is
nee
ded
for t
rack
ing
ship
ping
, lan
d-ba
sed
tran
spor
t, ai
rcra
ft a
nd o
bjec
ts in
spa
ce
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e in
depe
nden
ce o
f hor
izon
tal a
nd v
ertic
al m
otio
n in
pro
ject
ile m
otio
n se
ems
to b
e co
unte
r-in
tuiti
ve. H
ow d
o sc
ient
ists
wor
k ar
ound
thei
r int
uitio
ns?
How
do
scie
ntis
ts m
ake
use
of th
eir i
ntui
tions
?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•D
ivin
g, p
arac
hutin
g an
d si
mila
r act
iviti
es w
here
flui
d re
sist
ance
aff
ects
mot
ion
•Th
e ac
cura
te u
se o
f bal
listic
s re
quire
s ca
refu
l ana
lysi
s
•Bi
omec
hani
cs (s
ee S
port
s, ex
erci
se a
nd h
ealth
scie
nce
SL su
b-to
pic
4.3)
•Q
uadr
atic
func
tions
(see
Mat
hem
atic
s HL
sub-
topi
c 2.
6; M
athe
mat
ics S
L
sub-
topi
c 2.
4; M
athe
mat
ical
stud
ies S
L su
b-to
pic
6.3)
•Th
e ki
nem
atic
equ
atio
ns a
re tr
eate
d in
cal
culu
s fo
rm in
Mat
hem
atic
s HL
su
b-to
pic
6.6
and
Mat
hem
atic
s SL
sub-
topi
c 6.
6
Topi
c 2:
Mec
hani
cs
22 h
ours
Core
Topic 2: Mechanics
Physics guide 35
2.1
– M
otio
n
Gui
danc
e:
•Ca
lcul
atio
ns w
ill b
e re
stric
ted
to th
ose
negl
ectin
g ai
r res
ista
nce
•Pr
ojec
tile
mot
ion
will
onl
y in
volv
e pr
oble
ms
usin
g a
cons
tant
val
ue o
f g c
lose
to
the
surf
ace
of th
e Ea
rth
•Th
e eq
uatio
n of
the
path
of a
pro
ject
ile w
ill n
ot b
e re
quire
d
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•v
uat
=+
•s
utat
1 22
=+
•v
uas2
22
=+
•s
vu
t2
()
=+
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: muc
h of
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f cla
ssic
al p
hysi
cs h
as b
een
built
on
the
adva
nces
in k
inem
atic
s
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
, inc
ludi
ng u
se o
f dat
a lo
ggin
g, c
ould
incl
ude
(but
are
no
t lim
ited
to):
dete
rmin
atio
n of
g, e
stim
atin
g sp
eed
usin
g tr
avel
tim
etab
les,
an
alys
ing
proj
ectil
e m
otio
n, a
nd in
vest
igat
ing
mot
ion
thro
ugh
a flu
id
•A
im 7
: tec
hnol
ogy
has
allo
wed
for m
ore
accu
rate
and
pre
cise
mea
sure
men
ts
of m
otio
n, in
clud
ing
vide
o an
alys
is o
f rea
l-life
pro
ject
iles
and
mod
ellin
g/si
mul
atio
ns o
f ter
min
al v
eloc
ity
Topic 2: Mechanics
Physics guide36
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
lass
ical
phy
sics
requ
ires
a fo
rce
to c
hang
e a
stat
e of
mot
ion,
as
sugg
este
d by
New
ton
in h
is la
ws
of m
otio
n.
2.2
– Fo
rces
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Usi
ng m
athe
mat
ics:
Isaa
c N
ewto
n pr
ovid
ed th
e ba
sis
for m
uch
of o
ur u
nder
stan
ding
of f
orce
s an
d m
otio
n by
form
aliz
ing
the
prev
ious
wor
k of
sci
entis
ts th
roug
h th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
mat
hem
atic
s by
inve
ntin
g ca
lcul
us to
ass
ist w
ith th
is. (
2.4)
Intu
ition
: The
tale
of t
he fa
lling
app
le d
escr
ibes
sim
ply
one
of th
e m
any
flash
es o
f int
uitio
n th
at w
ent i
nto
the
publ
icat
ion
of P
hilo
soph
iæ N
atur
alis
Prin
cipi
a M
athe
mat
ica
in
1687
. (1.
5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•O
bjec
ts a
s po
int p
artic
les
•Fr
ee-b
ody
diag
ram
s
•Tr
ansl
atio
nal e
quili
briu
m
•N
ewto
n’s
law
s of
mot
ion
•So
lid fr
ictio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Re
pres
entin
g fo
rces
as
vect
ors
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
free
-bod
y di
agra
ms
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e co
nseq
uenc
es o
f New
ton’
s fir
st la
w fo
r tra
nsla
tiona
l eq
uilib
rium
•U
sing
New
ton’
s se
cond
law
qua
ntita
tivel
y an
d qu
alita
tivel
y
•Id
entif
ying
forc
e pa
irs in
the
cont
ext o
f New
ton’
s th
ird la
w
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g fo
rces
and
det
erm
inin
g re
sulta
nt fo
rce
•D
escr
ibin
g so
lid fr
ictio
n (s
tatic
and
dyn
amic
) by
coef
ficie
nts
of fr
ictio
n
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Cl
assi
cal p
hysi
cs b
elie
ved
that
the
who
le o
f the
futu
re o
f the
uni
vers
e co
uld
be p
redi
cted
from
kno
wle
dge
of th
e pr
esen
t sta
te. T
o w
hat e
xten
t can
kn
owle
dge
of th
e pr
esen
t giv
e us
kno
wle
dge
of th
e fu
ture
?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•M
otio
n of
cha
rged
par
ticle
s in
fiel
ds (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ics 5
.4, 6
.1, 11
.1, 1
2.2)
•A
pplic
atio
n of
fric
tion
in c
ircul
ar m
otio
n (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ic 6
.1)
•Co
nstr
uctio
n (c
onsi
derin
g an
cien
t and
mod
ern
appr
oach
es to
saf
ety,
lo
ngev
ity a
nd c
onsi
dera
tion
of lo
cal w
eath
er a
nd g
eolo
gica
l inf
luen
ces)
•Bi
omec
hani
cs (s
ee S
port
s, ex
erci
se a
nd h
ealth
scie
nce
SL su
b-to
pic
4.3)
Topic 2: Mechanics
Physics guide 37
2.2
– Fo
rces
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d la
bel f
orce
s us
ing
com
mon
ly a
ccep
ted
nam
es o
r sym
bols
(for
ex
ampl
e: w
eigh
t or f
orce
of g
ravi
ty o
r mg)
•Fr
ee-b
ody
diag
ram
s sh
ould
sho
w s
cale
d ve
ctor
leng
ths
actin
g fr
om th
e po
int
of a
pplic
atio
n
•Ex
ampl
es a
nd q
uest
ions
will
be
limite
d to
con
stan
t mas
s
•m
g sh
ould
be
iden
tifie
d as
wei
ght
•Ca
lcul
atio
ns re
latin
g to
the
dete
rmin
atio
n of
resu
ltant
forc
es w
ill b
e re
stric
ted
to o
ne- a
nd tw
o-di
men
sion
al s
ituat
ions
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•F
ma
=
•F
Rf
sµ≤
•F
Rf
dµ≤
Aim
s:
•A
ims
2 an
d 3:
New
ton’
s w
ork
is o
ften
des
crib
ed b
y th
e qu
ote
from
a le
tter
he
wro
te to
his
riva
l, Ro
bert
Hoo
ke, 1
1 ye
ars
befo
re th
e pu
blic
atio
n of
Phi
loso
phiæ
N
atur
alis
Prin
cipi
a M
athe
mat
ica,
whi
ch s
tate
s: “W
hat D
esca
rtes
did
was
a g
ood
step
. You
hav
e ad
ded
muc
h se
vera
l way
s, an
d es
peci
ally
in ta
king
the
colo
urs o
f th
in p
late
s int
o ph
iloso
phic
al co
nsid
erat
ion.
If I h
ave
seen
a li
ttle
furt
her i
t is b
y st
andi
ng o
n th
e sh
ould
ers o
f Gia
nts.”
It s
houl
d be
rem
embe
red
that
this
quo
te is
al
so in
spire
d, th
is ti
me
by w
riter
s w
ho h
ad b
een
usin
g ve
rsio
ns o
f it f
or a
t lea
st
500
year
s be
fore
New
ton’
s tim
e.
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): ve
rific
atio
n of
N
ewto
n’s
seco
nd la
w; i
nves
tigat
ing
forc
es in
equ
ilibr
ium
; det
erm
inat
ion
of th
e ef
fect
s of
fric
tion
Topic 2: Mechanics
Physics guide38
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he fu
ndam
enta
l con
cept
of e
nerg
y la
ys th
e ba
sis
upon
whi
ch m
uch
of s
cien
ce is
bui
lt.
2.3
– W
ork,
ene
rgy
and
pow
er
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Theo
ries:
Man
y ph
enom
ena
can
be fu
ndam
enta
lly u
nder
stoo
d th
roug
h ap
plic
atio
n of
the
theo
ry o
f con
serv
atio
n of
ene
rgy.
Ove
r tim
e, s
cien
tists
hav
e ut
ilize
d th
is th
eory
bo
th to
exp
lain
nat
ural
phe
nom
ena
and,
mor
e im
port
antly
, to
pred
ict t
he o
utco
me
of p
revi
ousl
y un
know
n in
tera
ctio
ns. T
he c
once
pt o
f ene
rgy
has
evol
ved
as a
resu
lt of
re
cogn
ition
of t
he re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n m
ass
and
ener
gy. (
2.2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ki
netic
ene
rgy
•G
ravi
tatio
nal p
oten
tial e
nerg
y
•El
astic
pot
entia
l ene
rgy
•W
ork
done
as
ener
gy tr
ansf
er
•Po
wer
as
rate
of e
nerg
y tr
ansf
er
•Pr
inci
ple
of c
onse
rvat
ion
of e
nerg
y
•Ef
ficie
ncy
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
iscu
ssin
g th
e co
nser
vatio
n of
tota
l ene
rgy
with
in e
nerg
y tr
ansf
orm
atio
ns
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
forc
e–di
stan
ce g
raph
s
•D
eter
min
ing
wor
k do
ne in
clud
ing
case
s w
here
a re
sist
ive
forc
e ac
ts
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g po
wer
•Q
uant
itativ
ely
desc
ribin
g ef
ficie
ncy
in e
nerg
y tr
ansf
ers
Gui
danc
e:
•Ca
ses
whe
re th
e lin
e of
act
ion
of th
e fo
rce
and
the
disp
lace
men
t are
not
pa
ralle
l sho
uld
be c
onsi
dere
d
•Ex
ampl
es s
houl
d in
clud
e fo
rce–
dist
ance
gra
phs
for v
aria
ble
forc
es
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•To
wha
t ext
ent i
s sc
ient
ific
know
ledg
e ba
sed
on fu
ndam
enta
l con
cept
s su
ch
as e
nerg
y? W
hat h
appe
ns to
sci
entif
ic k
now
ledg
e w
hen
our u
nder
stan
ding
of
such
fund
amen
tal c
once
pts
chan
ges
or e
volv
es?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•En
ergy
is a
lso
cove
red
in o
ther
gro
up 4
sub
ject
s (fo
r exa
mpl
e, s
ee: B
iolo
gy
topi
cs 2
, 4 a
nd 8
; Che
mist
ry to
pics
5, 1
5, a
nd C
; Spo
rts,
exer
cise
and
hea
lth
scie
nce
topi
cs 3
, A.2
, C.3
and
D.3
; Env
ironm
enta
l sys
tem
s and
soci
etie
s top
ics
1,
2, a
nd 3
)
•En
ergy
con
vers
ions
are
ess
entia
l for
ele
ctric
al e
nerg
y ge
nera
tion
(see
Phy
sics
topi
c 5
and
sub-
topi
c 8.
1)
•En
ergy
cha
nges
occ
urrin
g in
sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion
(see
Phy
sics s
ub-t
opic
s 4.
1 an
d 9.
1)
Topic 2: Mechanics
Physics guide 39
2.3
– W
ork,
ene
rgy
and
pow
er
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•W
Fsco
sθ=
•E
mv
1 2K
2=
•=
∆E
kx
1 2P
2
•E
mg
hP
∆=
∆
•Fv
pow
er=
•Ef
ficie
ncy
=us
eful
wor
kou
tto
talw
ork
in=
usef
ulpo
wer
out
tota
lpow
erin
Aim
s:
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): re
latio
nshi
p of
ki
netic
and
gra
vita
tiona
l pot
entia
l ene
rgy
for a
falli
ng m
ass;
pow
er a
nd
effic
ienc
y of
mec
hani
cal o
bjec
ts; c
ompa
rison
of d
iffer
ent s
ituat
ions
invo
lvin
g el
astic
pot
entia
l ene
rgy
•A
im 8
: by
linki
ng th
is s
ub-t
opic
with
topi
c 8,
stu
dent
s sh
ould
be
awar
e of
th
e im
port
ance
of e
ffic
ienc
y an
d its
impa
ct o
f con
serv
ing
the
fuel
use
d fo
r en
ergy
pro
duct
ion
Topic 2: Mechanics
Physics guide40
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
onse
rvat
ion
of m
omen
tum
is a
n ex
ampl
e of
a la
w th
at is
nev
er v
iola
ted.
2.4
– M
omen
tum
and
impu
lse
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
The
conc
ept o
f mom
entu
m a
nd th
e pr
inci
ple
of m
omen
tum
con
serv
atio
n ca
n be
use
d to
ana
lyse
and
pre
dict
the
outc
ome
of a
wid
e ra
nge
of p
hysi
cal i
nter
actio
ns, f
rom
m
acro
scop
ic m
otio
n to
mic
rosc
opic
col
lisio
ns. (
1.9)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•N
ewto
n’s
seco
nd la
w e
xpre
ssed
in te
rms
of ra
te o
f cha
nge
of m
omen
tum
•Im
puls
e an
d fo
rce–
time
grap
hs
•Co
nser
vatio
n of
line
ar m
omen
tum
•El
astic
col
lisio
ns, i
nela
stic
col
lisio
ns a
nd e
xplo
sion
s
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ap
plyi
ng c
onse
rvat
ion
of m
omen
tum
in si
mpl
e iso
late
d sy
stem
s inc
ludi
ng (b
ut
not l
imite
d to
) col
lisio
ns, e
xplo
sions
, or w
ater
jets
•U
sing
New
ton’
s se
cond
law
qua
ntita
tivel
y an
d qu
alita
tivel
y in
cas
es w
here
m
ass
is n
ot c
onst
ant
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
forc
e–tim
e gr
aphs
•D
eter
min
ing
impu
lse
in v
ario
us c
onte
xts
incl
udin
g (b
ut n
ot li
mite
d to
) car
sa
fety
and
spo
rts
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
and
quan
titat
ivel
y co
mpa
ring
situ
atio
ns in
volv
ing
elas
tic
colli
sion
s, in
elas
tic c
ollis
ions
and
exp
losi
ons
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Au
tom
obile
pas
sive
saf
ety
stan
dard
s ha
ve b
een
adop
ted
acro
ss th
e gl
obe
base
d on
rese
arch
con
duct
ed in
man
y co
untr
ies
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•D
o co
nser
vatio
n la
ws
rest
rict o
r ena
ble
furt
her d
evel
opm
ent i
n ph
ysic
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Je
t eng
ines
and
rock
ets
Mar
tial
art
s
•Pa
rtic
le th
eory
and
col
lisio
ns (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ic 3
.1)
Topic 2: Mechanics
Physics guide 41
2.4
– M
omen
tum
and
impu
lse
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d be
aw
are
that
F =
ma
is e
quiv
alen
t of
Fp t
=∆ ∆
onl
y w
hen
mas
s
is c
onst
ant
•So
lvin
g si
mul
tane
ous
equa
tions
invo
lvin
g co
nser
vatio
n of
mom
entu
m a
nd
ener
gy in
col
lisio
ns w
ill n
ot b
e re
quire
d
•Ca
lcul
atio
ns re
latin
g to
col
lisio
ns a
nd e
xplo
sion
s w
ill b
e re
stric
ted
to o
ne-
dim
ensi
onal
situ
atio
ns
•A
com
paris
on b
etw
een
ener
gy in
volv
ed in
inel
astic
col
lisio
ns (i
n w
hich
kin
etic
en
ergy
is n
ot c
onse
rved
) and
the
cons
erva
tion
of (t
otal
) ene
rgy
shou
ld b
e m
ade
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•p
mv
=
•F
p t=
∆ ∆
• E
p m2K
2
=
•F
tp
Impu
lse
=∆
=∆
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: con
serv
atio
n la
ws
in s
cien
ce d
isci
plin
es h
ave
play
ed a
maj
or ro
le in
ou
tlini
ng th
e lim
its w
ithin
whi
ch s
cien
tific
theo
ries
are
deve
lope
d
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): an
alys
is o
f co
llisi
ons
with
resp
ect t
o en
ergy
tran
sfer
; im
puls
e in
vest
igat
ions
to
dete
rmin
e ve
loci
ty, f
orce
, tim
e, o
r mas
s; de
term
inat
ion
of a
mou
nt o
f tr
ansf
orm
ed e
nerg
y in
inel
astic
col
lisio
ns
•A
im 7
: tec
hnol
ogy
has
allo
wed
for m
ore
accu
rate
and
pre
cise
mea
sure
men
ts
of fo
rce
and
mom
entu
m, i
nclu
ding
vid
eo a
naly
sis
of re
al-li
fe c
ollis
ions
and
m
odel
ling/
sim
ulat
ions
of m
olec
ular
col
lisio
ns
Physics guide42
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
herm
al p
hysi
cs d
eftly
dem
onst
rate
s th
e lin
ks b
etw
een
the
mac
rosc
opic
mea
sure
men
ts e
ssen
tial t
o m
any
scie
ntifi
c m
odel
s w
ith th
e m
icro
scop
ic p
rope
rtie
s th
at u
nder
lie th
ese
mod
els.
3.1
– Th
erm
al c
once
pts
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Evid
ence
thro
ugh
expe
rimen
tatio
n: S
cien
tists
from
the
17th
and
18t
h ce
ntur
ies
wer
e w
orki
ng w
ithou
t the
kno
wle
dge
of a
tom
ic s
truc
ture
and
som
etim
es d
evel
oped
th
eorie
s th
at w
ere
late
r fou
nd to
be
inco
rrec
t, su
ch a
s ph
logi
ston
and
per
petu
al m
otio
n ca
pabi
litie
s. O
ur c
urre
nt u
nder
stan
ding
relie
s on
sta
tistic
al m
echa
nics
pro
vidi
ng a
ba
sis
for o
ur u
se a
nd u
nder
stan
ding
of e
nerg
y tr
ansf
er in
sci
ence
. (1.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•M
olec
ular
theo
ry o
f sol
ids,
liqu
ids
and
gase
s
•Te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd a
bsol
ute
tem
pera
ture
•In
tern
al e
nerg
y
•Sp
ecifi
c he
at c
apac
ity
•Ph
ase
chan
ge
•Sp
ecifi
c la
tent
hea
t
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g te
mpe
ratu
re c
hang
e in
term
s of
inte
rnal
ene
rgy
•U
sing
Kel
vin
and
Cels
ius
tem
pera
ture
sca
les
and
conv
ertin
g be
twee
n th
em
•A
pply
ing
the
calo
rimet
ric te
chni
ques
of s
peci
fic h
eat c
apac
ity o
r spe
cific
la
tent
hea
t exp
erim
enta
lly
•D
escr
ibin
g ph
ase
chan
ge in
term
s of
mol
ecul
ar b
ehav
iour
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
phas
e ch
ange
gra
phs
•Ca
lcul
atin
g en
ergy
cha
nges
invo
lvin
g sp
ecifi
c he
at c
apac
ity a
nd s
peci
fic la
tent
he
at o
f fus
ion
and
vapo
rizat
ion
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e to
pic
of th
erm
al p
hysi
cs is
a g
ood
exam
ple
of th
e us
e of
inte
rnat
iona
l sy
stem
s of
mea
sure
men
t tha
t allo
w s
cien
tists
to c
olla
bora
te e
ffec
tivel
y
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•O
bser
vatio
n th
roug
h se
nse
perc
eptio
n pl
ays
a ke
y ro
le in
mak
ing
mea
sure
men
ts. D
oes
sens
e pe
rcep
tion
play
diff
eren
t rol
es in
diff
eren
t are
as
of k
now
ledg
e?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Pr
essu
re g
auge
s, b
arom
eter
s an
d m
anom
eter
s ar
e a
good
way
to p
rese
nt
aspe
cts
of th
is s
ub-t
opic
•H
ighe
r lev
el s
tude
nts,
esp
ecia
lly th
ose
stud
ying
opt
ion
B, c
an b
e sh
own
links
to
ther
mod
ynam
ics
(see
Phy
sics t
opic
9 a
nd o
ptio
n su
b-to
pic
B.4)
•Pa
rtic
ulat
e na
ture
of m
atte
r (se
e Ch
emist
ry su
b-to
pic
1.3)
and
mea
surin
g en
ergy
ch
ange
s (se
e Ch
emist
ry su
b-to
pic
5.1)
•W
ater
(see
Bio
logy
sub
-top
ic 2
.2)
Topi
c 3:
The
rmal
phy
sics
11
hou
rs
Core
Topic 3: Thermal physics
Physics guide 43
3.1
– Th
erm
al c
once
pts
Gui
danc
e:
•In
tern
al e
nerg
y is
take
n to
be
the
tota
l int
erm
olec
ular
pot
entia
l ene
rgy
+ th
e to
tal r
ando
m k
inet
ic e
nerg
y of
the
mol
ecul
es
•Ph
ase
chan
ge g
raph
s m
ay h
ave
axes
of t
empe
ratu
re v
ersu
s tim
e or
te
mpe
ratu
re v
ersu
s en
ergy
•Th
e ef
fect
s of
coo
ling
shou
ld b
e un
ders
tood
qua
litat
ivel
y bu
t coo
ling
corr
ectio
n ca
lcul
atio
ns a
re n
ot re
quire
d
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•Q
mc
T=
∆
•Q
mL
=
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
ther
mal
con
cept
s is
a fu
ndam
enta
l asp
ect o
f m
any
area
s of
sci
ence
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): tr
ansf
er o
f ene
rgy
due
to te
mpe
ratu
re d
iffer
ence
; cal
orim
etric
inve
stig
atio
ns; e
nerg
y in
volv
ed in
ph
ase
chan
ges
Topic 3: Thermal physics
Physics guide44
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he p
rope
rtie
s of
idea
l gas
es a
llow
sci
entis
ts to
mak
e pr
edic
tions
of t
he b
ehav
iour
of r
eal g
ases
.
3.2
– M
odel
ling
a ga
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Colla
bora
tion:
Sci
entis
ts in
the
19th
cen
tury
mad
e va
luab
le p
rogr
ess
on th
e m
oder
n th
eorie
s th
at fo
rm th
e ba
sis
of th
erm
odyn
amic
s, m
akin
g im
port
ant l
inks
with
oth
er
scie
nces
, esp
ecia
lly c
hem
istr
y. T
he s
cien
tific
met
hod
was
in e
vide
nce
with
con
tras
ting
but c
ompl
emen
tary
sta
tem
ents
of s
ome
law
s de
rived
by
diff
eren
t sci
entis
ts.
Empi
rical
and
theo
retic
al th
inki
ng b
oth
have
thei
r pla
ce in
sci
ence
and
this
is e
vide
nt in
the
com
paris
on b
etw
een
the
unat
tain
able
idea
l gas
and
real
gas
es. (
4.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Pr
essu
re
•Eq
uatio
n of
sta
te fo
r an
idea
l gas
•Ki
netic
mod
el o
f an
idea
l gas
•M
ole,
mol
ar m
ass
and
the
Avog
adro
con
stan
t
•D
iffer
ence
s be
twee
n re
al a
nd id
eal g
ases
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
usin
g th
e eq
uatio
n of
sta
te fo
r an
idea
l gas
and
gas
law
s
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
chan
ges
of s
tate
of a
n id
eal g
as o
n pr
essu
re–
volu
me,
pre
ssur
e–te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd v
olum
e–te
mpe
ratu
re d
iagr
ams
•In
vest
igat
ing
at le
ast o
ne g
as la
w e
xper
imen
tally
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d be
aw
are
of th
e as
sum
ptio
ns th
at u
nder
pin
the
mol
ecul
ar
kine
tic th
eory
of i
deal
gas
es
•G
as la
ws
are
limite
d to
con
stan
t vol
ume,
con
stan
t tem
pera
ture
, con
stan
t pr
essu
re a
nd th
e id
eal g
as la
w
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d un
ders
tand
that
a re
al g
as a
ppro
xim
ates
to a
n id
eal g
as a
t co
nditi
ons
of lo
w p
ress
ure,
mod
erat
e te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd lo
w d
ensi
ty
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•W
hen
does
mod
ellin
g of
“ide
al” s
ituat
ions
bec
ome
“goo
d en
ough
” to
coun
t as
know
ledg
e?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Tr
ansp
ort o
f gas
es in
liqu
id fo
rm o
r at h
igh
pres
sure
s/de
nsiti
es is
com
mon
pr
actic
e ac
ross
the
glob
e. B
ehav
iour
of r
eal g
ases
und
er e
xtre
me
cond
ition
s ne
eds
to b
e ca
refu
lly c
onsi
dere
d in
thes
e si
tuat
ions
.
•Co
nsid
erat
ion
of th
erm
odyn
amic
pro
cess
es is
ess
entia
l to
man
y ar
eas
of
chem
istr
y (s
ee C
hem
istry
sub
-top
ic 1
.3)
•Re
spira
tion
proc
esse
s (s
ee B
iolo
gy s
ub-t
opic
D.6
)
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: thi
s is
a g
ood
topi
c to
mak
e co
mpa
rison
s be
twee
n em
piric
al a
nd
theo
retic
al th
inki
ng in
sci
ence
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): ve
rific
atio
n of
gas
la
ws;
calc
ulat
ion
of th
e Av
ogad
ro c
onst
ant;
virt
ual i
nves
tigat
ion
of g
as la
w
para
met
ers
not p
ossi
ble
with
in a
sch
ool l
abor
ator
y se
ttin
g
Topic 3: Thermal physics
Physics guide 45
3.2
– M
odel
ling
a ga
s
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•p
F A=
• n
N NA
=
•pV
nRT
=
• E
kT
R NT
3 23 2
KB
A
==
Physics guide46
Esse
nti
al id
ea: A
stu
dy
of o
scill
atio
ns u
nder
pin
s m
any
area
s of
phy
sics
wit
h si
mp
le h
arm
onic
mot
ion
(shm
), a
fund
amen
tal o
scill
atio
n th
at a
pp
ears
in v
ario
us
natu
ral p
heno
men
a.
4.1
– O
scill
atio
ns
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mod
els:
Osc
illat
ions
pla
y a
grea
t par
t in
our l
ives
, fro
m th
e tid
es to
the
mot
ion
of th
e sw
ingi
ng p
endu
lum
that
onc
e go
vern
ed o
ur p
erce
ptio
n of
tim
e. G
ener
al p
rinci
ples
go
vern
this
are
a of
phy
sics
, fro
m w
ater
wav
es in
the
deep
oce
an o
r the
osc
illat
ions
of a
car
sus
pens
ion
syst
em. T
his
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e to
pic
rem
inds
us
that
not
all
osci
llatio
ns a
re is
ochr
onou
s. H
owev
er, t
he s
impl
e ha
rmon
ic o
scill
ator
is o
f gre
at im
port
ance
to p
hysi
cist
s be
caus
e al
l per
iodi
c os
cilla
tions
can
be
desc
ribed
thro
ugh
the
mat
hem
atic
s of
sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion.
(1.1
0)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Si
mpl
e ha
rmon
ic o
scill
atio
ns
•Ti
me
perio
d, fr
eque
ncy,
am
plitu
de, d
ispl
acem
ent a
nd p
hase
diff
eren
ce
•Co
nditi
ons
for s
impl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribin
g th
e en
ergy
cha
nges
taki
ng p
lace
dur
ing
one
cycl
e of
an
osc
illat
ion
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
grap
hs o
f sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion
exam
ples
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•O
scill
atio
ns a
re u
sed
to d
efin
e th
e tim
e sy
stem
s on
whi
ch n
atio
ns a
gree
so
that
the
wor
ld c
an b
e ke
pt in
syn
chro
niza
tion.
Thi
s im
pact
s m
ost a
reas
of o
ur
lives
incl
udin
g th
e pr
ovis
ion
of e
lect
ricity
, tra
vel a
nd lo
catio
n-de
term
inin
g de
vice
s an
d al
l mic
roel
ectr
onic
s.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e ha
rmon
ic o
scill
ator
is a
par
adig
m fo
r mod
ellin
g w
here
a s
impl
e eq
uatio
n is
use
d to
des
crib
e a
com
plex
phe
nom
enon
. How
do
scie
ntis
ts k
now
whe
n a
sim
ple
mod
el is
not
det
aile
d en
ough
for t
heir
requ
irem
ents
?
Topi
c 4:
Wav
es
15 h
ours
Core
Topic 4: Waves
Physics guide 47
4.1
– O
scill
atio
ns
Gui
danc
e:
•G
raph
s de
scrib
ing
sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion
shou
ld in
clud
e di
spla
cem
ent–
time,
vel
ocity
–tim
e, a
ccel
erat
ion–
time
and
acce
lera
tion–
disp
lace
men
t
•St
uden
ts a
re e
xpec
ted
to u
nder
stan
d th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
the
nega
tive
sign
in
the
rela
tions
hip:
ax
∝−
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•T
f1=
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Is
ochr
onou
s os
cilla
tions
can
be
used
to m
easu
re ti
me
•M
any
syst
ems
can
appr
oxim
ate
sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion:
mas
s on
a s
prin
g,
fluid
in U
-tub
e, m
odel
s of
iceb
ergs
osc
illat
ing
vert
ical
ly in
the
ocea
n, a
nd
mot
ion
of a
sph
ere
rolli
ng in
a c
onca
ve m
irror
•Si
mpl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n is
freq
uent
ly fo
und
in th
e co
ntex
t of m
echa
nics
(see
Ph
ysic
s top
ic 2
)
Aim
s:
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): m
ass
on a
spr
ing;
si
mpl
e pe
ndul
um; m
otio
n on
a c
urve
d ai
r tra
ck
•A
im 7
: IT
skill
s ca
n be
use
d to
mod
el th
e si
mpl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n de
finin
g eq
uatio
n; th
is g
ives
val
uabl
e in
sigh
t int
o th
e m
eani
ng o
f the
equ
atio
n its
elf
Topic 4: Waves
Physics guide48
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
here
are
man
y fo
rms
of w
aves
ava
ilabl
e to
be
stud
ied.
A c
omm
on c
hara
cter
istic
of a
ll tr
avel
ling
wav
es is
that
they
car
ry e
nerg
y, b
ut g
ener
ally
the
med
ium
th
roug
h w
hich
they
trav
el w
ill n
ot b
e pe
rman
ently
dis
turb
ed.
4.2
– Tr
avel
ling
wav
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Patt
erns
, tre
nds
and
disc
repa
ncie
s: Sc
ient
ists
hav
e di
scov
ered
com
mon
feat
ures
of w
ave
mot
ion
thro
ugh
care
ful o
bser
vatio
ns o
f the
nat
ural
wor
ld, l
ooki
ng fo
r pat
tern
s,
tren
ds a
nd d
iscr
epan
cies
and
ask
ing
furt
her q
uest
ions
bas
ed o
n th
ese
findi
ngs.
(3.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Tr
avel
ling
wav
es
•W
avel
engt
h, fr
eque
ncy,
per
iod
and
wav
e sp
eed
•Tr
ansv
erse
and
long
itudi
nal w
aves
•Th
e na
ture
of e
lect
rom
agne
tic w
aves
•Th
e na
ture
of s
ound
wav
es
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ex
plai
ning
the
mot
ion
of p
artic
les
of a
med
ium
whe
n a
wav
e pa
sses
thro
ugh
it fo
r bot
h tr
ansv
erse
and
long
itudi
nal c
ases
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
disp
lace
men
t–di
stan
ce g
raph
s an
d di
spla
cem
ent–
time
grap
hs fo
r tra
nsve
rse
and
long
itudi
nal w
aves
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g w
ave
spee
d, fr
eque
ncy
and
wav
elen
gth
•In
vest
igat
ing
the
spee
d of
sou
nd e
xper
imen
tally
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
der
ive
λ=
cf
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d be
aw
are
of th
e or
der o
f mag
nitu
de o
f the
wav
elen
gths
of
radi
o, m
icro
wav
e, in
fra-
red,
vis
ible
, ultr
avio
let,
X-ra
y an
d ga
mm
a ra
ys
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•λ
=c
f
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•El
ectr
omag
netic
wav
es a
re u
sed
exte
nsiv
ely
for n
atio
nal a
nd in
tern
atio
nal
com
mun
icat
ion
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Sc
ient
ists
oft
en tr
ansf
er th
eir p
erce
ptio
n of
tang
ible
and
vis
ible
con
cept
s to
ex
plai
n si
mila
r non
-vis
ible
con
cept
s, s
uch
as in
wav
e th
eory
. How
do
scie
ntis
ts
expl
ain
conc
epts
that
hav
e no
tang
ible
or v
isib
le q
ualit
y?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Co
mm
unic
atio
n us
ing
both
sou
nd (l
ocal
ly) a
nd e
lect
rom
agne
tic w
aves
(nea
r an
d fa
r) in
volv
e w
ave
theo
ry
•Em
issi
on s
pect
ra a
re a
naly
sed
by c
ompa
rison
to th
e el
ectr
omag
netic
wav
e sp
ectr
um (s
ee C
hem
istry
topi
c 2
and
Phys
ics s
ub-t
opic
12.
1)
•Si
ght (
see
Biol
ogy
sub-
topi
c A.
2)
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: the
re is
a c
omm
on b
ody
of k
now
ledg
e an
d te
chni
ques
invo
lved
in
wav
e th
eory
that
is a
pplic
able
acr
oss
man
y ar
eas
of p
hysi
cs
•A
im 4
: the
re a
re o
ppor
tuni
ties
for t
he a
naly
sis
of d
ata
to a
rriv
e at
som
e of
the
mod
els
in th
is s
ectio
n fr
om fi
rst p
rinci
ples
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): sp
eed
of w
aves
in
diff
eren
t med
ia; d
etec
tion
of e
lect
rom
agne
tic w
aves
from
var
ious
sou
rces
; us
e of
ech
o m
etho
ds (o
r sim
ilar)
for d
eter
min
ing
wav
e sp
eed,
wav
elen
gth,
di
stan
ce, o
r med
ium
ela
stic
ity a
nd/o
r den
sity
Topic 4: Waves
Physics guide 49
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
ll w
aves
can
be
desc
ribed
by
the
sam
e se
ts o
f mat
hem
atic
al id
eas.
Det
aile
d kn
owle
dge
of o
ne a
rea
lead
s to
the
poss
ibili
ty o
f pre
dict
ion
in a
noth
er.
4.3
– W
ave
char
acte
rist
ics
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Imag
inat
ion:
It is
spe
cula
ted
that
pol
ariz
atio
n ha
d be
en u
tiliz
ed b
y th
e Vi
king
s th
roug
h th
eir u
se o
f Ice
land
Spa
r ove
r 130
0 ye
ars
ago
for n
avig
atio
n (p
rior t
o th
e in
trod
uctio
n of
the
mag
netic
com
pass
). Sc
ient
ists
acr
oss
Euro
pe in
the
17th
–19t
h ce
ntur
ies
cont
inue
d to
con
trib
ute
to w
ave
theo
ry b
y bu
ildin
g on
the
theo
ries
and
mod
els
prop
osed
as
our u
nder
stan
ding
dev
elop
ed. (
1.4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•W
avef
ront
s an
d ra
ys
•A
mpl
itude
and
inte
nsity
•Su
perp
ositi
on
•Po
lariz
atio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
diag
ram
s in
volv
ing
wav
efro
nts
and
rays
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g am
plitu
de, i
nten
sity
and
the
inve
rse
squa
re la
w
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
the
supe
rpos
ition
of p
ulse
s an
d w
aves
•D
escr
ibin
g m
etho
ds o
f pol
ariz
atio
n
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
diag
ram
s ill
ustr
atin
g po
lariz
ed, r
efle
cted
and
tr
ansm
itted
bea
ms
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g M
alus
’s la
w
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
cal
cula
te th
e re
sulta
nt o
f tw
o w
aves
or p
ulse
s bo
th g
raph
ical
ly a
nd a
lgeb
raic
ally
•M
etho
ds o
f pol
ariz
atio
n w
ill b
e re
stric
ted
to th
e us
e of
pol
ariz
ing
filte
rs a
nd
refle
ctio
n fr
om a
non
-met
allic
pla
ne s
urfa
ce
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•I
A2∝
•I
x2
∝−
•I
Ico
s0
2θ
=
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•W
avef
ront
s an
d ra
ys a
re v
isua
lizat
ions
that
hel
p ou
r und
erst
andi
ng o
f re
ality
, cha
ract
eris
tic o
f mod
ellin
g in
the
phys
ical
sci
ence
s. H
ow d
oes
the
met
hodo
logy
use
d in
the
natu
ral s
cien
ces
diff
er fr
om th
e m
etho
dolo
gy u
sed
in th
e hu
man
sci
ence
s?
•H
ow m
uch
deta
il do
es a
mod
el n
eed
to c
onta
in to
acc
urat
ely
repr
esen
t re
ality
?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
num
ber o
f mod
ern
tech
nolo
gies
, suc
h as
LCD
dis
play
s, re
ly o
n po
lariz
atio
n fo
r the
ir op
erat
ion
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: the
se u
nive
rsal
beh
avio
urs
of w
aves
are
app
lied
in la
ter s
ectio
ns o
f the
co
urse
in m
ore
adva
nced
topi
cs, a
llow
ing
stud
ents
to g
ener
aliz
e th
e va
rious
ty
pes
of w
aves
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): ob
serv
atio
n of
po
lariz
atio
n un
der d
iffer
ent c
ondi
tions
, inc
ludi
ng th
e us
e of
mic
row
aves
; su
perp
ositi
on o
f wav
es; r
epre
sent
atio
n of
wav
e ty
pes
usin
g ph
ysic
al m
odel
s (e
g sl
inky
dem
onst
ratio
ns)
•A
im 7
: use
of c
ompu
ter m
odel
ling
enab
les
stud
ents
to o
bser
ve w
ave
mot
ion
in th
ree
dim
ensi
ons
as w
ell a
s be
ing
able
to m
ore
accu
rate
ly a
djus
t wav
e ch
arac
teris
tics
in s
uper
posi
tion
dem
onst
ratio
ns
Topic 4: Waves
Physics guide50
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: W
aves
inte
ract
with
med
ia a
nd e
ach
othe
r in
a nu
mbe
r of w
ays
that
can
be
unex
pect
ed a
nd u
sefu
l.
4.4
– W
ave
beha
viou
r
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Com
petin
g th
eorie
s: Th
e co
nflic
ting
wor
k of
Huy
gens
and
New
ton
on th
eir t
heor
ies
of li
ght a
nd th
e re
late
d de
bate
bet
wee
n Fr
esne
l, A
rago
and
Poi
sson
are
de
mon
stra
tions
of t
wo
theo
ries
that
wer
e va
lid y
et fl
awed
and
inco
mpl
ete.
Thi
s is
an
hist
oric
al e
xam
ple
of th
e pr
ogre
ss o
f sci
ence
that
led
to th
e ac
cept
ance
of t
he d
ualit
y of
the
natu
re o
f lig
ht. (
1.9)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Re
flect
ion
and
refr
actio
n
•Sn
ell’s
law
, crit
ical
ang
le a
nd to
tal i
nter
nal r
efle
ctio
n
•D
iffra
ctio
n th
roug
h a
sing
le-s
lit a
nd a
roun
d ob
ject
s
•In
terf
eren
ce p
atte
rns
•D
oubl
e-sl
it in
terf
eren
ce
•Pa
th d
iffer
ence
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
inci
dent
, ref
lect
ed a
nd tr
ansm
itted
wav
es a
t bo
unda
ries
betw
een
med
ia
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g re
flect
ion
at a
pla
ne in
terf
ace
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g Sn
ell’s
law
, crit
ical
ang
le a
nd to
tal i
nter
nal
refle
ctio
n
•D
eter
min
ing
refr
activ
e in
dex
expe
rimen
tally
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribin
g th
e di
ffra
ctio
n pa
tter
n fo
rmed
whe
n pl
ane
wav
es a
re
inci
dent
nor
mal
ly o
n a
sing
le-s
lit
•Q
uant
itativ
ely
desc
ribin
g do
uble
-slit
inte
rfer
ence
inte
nsity
pat
tern
s
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Ch
arac
teris
tic w
ave
beha
viou
r has
bee
n us
ed in
man
y cu
lture
s th
roug
hout
hu
man
his
tory
, oft
en ty
ing
clos
ely
to m
yths
and
lege
nds
that
form
ed th
e ba
sis
for e
arly
sci
entif
ic s
tudi
es
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•H
uyge
ns a
nd N
ewto
n pr
opos
ed tw
o co
mpe
ting
theo
ries
of th
e be
havi
our
of li
ght.
How
doe
s th
e sc
ient
ific
com
mun
ity d
ecid
e be
twee
n co
mpe
ting
theo
ries?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
sat
ellit
e fo
otpr
int o
n Ea
rth
is g
over
ned
by th
e di
ffra
ctio
n at
the
dish
on
the
sate
llite
•A
pplic
atio
ns o
f the
refr
actio
n an
d re
flect
ion
of li
ght r
ange
from
the
sim
ple
plan
e m
irror
thro
ugh
the
med
ical
end
osco
pe a
nd b
eyon
d. M
any
of th
ese
appl
icat
ions
hav
e en
able
d us
to im
prov
e an
d ex
tend
our
sen
se o
f vis
ion
•Th
e si
mpl
e id
ea o
f the
can
cella
tion
of tw
o co
here
nt li
ght r
ays
refle
ctin
g fr
om
two
surf
aces
lead
s to
dat
a st
orag
e in
com
pact
dis
cs a
nd th
eir s
ucce
ssor
s
•Th
e ph
ysic
al e
xpla
natio
n of
the
rain
bow
invo
lves
refr
actio
n an
d to
tal i
nter
nal
refle
ctio
n. T
he b
right
and
dar
k ba
nds
insi
de th
e ra
inbo
w, s
uper
num
erar
ies,
ca
n be
exp
lain
ed o
nly
by th
e w
ave
natu
re o
f lig
ht a
nd d
iffra
ctio
n
Topic 4: Waves
Physics guide 51
4.4
– W
ave
beha
viou
r
Gui
danc
e:
•Q
uant
itativ
e de
scrip
tions
of r
efra
ctiv
e in
dex
are
limite
d to
ligh
t ray
s pa
ssin
g be
twee
n tw
o or
mor
e tr
ansp
aren
t med
ia. I
f mor
e th
an tw
o m
edia
, onl
y pa
ralle
l int
erfa
ces
will
be
cons
ider
ed
•St
uden
ts w
ill n
ot b
e ex
pect
ed to
der
ive
the
doub
le-s
lit e
quat
ion
•St
uden
ts sh
ould
hav
e th
e op
port
unity
to o
bser
ve d
iffra
ctio
n an
d in
terf
eren
ce
patt
erns
aris
ing
from
mor
e th
an o
ne ty
pe o
f wav
e
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•n n
v vsi
n sin
1 2
2 1
2 1
θ θ=
=
•s
D dλ=
•Co
nstr
uctiv
e in
terf
eren
ce: p
ath
diff
eren
ce =
nλ
•D
estr
uctiv
e in
terf
eren
ce: p
ath
diff
eren
ce =
n
1 2λ
+
Aim
s:
•A
im 1
: the
his
toric
al a
spec
ts o
f thi
s to
pic
are
still
rele
vant
sci
ence
and
pro
vide
va
luab
le in
sigh
t int
o th
e w
ork
of e
arlie
r sci
entis
ts
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): de
term
inat
ion
of
refr
activ
e in
dex
and
appl
icat
ion
of S
nell’
s la
w; d
eter
min
ing
cond
ition
s un
der
whi
ch to
tal i
nter
nal r
efle
ctio
n m
ay o
ccur
; exa
min
atio
n of
diff
ract
ion
patt
erns
th
roug
h ap
ertu
res
and
arou
nd o
bsta
cles
; inv
estig
atio
n of
the
doub
le-s
lit
expe
rimen
t
•A
im 8
: the
incr
easi
ng u
se o
f dig
ital d
ata
and
its s
tora
ge d
ensi
ty h
as
impl
icat
ions
on
indi
vidu
al p
rivac
y th
roug
h th
e pe
rman
ence
of a
dig
ital
foot
prin
t
Topic 4: Waves
Physics guide52
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: W
hen
trav
ellin
g w
aves
mee
t the
y ca
n su
perp
ose
to fo
rm s
tand
ing
wav
es in
whi
ch e
nerg
y m
ay n
ot b
e tr
ansf
erre
d.
4.5
– St
andi
ng w
aves
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Com
mon
reas
onin
g pr
oces
s: Fr
om th
e tim
e of
Pyt
hago
ras
onw
ards
the
conn
ectio
ns b
etw
een
the
form
atio
n of
sta
ndin
g w
aves
on
strin
gs a
nd in
pip
es h
ave
been
mod
elle
d m
athe
mat
ical
ly a
nd li
nked
to th
e ob
serv
atio
ns o
f the
osc
illat
ing
syst
ems.
In th
e ca
se o
f sou
nd in
air
and
light
, the
sys
tem
can
be
visu
aliz
ed in
ord
er to
reco
gniz
e th
e un
derly
ing
proc
esse
s oc
curr
ing
in th
e st
andi
ng w
aves
. (1.
6)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e na
ture
of s
tand
ing
wav
es
•Bo
unda
ry c
ondi
tions
•N
odes
and
ant
inod
es
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e na
ture
and
form
atio
n of
sta
ndin
g w
aves
in te
rms
of
supe
rpos
ition
•D
istin
guis
hing
bet
wee
n st
andi
ng a
nd tr
avel
ling
wav
es
•O
bser
ving
, ske
tchi
ng a
nd in
terp
retin
g st
andi
ng w
ave
patt
erns
in s
trin
gs
and
pipe
s
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e fr
eque
ncy
of a
har
mon
ic, l
engt
h of
the
stan
ding
wav
e an
d th
e sp
eed
of th
e w
ave
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
con
side
r the
form
atio
n of
sta
ndin
g w
aves
from
th
e su
perp
ositi
on o
f no
mor
e th
an tw
o w
aves
•Bo
unda
ry c
ondi
tions
for s
trin
gs a
re: t
wo
fixed
bou
ndar
ies;
fixed
and
free
bo
unda
ry; t
wo
free
bou
ndar
ies
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e ar
t of m
usic
, whi
ch h
as it
s sc
ient
ific
basi
s in
thes
e id
eas,
is u
nive
rsal
to
all c
ultu
res,
pas
t and
pre
sent
. Man
y m
usic
al in
stru
men
ts re
ly h
eavi
ly o
n th
e ge
nera
tion
and
man
ipul
atio
n of
sta
ndin
g w
aves
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
ere
are
clos
e lin
ks b
etw
een
stan
ding
wav
es in
str
ings
and
Sch
rodi
nger
’s th
eory
for t
he p
roba
bilit
y am
plitu
de o
f ele
ctro
ns in
the
atom
. App
licat
ion
to
supe
rstr
ing
theo
ry re
quire
s st
andi
ng w
ave
patt
erns
in 1
1 di
men
sion
s. W
hat i
s th
e ro
le o
f rea
son
and
imag
inat
ion
in e
nabl
ing
scie
ntis
ts to
vis
ualiz
e sc
enar
ios
that
are
bey
ond
our p
hysi
cal c
apab
ilitie
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•St
uden
ts s
tudy
ing
mus
ic s
houl
d be
enc
oura
ged
to b
ring
thei
r ow
n ex
perie
nces
of t
his
art f
orm
to th
e ph
ysic
s cl
assr
oom
Topic 4: Waves
Physics guide 53
4.5
– St
andi
ng w
aves
•Bo
unda
ry c
ondi
tions
for p
ipes
are
: tw
o cl
osed
bou
ndar
ies;
clos
ed a
nd o
pen
boun
dary
; tw
o op
en b
ound
arie
s
•Fo
r sta
ndin
g w
aves
in a
ir, e
xpla
natio
ns w
ill n
ot b
e re
quire
d in
term
s of
pr
essu
re n
odes
and
pre
ssur
e an
tinod
es
•Th
e lo
wes
t fre
quen
cy m
ode
of a
sta
ndin
g w
ave
is k
now
n as
the
first
har
mon
ic
•Th
e te
rms
fund
amen
tal a
nd o
vert
one
will
not
be
used
in e
xam
inat
ion
ques
tions
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: stu
dent
s ar
e ab
le to
bot
h ph
ysic
ally
obs
erve
and
qua
litat
ivel
y m
easu
re
the
loca
tions
of n
odes
and
ant
inod
es, f
ollo
win
g th
e in
vest
igat
ive
tech
niqu
es
of e
arly
sci
entis
ts a
nd m
usic
ians
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): ob
serv
atio
n of
st
andi
ng w
ave
patt
erns
in p
hysi
cal o
bjec
ts (e
g sl
inky
spr
ings
); pr
edic
tion
of h
arm
onic
loca
tions
in a
n ai
r tub
e in
wat
er; d
eter
min
ing
the
freq
uenc
y of
tu
ning
fork
s; ob
serv
ing
or m
easu
ring
vibr
atin
g vi
olin
/gui
tar s
trin
gs
•A
im 8
: the
inte
rnat
iona
l dim
ensi
on o
f the
app
licat
ion
of s
tand
ing
wav
es is
im
port
ant i
n m
usic
Physics guide54
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: W
hen
char
ges
mov
e an
ele
ctric
cur
rent
is c
reat
ed.
5.1
– El
ectr
ic fi
elds
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mod
ellin
g: E
lect
rical
theo
ry d
emon
stra
tes
the
scie
ntifi
c th
ough
t inv
olve
d in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f a m
icro
scop
ic m
odel
(beh
avio
ur o
f cha
rge
carr
iers
) fro
m m
acro
scop
ic
obse
rvat
ion.
The
his
toric
al d
evel
opm
ent a
nd re
finem
ent o
f the
se s
cien
tific
idea
s w
hen
the
mic
rosc
opic
pro
pert
ies
wer
e un
know
n an
d un
obse
rvab
le is
test
amen
t to
the
deep
thin
king
sho
wn
by th
e sc
ient
ists
of t
he ti
me.
(1.1
0)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ch
arge
•El
ectr
ic fi
eld
•Co
ulom
b’s
law
•El
ectr
ic c
urre
nt
•D
irect
cur
rent
(dc)
•Po
tent
ial d
iffer
ence
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Id
entif
ying
two
form
s of
cha
rge
and
the
dire
ctio
n of
the
forc
es b
etw
een
them
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g el
ectr
ic fi
elds
and
Cou
lom
b’s
law
•Ca
lcul
atin
g w
ork
done
in a
n el
ectr
ic fi
eld
in b
oth
joul
es a
nd e
lect
ronv
olts
•Id
entif
ying
sig
n an
d na
ture
of c
harg
e ca
rrie
rs in
a m
etal
•Id
entif
ying
drif
t spe
ed o
f cha
rge
carr
iers
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
usin
g th
e dr
ift s
peed
equ
atio
n
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g cu
rren
t, po
tent
ial d
iffer
ence
and
cha
rge
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•El
ectr
icity
and
its
bene
fits
have
an
unpa
ralle
led
pow
er to
tran
sfor
m s
ocie
ty
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Ea
rly s
cien
tists
iden
tifie
d po
sitiv
e ch
arge
s as
the
char
ge c
arrie
rs in
m
etal
s; ho
wev
er, t
he d
isco
very
of t
he e
lect
ron
led
to th
e in
trod
uctio
n of
“c
onve
ntio
nal”
cur
rent
dire
ctio
n. W
as th
is a
sui
tabl
e so
lutio
n to
a m
ajor
shi
ft
in th
inki
ng?
Wha
t rol
e do
par
adig
m s
hift
s pl
ay in
the
prog
ress
ion
of s
cien
tific
kn
owle
dge?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Tr
ansf
errin
g en
ergy
from
one
pla
ce to
ano
ther
(see
Che
mist
ry o
ptio
n C
and
Ph
ysic
s top
ic 11
)
•Im
pact
on
the
envi
ronm
ent f
rom
ele
ctric
ity g
ener
atio
n (s
ee P
hysic
s top
ic 8
an
d Ch
emist
ry o
ptio
n su
b-to
pic
C2)
•Th
e co
mpa
rison
bet
wee
n th
e tr
eatm
ent o
f ele
ctric
fiel
ds a
nd g
ravi
tatio
nal
field
s (s
ee P
hysic
s top
ic 1
0)
Core Topi
c 5:
Ele
ctric
ity a
nd m
agne
tism
15
hou
rs
Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism
Physics guide 55
5.1
– El
ectr
ic fi
elds
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
app
ly C
oulo
mb’
s la
w fo
r a ra
nge
of p
erm
ittiv
ity
valu
es
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•I
q t=
∆ ∆
•F
kq
q r12
2=
•k
14
0πε
=
•V
W q=
•E
F q=
•I
nAvq
=
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: ele
ctric
al th
eory
lies
at t
he h
eart
of m
uch
mod
ern
scie
nce
and
engi
neer
ing
•A
im 3
: adv
ance
s in
ele
ctric
al th
eory
hav
e br
ough
t im
men
se c
hang
e to
all
soci
etie
s
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): de
mon
stra
tions
sh
owin
g th
e ef
fect
of a
n el
ectr
ic fi
eld
(eg.
usi
ng s
emol
ina)
; sim
ulat
ions
in
volv
ing
the
plac
emen
t of o
ne o
r mor
e po
int c
harg
es a
nd d
eter
min
ing
the
resu
ltant
fiel
d
•A
im 7
: use
of c
ompu
ter s
imul
atio
ns w
ould
ena
ble
stud
ents
to m
easu
re
mic
rosc
opic
inte
ract
ions
that
are
typi
cally
ver
y di
ffic
ult i
n a
scho
ol la
bora
tory
si
tuat
ion
Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism
Physics guide56
Esse
ntia
l id
ea: O
ne o
f the
ear
liest
use
s fo
r ele
ctric
ity
was
to p
rodu
ce li
ght a
nd h
eat.
This
tech
nolo
gy c
ontin
ues
to h
ave
a m
ajor
impa
ct o
n th
e liv
es o
f peo
ple
arou
nd
the
wor
ld.
5.2
– H
eati
ng e
ffec
t of e
lect
ric
curr
ents
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Peer
revi
ew: A
lthou
gh O
hm a
nd B
arlo
w p
ublis
hed
thei
r fin
ding
s on
the
natu
re o
f ele
ctric
cur
rent
aro
und
the
sam
e tim
e, li
ttle
cre
denc
e w
as g
iven
to O
hm. B
arlo
w’s
inco
rrec
t la
w w
as n
ot in
itial
ly c
ritic
ized
or i
nves
tigat
ed fu
rthe
r. Th
is is
a re
flect
ion
of th
e na
ture
of a
cade
mia
of t
he ti
me,
with
phy
sics
in G
erm
any
bein
g la
rgel
y no
n-m
athe
mat
ical
and
Ba
rlow
hel
d in
hig
h re
spec
t in
Engl
and.
It in
dica
tes
the
need
for t
he p
ublic
atio
n an
d pe
er re
view
of r
esea
rch
findi
ngs
in re
cogn
ized
sci
entif
ic jo
urna
ls. (
4.4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ci
rcui
t dia
gram
s
•Ki
rchh
off’s
circ
uit l
aws
•H
eatin
g ef
fect
of c
urre
nt a
nd it
s co
nseq
uenc
es
•Re
sist
ance
exp
ress
ed a
s R
I=
V
•O
hm’s
law
•Re
sist
ivity
•Po
wer
dis
sipa
tion
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
raw
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
circ
uit d
iagr
ams
•Id
entif
ying
ohm
ic a
nd n
on-o
hmic
con
duct
ors
thro
ugh
a co
nsid
erat
ion
of th
e V/
I cha
ract
eris
tic g
raph
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g po
tent
ial d
iffer
ence
, cur
rent
, cha
rge,
Kirc
hhof
f’s
circ
uit l
aws,
pow
er, r
esis
tanc
e an
d re
sist
ivity
•In
vest
igat
ing
com
bina
tions
of r
esis
tors
in p
aral
lel a
nd s
erie
s ci
rcui
ts
•D
escr
ibin
g id
eal a
nd n
on-id
eal a
mm
eter
s an
d vo
ltmet
ers
•D
escr
ibin
g pr
actic
al u
ses o
f pot
entia
l div
ider
circ
uits
, inc
ludi
ng th
e ad
vant
ages
of
a p
oten
tial d
ivid
er o
ver a
ser
ies r
esis
tor i
n co
ntro
lling
a si
mpl
e ci
rcui
t
•In
vest
igat
ing
one
or m
ore
of th
e fa
ctor
s th
at a
ffec
t res
ista
nce
expe
rimen
tally
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•A
set
of u
nive
rsal
sym
bols
is n
eede
d so
that
phy
sici
sts
in d
iffer
ent c
ultu
res
can
read
ily c
omm
unic
ate
idea
s in
sci
ence
and
eng
inee
ring
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Se
nse
perc
eptio
n in
ear
ly e
lect
rical
inve
stig
atio
ns w
as k
ey to
cla
ssify
ing
the
effe
ct o
f var
ious
pow
er s
ourc
es; h
owev
er, t
his
is fr
augh
t with
pos
sibl
e irr
ever
sibl
e co
nseq
uenc
es fo
r the
sci
entis
ts in
volv
ed. C
an w
e st
ill e
thic
ally
and
sa
fely
use
sen
se p
erce
ptio
n in
sci
ence
rese
arch
?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
lthou
gh th
ere
are
near
ly li
mitl
ess
way
s th
at w
e us
e el
ectr
ical
circ
uits
, hea
ting
and
light
ing
are
two
of th
e m
ost w
ides
prea
d
•Se
nsiti
ve d
evic
es c
an e
mpl
oy d
etec
tors
cap
able
of m
easu
ring
smal
l var
iatio
ns
in p
oten
tial d
iffer
ence
and
/or c
urre
nt, r
equi
ring
care
fully
pla
nned
circ
uits
and
hi
gh p
reci
sion
com
pone
nts
Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism
Physics guide 57
5.2
– H
eati
ng e
ffec
t of e
lect
ric
curr
ents
Gui
danc
e:
•Th
e fil
amen
t lam
p sh
ould
be
desc
ribed
as
a no
n-oh
mic
dev
ice;
a m
etal
wire
at
a co
nsta
nt te
mpe
ratu
re is
an
ohm
ic d
evic
e
•Th
e us
e of
non
-idea
l vol
tmet
ers
is c
onfin
ed to
vol
tmet
ers
with
a c
onst
ant b
ut
finite
resi
stan
ce
•Th
e us
e of
non
-idea
l am
met
ers
is c
onfin
ed to
am
met
ers
with
a c
onst
ant b
ut
non-
zero
resi
stan
ce
•A
pplic
atio
n of
Kirc
hhof
f’s c
ircui
t law
s w
ill b
e lim
ited
to c
ircui
ts w
ith a
m
axim
um n
umbe
r of t
wo
sour
ce-c
arry
ing
loop
s
Dat
a bo
ok re
fere
nce:
•Ki
rcho
ff’s
circ
uit l
aws:
•∑V
= 0
(loo
p)
•∑I
= 0
(jun
ctio
n)
•R
V I=
•P
VII
RV R
==
=2
2
•�
RR
Rto
tal
12
=+
+
•�
RR
R1
11
tota
l1
2
=+
+
•RA L
ρ=
•Re
fer t
o el
ectr
ical
sym
bols
on p
age
4 of
the
phys
ics d
ata
book
let
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: ele
ctric
al th
eory
and
its
appr
oach
to m
acro
and
mic
ro e
ffec
ts
char
acte
rizes
muc
h of
the
phys
ical
app
roac
h ta
ken
in th
e an
alys
is o
f the
un
iver
se
•A
im 3
: ele
ctric
al te
chni
ques
, bot
h pr
actic
al a
nd th
eore
tical
, pro
vide
a
rela
tivel
y si
mpl
e op
port
unity
for s
tude
nts
to d
evel
op a
feel
ing
for t
he
argu
men
ts o
f phy
sics
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): us
e of
a h
ot-w
ire
amm
eter
as
an h
isto
rical
ly im
port
ant d
evic
e; c
ompa
rison
of r
esis
tivity
of a
va
riety
of c
ondu
ctor
s su
ch a
s a
wire
at c
onst
ant t
empe
ratu
re, a
fila
men
t lam
p,
or a
gra
phite
pen
cil;
dete
rmin
atio
n of
thic
knes
s of
a p
enci
l mar
k on
pap
er;
inve
stig
atio
n of
ohm
ic a
nd n
on-o
hmic
con
duct
or c
hara
cter
istic
s; us
ing
a re
sist
ive
wire
wou
nd a
nd ta
ped
arou
nd th
e re
serv
oir o
f a th
erm
omet
er to
re
late
wire
resi
stan
ce to
cur
rent
in th
e w
ire a
nd te
mpe
ratu
re o
f wire
•A
im 7
: the
re a
re m
any
soft
war
e an
d on
line
optio
ns fo
r con
stru
ctin
g si
mpl
e an
d co
mpl
ex c
ircui
ts q
uick
ly to
inve
stig
ate
the
effe
ct o
f usi
ng d
iffer
ent
com
pone
nts
with
in a
circ
uit
Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism
Physics guide58
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
lect
ric c
ells
allo
w u
s to
sto
re e
nerg
y in
a c
hem
ical
form
.
5.3
– El
ectr
ic c
ells
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Long
-ter
m ri
sks:
Scie
ntis
ts n
eed
to b
alan
ce th
e re
sear
ch in
to e
lect
ric c
ells
that
can
sto
re e
nerg
y w
ith g
reat
er e
nerg
y de
nsity
to p
rovi
de lo
nger
dev
ice
lifet
imes
with
the
long
-ter
m ri
sks
asso
ciat
ed w
ith th
e di
spos
al o
f the
che
mic
als
invo
lved
whe
n ba
tter
ies
are
disc
arde
d. (4
.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ce
lls
•In
tern
al re
sist
ance
•Se
cond
ary
cells
•Te
rmin
al p
oten
tial d
iffer
ence
•El
ectr
omot
ive
forc
e (e
mf)
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•In
vest
igat
ing
prac
tical
ele
ctric
cel
ls (b
oth
prim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y)
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e di
scha
rge
char
acte
ristic
of a
sim
ple
cell
(var
iatio
n of
term
inal
po
tent
ial d
iffer
ence
with
tim
e)
•Id
entif
ying
the
dire
ctio
n of
cur
rent
flow
requ
ired
to re
char
ge a
cel
l
•D
eter
min
ing
inte
rnal
resi
stan
ce e
xper
imen
tally
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g em
f, in
tern
al re
sist
ance
and
oth
er e
lect
rical
qu
antit
ies
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d re
cogn
ize
that
the
term
inal
pot
entia
l diff
eren
ce o
f a ty
pica
l pr
actic
al e
lect
ric c
ell l
oses
its
initi
al v
alue
qui
ckly
, has
a s
tabl
e an
d co
nsta
nt
valu
e fo
r mos
t of i
ts li
fetim
e, fo
llow
ed b
y a
rapi
d de
crea
se to
zer
o as
the
cell
disc
harg
es c
ompl
etel
y
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•IR
r(
)ε
=+
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Ba
tter
y st
orag
e is
impo
rtan
t to
soci
ety
for u
se in
are
as s
uch
as p
orta
ble
devi
ces,
tran
spor
tatio
n op
tions
and
bac
k-up
pow
er s
uppl
ies
for m
edic
al
faci
litie
s
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Ba
tter
y st
orag
e is
see
n as
use
ful t
o so
ciet
y de
spite
the
pote
ntia
l en
viro
nmen
tal i
ssue
s su
rrou
ndin
g th
eir d
ispo
sal.
Shou
ld s
cien
tists
be
held
m
oral
ly re
spon
sibl
e fo
r the
long
-ter
m c
onse
quen
ces
of th
eir i
nven
tions
and
di
scov
erie
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
e ch
emis
try
of e
lect
ric c
ells
(see
Che
mist
ry s
ub-t
opic
s 9.
2 an
d C.
6)
Aim
s:
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): in
vest
igat
ion
of
sim
ple
elec
trol
ytic
cel
ls u
sing
var
ious
mat
eria
ls fo
r the
cat
hode
, ano
de a
nd
elec
trol
yte;
sof
twar
e-ba
sed
inve
stig
atio
ns o
f ele
ctric
al c
ell d
esig
n; c
ompa
rison
of
the
life
expe
ctan
cy o
f var
ious
bat
terie
s
•A
im 8
: alth
ough
cel
l tec
hnol
ogy
can
supp
ly e
lect
ricity
with
out d
irect
co
ntrib
utio
n fr
om n
atio
nal g
rid s
yste
ms
(and
the
inhe
rent
car
bon
outp
ut
issu
es),
safe
dis
posa
l of b
atte
ries
and
the
chem
ical
s th
ey u
se c
an in
trod
uce
land
and
wat
er p
ollu
tion
prob
lem
s
•A
im 1
0: im
prov
emen
ts in
cel
l tec
hnol
ogy
has
been
thro
ugh
colla
bora
tion
with
che
mis
ts
Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism
Physics guide 59
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he e
ffec
t sci
entis
ts c
all m
agne
tism
aris
es w
hen
one
char
ge m
oves
in th
e vi
cini
ty o
f ano
ther
mov
ing
char
ge.
5.4
– M
agne
tic
effe
cts
of e
lect
ric
curr
ents
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mod
els
and
visu
aliz
atio
n: M
agne
tic fi
eld
lines
pro
vide
a p
ower
ful v
isua
lizat
ion
of a
mag
netic
fiel
d. H
isto
rical
ly, t
he fi
eld
lines
hel
ped
scie
ntis
ts a
nd e
ngin
eers
to u
nder
stan
d a
link
that
beg
ins
with
the
influ
ence
of o
ne m
ovin
g ch
arge
on
anot
her a
nd le
ads
onto
rela
tivity
. (1.
10)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•M
agne
tic fi
elds
•M
agne
tic fo
rce
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
eter
min
ing
the
dire
ctio
n of
forc
e on
a c
harg
e m
ovin
g in
a m
agne
tic fi
eld
•D
eter
min
ing
the
dire
ctio
n of
forc
e on
a c
urre
nt-c
arry
ing
cond
ucto
r in
a m
agne
tic fi
eld
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
mag
netic
fiel
d pa
tter
ns
•D
eter
min
ing
the
dire
ctio
n of
the
mag
netic
fiel
d ba
sed
on c
urre
nt d
irect
ion
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g m
agne
tic fo
rces
, fie
lds,
cur
rent
and
cha
rges
Gui
danc
e:
•M
agne
tic fi
eld
patt
erns
will
be
rest
ricte
d to
long
str
aigh
t con
duct
ors,
so
leno
ids,
and
bar
mag
nets
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•F
qvB
sinθ
=
•F
BIL
sinθ
=
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e in
vest
igat
ion
of m
agne
tism
is o
ne o
f the
old
est s
tudi
es b
y m
an a
nd w
as
used
ext
ensi
vely
by
voya
gers
in th
e M
edite
rran
ean
and
beyo
nd th
ousa
nds
of
year
s ag
o
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Fi
eld
patt
erns
pro
vide
a v
isua
lizat
ion
of a
com
plex
phe
nom
enon
, ess
entia
l to
an u
nder
stan
ding
of t
his
topi
c. W
hy m
ight
it b
e us
eful
to re
gard
kno
wle
dge
in a
sim
ilar w
ay, u
sing
the
met
apho
r of k
now
ledg
e as
a m
ap –
a s
impl
ified
re
pres
enta
tion
of re
ality
?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•O
nly
com
para
tivel
y re
cent
ly h
as th
e m
agne
tic c
ompa
ss b
een
supe
rsed
ed b
y di
ffer
ent t
echn
olog
ies
afte
r hun
dred
s of
yea
rs o
f our
dep
ende
nce
on it
•M
oder
n m
edic
al s
cann
ers
rely
hea
vily
on
the
stro
ng, u
nifo
rm m
agne
tic fi
elds
pr
oduc
ed b
y de
vice
s th
at u
tiliz
e su
perc
ondu
ctor
s
•Pa
rtic
le a
ccel
erat
ors s
uch
as th
e La
rge
Had
ron
Colli
der a
t CER
N re
ly o
n a
varie
ty
of p
reci
se m
agne
ts fo
r alig
ning
the
part
icle
bea
ms
Aim
s:
•A
ims
2 an
d 9:
vis
ualiz
atio
ns fr
eque
ntly
pro
vide
us
with
insi
ghts
into
the
actio
n of
mag
netic
fiel
ds; h
owev
er, t
he v
isua
lizat
ions
them
selv
es h
ave
thei
r ow
n lim
itatio
ns
•A
im 7
: com
pute
r-ba
sed
sim
ulat
ions
ena
ble
the
visu
aliz
atio
n of
el
ectr
omag
netic
fiel
ds in
thre
e-di
men
sion
al s
pace
Physics guide60
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
forc
e ap
plie
d pe
rpen
dicu
lar t
o its
dis
plac
emen
t can
resu
lt in
circ
ular
mot
ion.
6.1
– Ci
rcul
ar m
otio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obs
erva
ble
univ
erse
: Obs
erva
tions
and
sub
sequ
ent d
educ
tions
led
to th
e re
aliz
atio
n th
at th
e fo
rce
mus
t act
radi
ally
inw
ards
in a
ll ca
ses
of c
ircul
ar m
otio
n. (1
.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Pe
riod,
freq
uenc
y, a
ngul
ar d
ispl
acem
ent a
nd a
ngul
ar v
eloc
ity
•Ce
ntrip
etal
forc
e
•Ce
ntrip
etal
acc
eler
atio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Id
entif
ying
the
forc
es p
rovi
ding
the
cent
ripet
al fo
rces
suc
h as
tens
ion,
fric
tion,
gr
avita
tiona
l, el
ectr
ical
, or m
agne
tic
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g ce
ntrip
etal
forc
e, c
entr
ipet
al a
ccel
erat
ion,
per
iod,
fr
eque
ncy,
ang
ular
dis
plac
emen
t, lin
ear s
peed
and
ang
ular
vel
ocity
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
and
quan
titat
ivel
y de
scrib
ing
exam
ples
of c
ircul
ar m
otio
n in
clud
ing
case
s of
ver
tical
and
hor
izon
tal c
ircul
ar m
otio
n
Gui
danc
e:
•Ba
nkin
g w
ill b
e co
nsid
ered
qua
litat
ivel
y on
ly
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•r
νω
=
•a
v rr
T42
2 2π=
=
•F
mv r
mr
22
ω=
=
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•In
tern
atio
nal c
olla
bora
tion
is n
eede
d in
est
ablis
hing
eff
ectiv
e ro
cket
laun
ch
site
s to
ben
efit
spac
e pr
ogra
ms
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Fo
ucau
lt’s
pend
ulum
giv
es a
sim
ple
obse
rvab
le p
roof
of t
he ro
tatio
n of
the
eart
h, w
hich
is la
rgel
y un
obse
rvab
le. H
ow c
an w
e ha
ve k
now
ledg
e of
thin
gs
that
are
uno
bser
vabl
e?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•M
otio
n of
cha
rged
par
ticle
s in
mag
netic
fiel
ds (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ic 5
.4)
•M
ass
spec
trom
etry
(see
Che
mist
ry s
ub-t
opic
s 2.
1 an
d 11
.3)
•Pl
aygr
ound
and
am
usem
ent p
ark
rides
oft
en u
se th
e pr
inci
ples
of c
ircul
ar
mot
ion
in th
eir d
esig
n
Aim
s:
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): m
ass
on a
str
ing;
ob
serv
atio
n an
d qu
antif
icat
ion
of lo
op-t
he-lo
op e
xper
ienc
es; f
rictio
n of
a
mas
s on
a tu
rnta
ble
•A
im 7
: tec
hnol
ogy
has
allo
wed
for m
ore
accu
rate
and
pre
cise
mea
sure
men
ts
of c
ircul
ar m
otio
n, in
clud
ing
data
logg
ers
for f
orce
mea
sure
men
ts a
nd v
ideo
an
alys
is o
f obj
ects
mov
ing
in c
ircul
ar m
otio
n
Topi
c 6:
Circ
ular
mot
ion
and
grav
itatio
n 5
hour
s
Core
Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation
Physics guide 61
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he N
ewto
nian
idea
of g
ravi
tatio
nal f
orce
act
ing
betw
een
two
sphe
rical
bod
ies
and
the
law
s of
mec
hani
cs c
reat
e a
mod
el th
at c
an b
e us
ed to
cal
cula
te th
e m
otio
n of
pla
nets
.
6.2
– N
ewto
n’s
law
of g
ravi
tati
on
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Law
s: N
ewto
n’s l
aw o
f gra
vita
tion
and
the
law
s of m
echa
nics
are
the
foun
datio
n fo
r det
erm
inist
ic c
lass
ical
phy
sics.
Thes
e ca
n be
use
d to
mak
e pr
edic
tions
but
do
not e
xpla
in w
hy
the
obse
rved
phe
nom
ena
exist
. (2.
4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•N
ewto
n’s
law
of g
ravi
tatio
n
•G
ravi
tatio
nal f
ield
str
engt
h
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n gr
avita
tiona
l for
ce a
nd c
entr
ipet
al fo
rce
•A
pply
ing
New
ton’
s la
w o
f gra
vita
tion
to th
e m
otio
n of
an
obje
ct in
circ
ular
or
bit a
roun
d a
poin
t mas
s
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g gr
avita
tiona
l for
ce, g
ravi
tatio
nal f
ield
str
engt
h,
orbi
tal s
peed
and
orb
ital p
erio
d
•D
eter
min
ing
the
resu
ltant
gra
vita
tiona
l fie
ld s
tren
gth
due
to tw
o bo
dies
Gui
danc
e:
•N
ewto
n’s
law
of g
ravi
tatio
n sh
ould
be
exte
nded
to s
pher
ical
mas
ses
of
unifo
rm d
ensi
ty b
y as
sum
ing
that
thei
r mas
s is
con
cent
rate
d at
thei
r cen
tre
•G
ravi
tatio
nal f
ield
str
engt
h at
a p
oint
is th
e fo
rce
per u
nit m
ass
expe
rienc
ed b
y a
smal
l poi
nt m
ass
at th
at p
oint
•Ca
lcul
atio
ns o
f the
resu
ltant
gra
vita
tiona
l fie
ld s
tren
gth
due
to tw
o bo
dies
will
be
rest
ricte
d to
poi
nts
alon
g th
e st
raig
ht li
ne jo
inin
g th
e bo
dies
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•F
GM
m r2=
•g
F m=
•g
GM r2
=
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e la
ws
of m
echa
nics
alo
ng w
ith th
e la
w o
f gra
vita
tion
crea
te th
e de
term
inis
tic n
atur
e of
cla
ssic
al p
hysi
cs. A
re c
lass
ical
phy
sics
and
mod
ern
phys
ics
com
patib
le?
Do
othe
r are
as o
f kno
wle
dge
also
hav
e a
sim
ilar d
ivis
ion
betw
een
clas
sica
l and
mod
ern
in th
eir h
isto
rical
dev
elop
men
t?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
e la
w o
f gra
vita
tion
is e
ssen
tial i
n de
scrib
ing
the
mot
ion
of s
atel
lites
, pl
anet
s, m
oons
and
ent
ire g
alax
ies
•Co
mpa
rison
to C
oulo
mb’
s la
w (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ic 5
.1)
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: the
theo
ry o
f gra
vita
tion
whe
n co
mbi
ned
and
synt
hesi
zed
with
the
rest
of t
he la
ws
of m
echa
nics
allo
ws
deta
iled
pred
ictio
ns a
bout
the
futu
re
posi
tion
and
mot
ion
of p
lane
ts
Physics guide62
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: In
the
mic
rosc
opic
wor
ld e
nerg
y is
dis
cret
e.
7.1
– D
iscr
ete
ener
gy a
nd ra
dioa
ctiv
ity
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Acc
iden
tal d
isco
very
: Rad
ioac
tivity
was
dis
cove
red
by a
ccid
ent w
hen
Becq
uere
l dev
elop
ed p
hoto
grap
hic
film
that
had
acc
iden
tally
bee
n ex
pose
d to
radi
atio
n fr
om
radi
oact
ive
rock
s. T
he m
arks
on
the
phot
ogra
phic
film
see
n by
Bec
quer
el p
roba
bly
wou
ld n
ot le
ad to
any
thin
g fu
rthe
r for
mos
t peo
ple.
Wha
t Bec
quer
el d
id w
as to
co
rrel
ate
the
pres
ence
of t
he m
arks
with
the
pres
ence
of t
he ra
dioa
ctiv
e ro
cks
and
inve
stig
ate
the
situ
atio
n fu
rthe
r. (1
.4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•D
iscr
ete
ener
gy a
nd d
iscr
ete
ener
gy le
vels
•Tr
ansi
tions
bet
wee
n en
ergy
leve
ls
•Ra
dioa
ctiv
e de
cay
•Fu
ndam
enta
l for
ces
and
thei
r pro
pert
ies
•A
lpha
par
ticle
s, b
eta
part
icle
s an
d ga
mm
a ra
ys
•H
alf-l
ife
•A
bsor
ptio
n ch
arac
teris
tics
of d
ecay
par
ticle
s
•Is
otop
es
•Ba
ckgr
ound
radi
atio
n
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e ge
opol
itics
of t
he p
ast 6
0+ y
ears
hav
e be
en g
reat
ly in
fluen
ced
by th
e ex
iste
nce
of n
ucle
ar w
eapo
ns
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e ro
le o
f luc
k/se
rend
ipity
in s
ucce
ssfu
l sci
entif
ic d
isco
very
is a
lmos
t in
evita
bly
acco
mpa
nied
by
a sc
ient
ifica
lly c
urio
us m
ind
that
will
pur
sue
the
outc
ome
of th
e “lu
cky”
eve
nt. T
o w
hat e
xten
t mig
ht s
cien
tific
dis
cove
ries
that
ha
ve b
een
desc
ribed
as
bein
g th
e re
sult
of lu
ck a
ctua
lly b
e be
tter
des
crib
ed a
s be
ing
the
resu
lt of
reas
on o
r int
uitio
n?
Topi
c 7:
Ato
mic
, nuc
lear
and
par
ticle
phy
sics
14
hou
rs
Core
Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics
Physics guide 63
7.1
– D
iscr
ete
ener
gy a
nd ra
dioa
ctiv
ity
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e em
issi
on a
nd a
bsor
ptio
n sp
ectr
um o
f com
mon
gas
es
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g at
omic
spe
ctra
, inc
ludi
ng c
alcu
latin
g th
e w
avel
engt
h of
pho
tons
em
itted
dur
ing
atom
ic tr
ansi
tions
•Co
mpl
etin
g de
cay
equa
tions
for a
lpha
and
bet
a de
cay
•D
eter
min
ing
the
half-
life
of a
nuc
lide
from
a d
ecay
cur
ve
•In
vest
igat
ing
half-
life
expe
rimen
tally
(or b
y si
mul
atio
n)
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e re
quire
d to
sol
ve p
robl
ems
on ra
dioa
ctiv
e de
cay
invo
lvin
g on
ly in
tegr
al n
umbe
rs o
f hal
f-liv
es
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
incl
ude
the
neut
rino
and
antin
eutr
ino
in b
eta
deca
y eq
uatio
ns
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•E
hf=
•hc E
λ=
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Kn
owle
dge
of ra
dioa
ctiv
ity, r
adio
activ
e su
bsta
nces
and
the
radi
oact
ive
deca
y la
w a
re c
ruci
al in
mod
ern
nucl
ear m
edic
ine
•H
ow to
dea
l with
the
radi
oact
ive
outp
ut o
f nuc
lear
dec
ay is
impo
rtan
t in
the
deba
te o
ver n
ucle
ar p
ower
sta
tions
(see
Phy
sics s
ub-t
opic
8.1
)
•Ca
rbon
dat
ing
is u
sed
in p
rovi
ding
evi
denc
e fo
r evo
lutio
n (s
ee B
iolo
gy s
ub-
topi
c 5.
1)
•Ex
pone
ntia
l fun
ctio
ns (s
ee M
athe
mat
ical
stud
ies S
L su
b-to
pic
6.4;
Mat
hem
atic
s H
L su
b-to
pic
2.4)
Aim
s:
•A
im 8
: the
use
of r
adio
activ
e m
ater
ials
pos
es e
nviro
nmen
tal d
ange
rs th
at
mus
t be
addr
esse
d at
all
stag
es o
f res
earc
h
•A
im 9
: the
use
of r
adio
activ
e m
ater
ials
requ
ires
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f saf
e ex
perim
enta
l pra
ctic
es a
nd m
etho
ds fo
r han
dlin
g ra
dioa
ctiv
e m
ater
ials
Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics
Physics guide64
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
nerg
y ca
n be
rele
ased
in n
ucle
ar d
ecay
s an
d re
actio
ns a
s a
resu
lt of
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
mas
s an
d en
ergy
.
7.2
– N
ucle
ar re
acti
ons
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Patt
erns
, tre
nds
and
disc
repa
ncie
s: G
raph
s of
bin
ding
ene
rgy
per n
ucle
on a
nd o
f neu
tron
num
ber v
ersu
s pr
oton
num
ber r
evea
l unm
ista
kabl
e pa
tter
ns. T
his
allo
ws
scie
ntis
ts to
mak
e pr
edic
tions
of i
soto
pe c
hara
cter
istic
s ba
sed
on th
ese
grap
hs. (
3.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e un
ified
ato
mic
mas
s un
it
•M
ass
defe
ct a
nd n
ucle
ar b
indi
ng e
nerg
y
•N
ucle
ar fi
ssio
n an
d nu
clea
r fus
ion
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g m
ass
defe
ct a
nd b
indi
ng e
nerg
y
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e en
ergy
rele
ased
in ra
dioa
ctiv
e de
cay,
nuc
lear
fis
sion
and
nuc
lear
fusi
on
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
the
gene
ral s
hape
of t
he c
urve
of a
vera
ge b
indi
ng
ener
gy p
er n
ucle
on a
gain
st n
ucle
on n
umbe
r
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e ac
cept
ance
that
mas
s an
d en
ergy
are
equ
ival
ent w
as a
maj
or p
arad
igm
sh
ift in
phy
sics
. How
hav
e ot
her p
arad
igm
shi
fts
chan
ged
the
dire
ctio
n of
sc
ienc
e? H
ave
ther
e be
en s
imila
r par
adig
m s
hift
s in
oth
er a
reas
of k
now
ledg
e?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•O
ur u
nder
stan
ding
of t
he e
nerg
etic
s of
the
nucl
eus
has
led
to w
ays
to
prod
uce
elec
tric
ity fr
om n
ucle
i but
als
o to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f ver
y de
stru
ctiv
e w
eapo
ns
•Th
e ch
emis
try
of n
ucle
ar re
actio
ns (s
ee C
hem
istry
opt
ion
sub-
topi
cs C
.3
and
C.7)
Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics
Physics guide 65
7.2
– N
ucle
ar re
acti
ons
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts m
ust b
e ab
le to
cal
cula
te c
hang
es in
term
s of
mas
s or
bin
ding
en
ergy
•Bi
ndin
g en
ergy
may
be
defin
ed in
term
s of
ene
rgy
requ
ired
to c
ompl
etel
y se
para
te th
e nu
cleo
ns o
r the
ene
rgy
rele
ased
whe
n a
nucl
eus
is fo
rmed
from
its
nuc
leon
s
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•E
mc2
∆=
∆
Aim
s:
•A
im 5
: som
e of
the
issu
es ra
ised
by
the
use
of n
ucle
ar p
ower
tran
scen
d na
tiona
l bou
ndar
ies
and
requ
ire th
e co
llabo
ratio
n of
sci
entis
ts fr
om m
any
diff
eren
t nat
ions
•A
im 8
: the
dev
elop
men
t of n
ucle
ar p
ower
and
nuc
lear
wea
pons
rais
es v
ery
serio
us m
oral
and
eth
ical
que
stio
ns: w
ho s
houl
d be
allo
wed
to p
osse
ss
nucl
ear p
ower
and
nuc
lear
wea
pons
and
who
sho
uld
mak
e th
ese
deci
sion
s?
Ther
e al
so s
erio
us e
nviro
nmen
tal i
ssue
s as
soci
ated
with
the
nucl
ear w
aste
of
nucl
ear p
ower
pla
nts.
Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics
Physics guide66
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: It
is b
elie
ved
that
all
the
mat
ter a
roun
d us
is m
ade
up o
f fun
dam
enta
l par
ticle
s ca
lled
quar
ks a
nd le
pton
s. It
is k
now
n th
at m
atte
r has
a h
iera
rchi
cal s
truc
ture
w
ith q
uark
s m
akin
g up
nuc
leon
s, n
ucle
ons
mak
ing
up n
ucle
i, nu
clei
and
ele
ctro
ns m
akin
g up
ato
ms
and
atom
s m
akin
g up
mol
ecul
es. I
n th
is h
iera
rchi
cal s
truc
ture
, the
sm
alle
st s
cale
is s
een
for q
uark
s an
d le
pton
s (1
0–18 m
).
7.3
– Th
e st
ruct
ure
of m
atte
r
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Pred
ictio
ns: O
ur p
rese
nt u
nder
stan
ding
of m
atte
r is
calle
d th
e St
anda
rd M
odel
, con
sist
ing
of s
ix q
uark
s an
d si
x le
pton
s. Q
uark
s w
ere
post
ulat
ed o
n a
com
plet
ely
mat
hem
atic
al b
asis
in o
rder
to e
xpla
in p
atte
rns
in p
rope
rtie
s of
par
ticle
s. (1
.9)
Colla
bora
tion:
It w
as m
uch
late
r tha
t lar
ge-s
cale
col
labo
rativ
e ex
perim
enta
tion
led
to th
e di
scov
ery
of th
e pr
edic
ted
fund
amen
tal p
artic
les.
(4.3
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Q
uark
s, le
pton
s an
d th
eir a
ntip
artic
les
•H
adro
ns, b
aryo
ns a
nd m
eson
s
•Th
e co
nser
vatio
n la
ws
of c
harg
e, b
aryo
n nu
mbe
r, le
pton
num
ber a
nd
stra
ngen
ess
•Th
e na
ture
and
rang
e of
the
stro
ng n
ucle
ar fo
rce,
wea
k nu
clea
r for
ce a
nd
elec
trom
agne
tic fo
rce
•Ex
chan
ge p
artic
les
•Fe
ynm
an d
iagr
ams
•Co
nfin
emen
t
•Th
e H
iggs
bos
on
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e Ru
ther
ford
-Gei
ger-
Mar
sden
exp
erim
ent t
hat l
ed to
the
disc
over
y of
the
nucl
eus
•A
pply
ing
cons
erva
tion
law
s in
par
ticle
reac
tions
•D
escr
ibin
g pr
oton
s an
d ne
utro
ns in
term
s of
qua
rks
•Co
mpa
ring
the
inte
ract
ion
stre
ngth
s of
the
fund
amen
tal f
orce
s, in
clud
ing
grav
ity
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e m
edia
tion
of th
e fu
ndam
enta
l for
ces
thro
ugh
exch
ange
pa
rtic
les
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Re
sear
ch in
to p
artic
le p
hysi
cs re
quire
s ev
er-in
crea
sing
fund
ing,
lead
ing
to
deba
tes
in g
over
nmen
ts a
nd in
tern
atio
nal r
esea
rch
orga
niza
tions
on
the
fair
allo
catio
n of
pre
ciou
s fin
anci
al re
sour
ces
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•D
oes
the
belie
f in
the
exis
tenc
e of
fund
amen
tal p
artic
les
mea
n th
at it
is
just
ifiab
le to
see
phy
sics
as
bein
g m
ore
impo
rtan
t tha
n ot
her a
reas
of
know
ledg
e?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
n un
ders
tand
ing
of p
artic
le p
hysi
cs is
nee
ded
to d
eter
min
e th
e fin
al fa
te o
f th
e un
iver
se (s
ee P
hysic
s opt
ion
sub-
topi
cs D
.3 a
nd D
.4)
Aim
s:
•A
im 1
: the
rese
arch
that
dea
ls w
ith th
e fu
ndam
enta
l str
uctu
re o
f mat
ter i
s in
tern
atio
nal i
n na
ture
and
is a
cha
lleng
ing
and
stim
ulat
ing
adve
ntur
e fo
r th
ose
who
take
par
t
•A
im 4
: par
ticle
phy
sics
invo
lves
the
anal
ysis
and
eva
luat
ion
of v
ery
larg
e am
ount
s of
dat
a
•A
im 6
: stu
dent
s co
uld
inve
stig
ate
the
scat
terin
g an
gle
of a
lpha
par
ticle
s as
a
func
tion
of th
e ai
min
g er
ror,
or th
e m
inim
um d
ista
nce
of a
ppro
ach
as a
fu
nctio
n of
the
initi
al k
inet
ic e
nerg
y of
the
alph
a pa
rtic
le
Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics
Physics guide 67
7.3
– Th
e st
ruct
ure
of m
atte
r
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
sim
ple
Feyn
man
dia
gram
s
•D
escr
ibin
g w
hy fr
ee q
uark
s ar
e no
t obs
erve
d
Gui
danc
e:
•A
qua
litat
ive
desc
riptio
n of
the
stan
dard
mod
el is
requ
ired
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
Char
geQ
uark
sBa
ryon
nu
mbe
r
e2 3
uc
t1 3
e1 3
−d
sb
1 3
All q
uark
s hav
e a
stra
ngen
ess n
umbe
r of
0 ex
cept
the
stra
nge
quar
k th
at h
as a
stra
ngen
ess
num
ber o
f –1
Char
geLe
pton
s
–1e
μτ
0υ e
υ μυ τ
All
lept
ons
have
a le
pton
nu
mbe
r of 1
and
ant
ilept
ons
have
a le
pton
num
ber o
f –1
•A
im 8
: sci
entif
ic a
nd g
over
nmen
t org
aniz
atio
ns a
re a
sked
if th
e fu
ndin
g fo
r pa
rtic
le p
hysi
cs re
sear
ch c
ould
be
spen
t on
othe
r res
earc
h or
soc
ial n
eeds
Gra
vita
tion
alW
eak
Elec
trom
agne
tic
Stro
ng
Part
icle
s ex
peri
enci
ngA
llQ
uark
s, le
pton
sCh
arge
dQ
uark
s, g
luon
s
Par
ticl
es m
edia
ting
Gra
vito
nW
+ , W– , Z
0γ
Glu
ons
Physics guide68
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he c
onst
ant n
eed
for n
ew e
nerg
y so
urce
s im
plie
s de
cisi
ons
that
may
hav
e a
serio
us e
ffec
t on
the
envi
ronm
ent.
The
finite
qua
ntit
y of
foss
il fu
els
and
thei
r im
plic
atio
n in
glo
bal w
arm
ing
has
led
to th
e de
velo
pmen
t of a
ltern
ativ
e so
urce
s of
ene
rgy.
Thi
s co
ntin
ues
to b
e an
are
a of
rapi
dly
chan
ging
tech
nolo
gica
l inn
ovat
ion.
8.1
– En
ergy
sou
rces
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Risk
s an
d pr
oble
m-s
olvi
ng: S
ince
ear
ly ti
mes
man
kind
und
erst
ood
the
vita
l rol
e of
har
ness
ing
ener
gy a
nd la
rge-
scal
e pr
oduc
tion
of e
lect
ricity
has
impa
cted
all
leve
ls o
f so
ciet
y. P
roce
sses
whe
re e
nerg
y is
tran
sfor
med
requ
ire h
olis
tic a
ppro
ache
s th
at in
volv
e m
any
area
s of
kno
wle
dge.
Res
earc
h an
d de
velo
pmen
t of a
ltern
ativ
e en
ergy
sou
rces
ha
s la
cked
sup
port
in s
ome
coun
trie
s fo
r eco
nom
ic a
nd p
oliti
cal r
easo
ns. S
cien
tists
, how
ever
, hav
e co
ntin
ued
to c
olla
bora
te a
nd s
hare
new
tech
nolo
gies
that
can
redu
ce
our d
epen
denc
e on
non
-ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s. (4
.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Sp
ecifi
c en
ergy
and
ene
rgy
dens
ity o
f fue
l sou
rces
•Sa
nkey
dia
gram
s
•Pr
imar
y en
ergy
sou
rces
•El
ectr
icity
as
a se
cond
ary
and
vers
atile
form
of e
nerg
y
•Re
new
able
and
non
-ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•So
lvin
g sp
ecifi
c en
ergy
and
ene
rgy
dens
ity p
robl
ems
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
Sank
ey d
iagr
ams
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ba
sic
feat
ures
of f
ossi
l fue
l pow
er s
tatio
ns, n
ucle
ar p
ower
st
atio
ns, w
ind
gene
rato
rs, p
umpe
d st
orag
e hy
droe
lect
ric s
yste
ms
and
sola
r po
wer
cel
ls
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
rele
vant
to e
nerg
y tr
ansf
orm
atio
ns in
the
cont
ext o
f the
se
gene
ratin
g sy
stem
s
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e pr
oduc
tion
of e
nerg
y fr
om fo
ssil
fuel
s ha
s a
clea
r im
pact
on
the
wor
ld w
e liv
e in
and
ther
efor
e in
volv
es g
loba
l thi
nkin
g. T
he g
eogr
aphi
c co
ncen
trat
ions
of
foss
il fu
els
have
led
to p
oliti
cal c
onfli
ct a
nd e
cono
mic
ineq
ualit
ies.
The
pr
oduc
tion
of e
nerg
y th
roug
h al
tern
ativ
e en
ergy
reso
urce
s de
man
ds n
ew
leve
ls o
f int
erna
tiona
l col
labo
ratio
n.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e us
e of
nuc
lear
ene
rgy
insp
ires
a ra
nge
of e
mot
iona
l res
pons
es fr
om
scie
ntis
ts a
nd s
ocie
ty. H
ow c
an a
ccur
ate
scie
ntifi
c ris
k as
sess
men
t be
unde
rtak
en in
em
otio
nally
cha
rged
are
as?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•G
ener
ator
s fo
r ele
ctric
al p
rodu
ctio
n an
d en
gine
s fo
r mot
ion
have
re
volu
tioni
zed
the
wor
ld (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ics
5.4
and
11.2
)
•Th
e en
gine
erin
g be
hind
alte
rnat
ive
ener
gy s
ourc
es is
influ
ence
d by
diff
eren
t ar
eas
of p
hysi
cs (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ics
3.2,
5.4
and
B.2
)
Topi
c 8:
Ene
rgy
prod
uctio
n 8
hour
s
Core
Topic 8: Energy production
Physics guide 69
8.1
– En
ergy
sou
rces
•D
iscu
ssin
g sa
fety
issu
es a
nd ri
sks
asso
ciat
ed w
ith th
e pr
oduc
tion
of
nucl
ear p
ower
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e di
ffer
ence
s be
twee
n ph
otov
olta
ic c
ells
and
sol
ar
heat
ing
pane
ls
Gui
danc
e:
•Sp
ecifi
c en
ergy
has
uni
ts o
f J k
g–1; e
nerg
y de
nsity
has
uni
ts o
f J m
–3
•Th
e de
scrip
tion
of th
e ba
sic
feat
ures
of n
ucle
ar p
ower
sta
tions
mus
t inc
lude
th
e us
e of
con
trol
rods
, mod
erat
ors
and
heat
exc
hang
ers
•D
eriv
atio
n of
the
win
d ge
nera
tor e
quat
ion
is n
ot re
quire
d bu
t an
awar
enes
s of
re
leva
nt a
ssum
ptio
ns a
nd li
mita
tions
is re
quire
d
•St
uden
ts a
re e
xpec
ted
to b
e aw
are
of n
ew a
nd d
evel
opin
g te
chno
logi
es
whi
ch m
ay b
ecom
e im
port
ant d
urin
g th
e lif
e of
this
gui
de
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•Po
wer
ener
gytim
e=
•ρν
=A
Pow
er1 2
3
•En
ergy
den
sity
(see
Che
mist
ry s
ub-t
opic
C.1
)
•Ca
rbon
recy
clin
g (s
ee B
iolo
gy s
ub-t
opic
4.3
)
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: the
pro
duct
ion
of p
ower
invo
lves
man
y di
ffer
ent s
cien
tific
dis
cipl
ines
an
d re
quire
s th
e ev
alua
tion
and
synt
hesi
s of
sci
entif
ic in
form
atio
n
•A
im 8
: the
pro
duct
ion
of e
nerg
y ha
s w
ide
econ
omic
, env
ironm
enta
l, m
oral
an
d et
hica
l dim
ensi
ons
Topic 8: Energy production
Physics guide70
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: F
or s
impl
ified
mod
ellin
g pu
rpos
es th
e Ea
rth
can
be tr
eate
d as
a b
lack
-bod
y ra
diat
or a
nd th
e at
mos
pher
e tr
eate
d as
a g
rey-
body
.
8.2
– Th
erm
al e
nerg
y tr
ansf
er
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Sim
ple
and
com
plex
mod
ellin
g: T
he k
inet
ic th
eory
of g
ases
is a
sim
ple
mat
hem
atic
al m
odel
that
pro
duce
s a
good
app
roxi
mat
ion
of th
e be
havi
our o
f rea
l gas
es. S
cien
tists
ar
e al
so a
ttem
ptin
g to
mod
el th
e Ea
rth’
s cl
imat
e, w
hich
is a
far m
ore
com
plex
sys
tem
. Adv
ance
s in
dat
a av
aila
bilit
y an
d th
e ab
ility
to in
clud
e m
ore
proc
esse
s in
the
mod
els
toge
ther
with
con
tinue
d te
stin
g an
d sc
ient
ific
deba
te o
n th
e va
rious
mod
els
will
impr
ove
the
abili
ty to
pre
dict
clim
ate
chan
ge m
ore
accu
rate
ly. (
1.12
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Co
nduc
tion,
con
vect
ion
and
ther
mal
radi
atio
n
•Bl
ack-
body
radi
atio
n
•A
lbed
o an
d em
issi
vity
•Th
e so
lar c
onst
ant
•Th
e gr
eenh
ouse
eff
ect
•En
ergy
bal
ance
in th
e Ea
rth
surf
ace–
atm
osph
ere
syst
em
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
grap
hs s
how
ing
the
varia
tion
of in
tens
ity w
ith
wav
elen
gth
for b
odie
s em
ittin
g th
erm
al ra
diat
ion
at d
iffer
ent t
empe
ratu
res
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e St
efan
–Bol
tzm
ann
law
and
Wie
n’s
disp
lace
men
t law
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ef
fect
s of
the
Eart
h’s
atm
osph
ere
on th
e m
ean
surf
ace
tem
pera
ture
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g al
bedo
, em
issi
vity
, sol
ar c
onst
ant a
nd th
e Ea
rth’
s av
erag
e te
mpe
ratu
re
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e co
ncer
n ov
er th
e po
ssib
le im
pact
of c
limat
e ch
ange
has
resu
lted
in a
n ab
unda
nce
of in
tern
atio
nal p
ress
cov
erag
e, m
any
polit
ical
dis
cuss
ions
with
in
and
betw
een
natio
ns, a
nd th
e co
nsid
erat
ion
of p
eopl
e, c
orpo
ratio
ns, a
nd
the
envi
ronm
ent w
hen
deci
ding
on
futu
re p
lans
for o
ur p
lane
t. IB
gra
duat
es
shou
ld b
e aw
are
of th
e sc
ienc
e be
hind
man
y of
thes
e sc
enar
ios.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e de
bate
abo
ut g
loba
l war
min
g ill
ustr
ates
the
diff
icul
ties
that
aris
e w
hen
scie
ntis
ts c
anno
t alw
ays
agre
e on
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
the
data
, esp
ecia
lly
as th
e so
lutio
n w
ould
invo
lve
larg
e-sc
ale
actio
n th
roug
h in
tern
atio
nal
gove
rnm
ent c
oope
ratio
n. W
hen
scie
ntis
ts d
isag
ree,
how
do
we
deci
de
betw
een
com
petin
g th
eorie
s?
Topic 8: Energy production
Physics guide 71
8.2
– Th
erm
al e
nerg
y tr
ansf
er
Gui
danc
e:
•D
iscu
ssio
n of
con
duct
ion
and
conv
ectio
n w
ill b
e qu
alita
tive
only
•D
iscu
ssio
n of
con
duct
ion
is li
mite
d to
inte
rmol
ecul
ar a
nd e
lect
ron
colli
sion
s
•D
iscu
ssio
n of
con
vect
ion
is li
mite
d to
sim
ple
gas
or li
quid
tran
sfer
via
den
sity
di
ffer
ence
s
•Th
e ab
sorp
tion
of in
frar
ed ra
diat
ion
by g
reen
hous
e ga
ses
shou
ld b
e de
scrib
ed
in te
rms
of th
e m
olec
ular
ene
rgy
leve
ls a
nd th
e su
bseq
uent
em
issi
on o
f ra
diat
ion
in a
ll di
rect
ions
•Th
e gr
eenh
ouse
gas
es to
be
cons
ider
ed a
re C
H4,
H2O
, CO
2 and
N2O
. It i
s su
ffic
ient
for s
tude
nts
to k
now
that
eac
h ha
s bo
th n
atur
al a
nd m
an-m
ade
orig
ins.
•Ea
rth’
s al
bedo
var
ies
daily
and
is d
epen
dent
on
seas
on (c
loud
form
atio
ns)
and
latit
ude.
The
glo
bal a
nnua
l mea
n al
bedo
will
be
take
n to
be
0.3
(30%
) fo
r Ear
th.
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•P
eAT
4σ
=
•T
(met
res)
2.90
10ke
lvin
max
3
λ(
)=
×−
•I
Apo
wer
=
•al
bedo
tota
lsca
tter
edpo
wer
tota
linc
iden
tpow
er=
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Cl
imat
e m
odel
s an
d th
e va
riatio
n in
det
ail/p
roce
sses
incl
uded
•En
viro
nmen
tal c
hem
istr
y (s
ee C
hem
istry
opt
ion
topi
c C)
•Cl
imat
e ch
ange
(see
Bio
logy
sub
-top
ic 4
.4 a
nd E
nviro
nmen
tal s
yste
ms a
nd
soci
etie
s top
ics
5 an
d 6)
•Th
e no
rmal
dis
trib
utio
n cu
rve
is e
xplo
red
in M
athe
mat
ical
stud
ies S
L
sub-
topi
c 4.
1
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: thi
s to
pic
give
s st
uden
ts th
e op
port
unity
to u
nder
stan
d th
e w
ide
rang
e of
sci
entif
ic a
naly
sis
behi
nd c
limat
e ch
ange
issu
es
•A
im 6
: sim
ulat
ions
of e
nerg
y ex
chan
ge in
the
Eart
h su
rfac
e–at
mos
pher
e sy
stem
•A
im 8
: whi
le s
cien
ce h
as th
e ab
ility
to a
naly
se a
nd p
ossi
bly
help
sol
ve
clim
ate
chan
ge is
sues
, stu
dent
s sh
ould
be
awar
e of
the
impa
ct o
f sci
ence
on
the
initi
atio
n of
con
ditio
ns th
at a
llow
ed c
limat
e ch
ange
due
to h
uman
co
ntrib
utio
ns to
occ
ur. S
tude
nts
shou
ld a
lso
be a
war
e of
the
way
sci
ence
can
be
use
d to
pro
mot
e th
e in
tere
sts
of o
ne s
ide
of th
e de
bate
on
clim
ate
chan
ge
(or,
conv
erse
ly, t
o hi
nder
deb
ate)
.
Physics guide72
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he s
olut
ion
of th
e ha
rmon
ic o
scill
ator
can
be
fram
ed a
roun
d th
e va
riatio
n of
kin
etic
and
pot
entia
l ene
rgy
in th
e sy
stem
.
9.1
– Si
mpl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Insi
ghts
: The
equ
atio
n fo
r sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion
(SH
M) c
an b
e so
lved
ana
lytic
ally
and
num
eric
ally
. Phy
sici
sts
use
such
sol
utio
ns to
hel
p th
em to
vis
ualiz
e th
e be
havi
our
of th
e os
cilla
tor.
The
use
of th
e eq
uatio
ns is
ver
y po
wer
ful a
s an
y os
cilla
tion
can
be d
escr
ibed
in te
rms
of a
com
bina
tion
of h
arm
onic
osc
illat
ors.
Num
eric
al m
odel
ling
of
osci
llato
rs is
impo
rtan
t in
the
desi
gn o
f ele
ctric
al c
ircui
ts. (
1.11
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e de
finin
g eq
uatio
n of
SH
M
•En
ergy
cha
nges
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g ac
cele
ratio
n, v
eloc
ity a
nd d
ispl
acem
ent d
urin
g si
mpl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n, b
oth
grap
hica
lly a
nd a
lgeb
raic
ally
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e in
terc
hang
e of
kin
etic
and
pot
entia
l ene
rgy
durin
g si
mpl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g en
ergy
tran
sfer
dur
ing
sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion,
bo
th g
raph
ical
ly a
nd a
lgeb
raic
ally
Gui
danc
e
•Co
ntex
ts fo
r thi
s su
b-to
pic
incl
ude
the
sim
ple
pend
ulum
and
a m
ass-
sprin
g sy
stem
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Fo
urie
r ana
lysi
s al
low
s us
to d
escr
ibe
all p
erio
dic
osci
llatio
ns in
term
s of
sim
ple
harm
onic
osc
illat
ors.
The
mat
hem
atic
s of
sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion
is c
ruci
al to
an
y ar
eas
of s
cien
ce a
nd te
chno
logy
whe
re o
scill
atio
ns o
ccur
•Th
e in
terc
hang
e of
ene
rgie
s in
osc
illat
ion
is im
port
ant i
n el
ectr
ical
ph
enom
ena
•Q
uadr
atic
func
tions
(see
Mat
hem
atic
s HL
sub-
topi
c 2.
6; M
athe
mat
ics S
L su
b-to
pic
2.4;
Mat
hem
atic
al st
udie
s SL
sub-
topi
c 6.
3)
•Tr
igon
omet
ric fu
nctio
ns (s
ee M
athe
mat
ics S
L su
b-to
pic
3.4)
Topi
c 9:
Wav
e ph
enom
ena
17 h
ours
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topic 9: Wave phenomena
Physics guide 73
9.1
– Si
mpl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•T2
ωπ
=
•a
x2
ω=
−
•x
xt
xx
tsi
n;
cos
00
ωω
==
•v
xt
vx
tco
s;
sin
00
ωω
ωω
==
−
•v
xx
022
ω(
)=
±−
•E
mx
x1 2
K2
02
2ω
()
=−
•E
mx
1 2T
202
ω=
•T
l gPe
ndul
um:
2π=
•T
m kM
ass
sprin
g:2π
−=
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: stu
dent
s ca
n us
e th
is to
pic
to d
evel
op th
eir a
bilit
y to
syn
thes
ize
com
plex
and
div
erse
sci
entif
ic in
form
atio
n
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): in
vest
igat
ion
of
sim
ple
or to
rsio
nal p
endu
lum
s; m
easu
ring
the
vibr
atio
ns o
f a tu
ning
fork
; fu
rthe
r ext
ensi
ons
of th
e ex
perim
ents
con
duct
ed in
sub
-top
ic 4
.1. B
y us
ing
the
forc
e la
w, a
stu
dent
can
, with
iter
atio
n, d
eter
min
e th
e be
havi
our o
f an
obje
ct
unde
r sim
ple
harm
onic
mot
ion.
The
iter
ativ
e ap
proa
ch (n
umer
ical
sol
utio
n),
with
giv
en in
itial
con
ditio
ns, a
pplie
s ba
sic
unifo
rm a
ccel
erat
ion
equa
tions
in
succ
essi
ve s
mal
l tim
e in
crem
ents
. At e
ach
incr
emen
t, fin
al v
alue
s be
com
e th
e fo
llow
ing
initi
al c
ondi
tions
.
•A
im 7
: the
obs
erva
tion
of s
impl
e ha
rmon
ic m
otio
n an
d th
e va
riabl
es a
ffec
ted
can
be e
asily
follo
wed
in c
ompu
ter s
imul
atio
ns
Topic 9: Wave phenomena
Physics guide74
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
ingl
e-sl
it di
ffra
ctio
n oc
curs
whe
n a
wav
e is
inci
dent
upo
n a
slit
of a
ppro
xim
atel
y th
e sa
me
size
as
the
wav
elen
gth.
9.2
– Si
ngle
-slit
dif
frac
tion
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Dev
elop
men
t of t
heor
ies:
Whe
n lig
ht p
asse
s th
roug
h an
ape
rtur
e th
e su
mm
atio
n of
all
part
s of
the
wav
e le
ads
to a
n in
tens
ity p
atte
rn th
at is
far r
emov
ed fr
om th
e ge
omet
rical
sha
dow
that
sim
ple
theo
ry p
redi
cts.
(1.9
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e na
ture
of s
ingl
e-sl
it di
ffra
ctio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ef
fect
of s
lit w
idth
on
the
diff
ract
ion
patt
ern
•D
eter
min
ing
the
posi
tion
of fi
rst i
nter
fere
nce
min
imum
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribin
g si
ngle
-slit
diff
ract
ion
patt
erns
pro
duce
d fr
om w
hite
lig
ht a
nd fr
om a
rang
e of
mon
ochr
omat
ic li
ght f
requ
enci
es
Gui
danc
e:
•O
nly
rect
angu
lar s
lits
need
to b
e co
nsid
ered
•D
iffra
ctio
n ar
ound
an
obje
ct (r
athe
r tha
n th
roug
h a
slit)
doe
s no
t nee
d to
be
cons
ider
ed in
this
sub
-top
ic (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ic 4
.4)
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•A
re e
xpla
natio
ns in
sci
ence
diff
eren
t fro
m e
xpla
natio
ns in
oth
er a
reas
of
know
ledg
e su
ch a
s hi
stor
y?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•X-
ray
diff
ract
ion
is a
n im
port
ant t
ool o
f the
cry
stal
logr
aphe
r and
the
mat
eria
l sc
ient
ist
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: thi
s to
pic
prov
ides
a b
ody
of k
now
ledg
e th
at c
hara
cter
izes
the
way
th
at s
cien
ce is
sub
ject
to m
odifi
catio
n w
ith ti
me
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
can
be
com
bine
d w
ith th
ose
from
sub
-top
ics
4.4
and
9.3
Topic 9: Wave phenomena
Physics guide 75
9.2
– Si
ngle
-slit
dif
frac
tion
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
be
awar
e of
the
appr
oxim
ate
ratio
s of
suc
cess
ive
inte
nsity
max
ima
for s
ingl
e-sl
it in
terf
eren
ce p
atte
rns
•Ca
lcul
atio
ns w
ill b
e lim
ited
to a
det
erm
inat
ion
of th
e po
sitio
n of
the
first
m
inim
um fo
r sin
gle-
slit
inte
rfer
ence
pat
tern
s us
ing
the
appr
oxim
atio
n eq
uatio
n
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•b
θλ
=
Topic 9: Wave phenomena
Physics guide76
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: In
terf
eren
ce p
atte
rns
from
mul
tiple
slit
s an
d th
in fi
lms
prod
uce
accu
rate
ly re
peat
able
pat
tern
s.
9.3
– In
terf
eren
ce
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Curio
sity
: Obs
erve
d pa
tter
ns o
f irid
esce
nce
in a
nim
als,
suc
h as
the
shim
mer
of p
eaco
ck fe
athe
rs, l
ed s
cien
tists
to d
evel
op th
e th
eory
of t
hin
film
inte
rfer
ence
. (1.
5)
Sere
ndip
ity: T
he fi
rst l
abor
ator
y pr
oduc
tion
of th
in fi
lms
was
acc
iden
tal.
(1.5
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Yo
ung’
s do
uble
-slit
exp
erim
ent
•M
odul
atio
n of
two-
slit
inte
rfer
ence
pat
tern
by
one-
slit
diff
ract
ion
effe
ct
•M
ultip
le s
lit a
nd d
iffra
ctio
n gr
atin
g in
terf
eren
ce p
atte
rns
•Th
in fi
lm in
terf
eren
ce
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribin
g tw
o-sl
it in
terf
eren
ce p
atte
rns,
incl
udin
g m
odul
atio
n by
one
-slit
diff
ract
ion
effe
ct
•In
vest
igat
ing
Youn
g’s
doub
le-s
lit e
xper
imen
tally
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
inte
nsity
gra
phs
of d
oubl
e-sl
it in
terf
eren
ce
patt
erns
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e di
ffra
ctio
n gr
atin
g eq
uatio
n
•D
escr
ibin
g co
nditi
ons
nece
ssar
y fo
r con
stru
ctiv
e an
d de
stru
ctiv
e in
terf
eren
ce
from
thin
film
s, in
clud
ing
phas
e ch
ange
at i
nter
face
and
eff
ect o
f ref
ract
ive
inde
x
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g in
terf
eren
ce fr
om th
in fi
lms
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•M
ost t
wo-
slit
inte
rfer
ence
des
crip
tions
can
be
mad
e w
ithou
t ref
eren
ce to
the
one-
slit
mod
ulat
ion
effe
ct. T
o w
hat l
evel
can
sci
entis
ts ig
nore
par
ts o
f a m
odel
fo
r sim
plic
ity a
nd c
larit
y?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Co
mpa
ct d
iscs
are
a c
omm
erci
al e
xam
ple
of th
e us
e of
diff
ract
ion
grat
ings
•Th
in fi
lms
are
used
to p
rodu
ce a
nti-r
efle
ctio
n co
atin
gs
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: tw
o sc
ient
ific
conc
epts
(diff
ract
ion
and
inte
rfer
ence
) com
e to
geth
er in
th
is s
ub-t
opic
, allo
win
g st
uden
ts to
ana
lyse
and
syn
thes
ize
a w
ider
rang
e of
sc
ient
ific
info
rmat
ion
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): ob
serv
ing
the
use
of d
iffra
ctio
n gr
atin
gs in
spe
ctro
scop
es; a
naly
sis
of th
in s
oap
film
s; so
und
wav
e an
d m
icro
wav
e in
terf
eren
ce p
atte
rn a
naly
sis
•A
im 9
: the
ray
appr
oach
to th
e de
scrip
tion
of th
in fi
lm in
terf
eren
ce is
onl
y an
app
roxi
mat
ion.
Stu
dent
s sh
ould
reco
gniz
e th
e lim
itatio
ns o
f suc
h a
visu
aliz
atio
n
Topic 9: Wave phenomena
Physics guide 77
9.3
– In
terf
eren
ce
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d be
intr
oduc
ed to
inte
rfer
ence
pat
tern
s fr
om a
var
iety
of
cohe
rent
sou
rces
suc
h as
(but
not
lim
ited
to) e
lect
rom
agne
tic w
aves
, sou
nd
and
sim
ulat
ed d
emon
stra
tions
•D
iffra
ctio
n gr
atin
g pa
tter
ns a
re re
stric
ted
to th
ose
form
ed a
t nor
mal
inci
denc
e
•Th
e tr
eatm
ent o
f thi
n fil
m in
terf
eren
ce is
con
fined
to p
aral
lel-s
ided
film
s at
no
rmal
inci
denc
e
•Th
e co
nstr
uctiv
e in
terf
eren
ce a
nd d
estr
uctiv
e in
terf
eren
ce fo
rmul
ae li
sted
be
low
and
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et a
pply
to s
peci
fic c
ases
of p
hase
cha
nges
at
inte
rfac
es a
nd a
re n
ot g
ener
ally
true
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•n
dsi
nλ
θ=
•Co
nstr
uctiv
e in
terf
eren
ce:
dnm
21 2
λ=
+
•D
estr
uctiv
e in
terf
eren
ce:
dnm
2λ
=
Topic 9: Wave phenomena
Physics guide78
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: R
esol
utio
n pl
aces
an
abso
lute
lim
it on
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch a
n op
tical
or o
ther
sys
tem
can
sep
arat
e im
ages
of o
bjec
ts.
9.4
– Re
solu
tion
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impr
oved
tech
nolo
gy: T
he R
ayle
igh
crite
rion
is th
e lim
it of
reso
lutio
n. C
ontin
uing
adv
ance
men
t in
tech
nolo
gy s
uch
as la
rge
diam
eter
dis
hes
or le
nses
or t
he u
se o
f sm
alle
r w
avel
engt
h la
sers
pus
hes
the
limits
of w
hat w
e ca
n re
solv
e. (1
.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e si
ze o
f a d
iffra
ctin
g ap
ertu
re
•Th
e re
solu
tion
of s
impl
e m
onoc
hrom
atic
two-
sour
ce s
yste
ms
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e Ra
ylei
gh c
riter
ion
for l
ight
em
itted
by
two
sour
ces
diff
ract
ed a
t a s
ingl
e sl
it
•Re
solv
ance
of d
iffra
ctio
n gr
atin
gs
Gui
danc
e:
•Pr
oof o
f the
diff
ract
ion
grat
ing
reso
lvan
ce e
quat
ion
is n
ot re
quire
d
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•b
1.22
θλ
=
•R
mN
λ λ=
∆=
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Sa
telli
te u
se fo
r com
mer
cial
and
pol
itica
l pur
pose
s is
dic
tate
d by
the
reso
lutio
n ca
pabi
litie
s of
the
sate
llite
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e re
solu
tion
limits
set
by
Daw
es a
nd R
ayle
igh
are
capa
ble
of b
eing
su
rpas
sed
by th
e co
nstr
uctio
n of
hig
h qu
ality
tele
scop
es. A
re w
e ca
pabl
e of
br
eaki
ng o
ther
lim
its o
f sci
entif
ic k
now
ledg
e w
ith o
ur a
dvan
cing
tech
nolo
gy?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
n op
tical
or o
ther
rece
ptio
n sy
stem
mus
t be
able
to re
solv
e th
e in
tend
ed
imag
es. T
his
has
impl
icat
ions
for s
atel
lite
tran
smis
sion
s, ra
dio
astr
onom
y an
d m
any
othe
r app
licat
ions
in p
hysi
cs a
nd te
chno
logy
(see
Phy
sics o
ptio
n C)
•St
orag
e m
edia
suc
h as
com
pact
dis
cs (a
nd th
eir v
aria
nts)
and
CCD
sen
sors
rely
on
reso
lutio
n lim
its to
sto
re a
nd re
prod
uce
med
ia a
ccur
atel
y
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: thi
s su
b-to
pic
help
s br
idge
the
gap
betw
een
wav
e th
eory
and
real
-life
ap
plic
atio
ns
•A
im 8
: the
nee
d fo
r com
mun
icat
ion
betw
een
natio
nal c
omm
uniti
es v
ia
sate
llite
s ra
ises
the
awar
enes
s of
the
soci
al a
nd e
cono
mic
impl
icat
ions
of
tech
nolo
gy
Topic 9: Wave phenomena
Physics guide 79
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he D
oppl
er e
ffec
t des
crib
es th
e ph
enom
enon
of w
avel
engt
h/fr
eque
ncy
shift
whe
n re
lativ
e m
otio
n oc
curs
.
9.5
– D
oppl
er e
ffec
t
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Tech
nolo
gy: A
lthou
gh o
rigin
ally
bas
ed o
n ph
ysic
al o
bser
vatio
ns o
f the
pitc
h of
fast
mov
ing
sour
ces
of s
ound
, the
Dop
pler
eff
ect h
as a
n im
port
ant r
ole
in m
any
diff
eren
t ar
eas
such
as
evid
ence
for t
he e
xpan
sion
of t
he u
nive
rse
and
gene
ratin
g im
ages
use
d in
wea
ther
repo
rts
and
in m
edic
ine.
(5.5
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e D
oppl
er e
ffec
t for
sou
nd w
aves
and
ligh
t wav
es
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
the
Dop
pler
eff
ect w
hen
ther
e is
rela
tive
mot
ion
betw
een
sour
ce a
nd o
bser
ver
•D
escr
ibin
g si
tuat
ions
whe
re th
e D
oppl
er e
ffec
t can
be
utili
zed
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e ch
ange
in fr
eque
ncy
or w
avel
engt
h ob
serv
ed
due
to th
e D
oppl
er e
ffec
t to
dete
rmin
e th
e ve
loci
ty o
f the
sou
rce/
obse
rver
Gui
danc
e:
•Fo
r ele
ctro
mag
netic
wav
es, t
he a
ppro
xim
ate
equa
tion
shou
ld b
e us
ed fo
r all
calc
ulat
ions
•Si
tuat
ions
to b
e di
scus
sed
shou
ld in
clud
e th
e us
e of
Dop
pler
eff
ect i
n ra
dars
an
d in
med
ical
phy
sics
, and
its
sign
ifica
nce
for t
he re
d-sh
ift in
the
light
spe
ctra
of
rece
ding
gal
axie
s
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•M
ovin
g so
urce
: ff
vv
u s
′=±
•M
ovin
g ob
serv
er: f
fv
u v0
′=±
•f f
v cλ λ
∆=
∆≈
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Ra
dar u
sage
is a
ffec
ted
by th
e D
oppl
er e
ffec
t and
mus
t be
cons
ider
ed fo
r ap
plic
atio
ns u
sing
this
tech
nolo
gy
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•H
ow im
port
ant i
s se
nse
perc
eptio
n in
exp
lain
ing
scie
ntifi
c id
eas
such
as
the
Dop
pler
eff
ect?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
stro
nom
y re
lies
on th
e an
alys
is o
f the
Dop
pler
eff
ect w
hen
deal
ing
with
fast
m
ovin
g ob
ject
s (s
ee P
hysic
s opt
ion
D)
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: the
Dop
pler
eff
ect n
eeds
to b
e co
nsid
ered
in v
ario
us a
pplic
atio
ns o
f te
chno
logy
that
util
ize
wav
e th
eory
•A
im 6
: spe
ctra
l dat
a an
d im
ages
of r
eced
ing
gala
xies
are
ava
ilabl
e fr
om
prof
essi
onal
ast
rono
mic
al o
bser
vato
ries
for a
naly
sis
•A
im 7
: com
pute
r sim
ulat
ions
of t
he D
oppl
er e
ffec
t allo
w s
tude
nts
to v
isua
lize
com
plex
and
mos
tly u
nobs
erva
ble
situ
atio
ns
Physics guide80
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
lect
ric c
harg
es a
nd m
asse
s ea
ch in
fluen
ce th
e sp
ace
arou
nd th
em a
nd th
at in
fluen
ce c
an b
e re
pres
ente
d th
roug
h th
e co
ncep
t of f
ield
s.
10.1
– D
escr
ibin
g fi
elds
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Para
digm
shi
ft: T
he m
ove
from
dire
ct, o
bser
vabl
e ac
tions
bei
ng re
spon
sibl
e fo
r inf
luen
ce o
n an
obj
ect t
o ac
cept
ance
of a
fiel
d’s
“act
ion
at a
dis
tanc
e” re
quire
d a
para
digm
sh
ift in
the
wor
ld o
f sci
ence
. (2.
3)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•G
ravi
tatio
nal f
ield
s
•El
ectr
osta
tic fi
elds
•El
ectr
ic p
oten
tial a
nd g
ravi
tatio
nal p
oten
tial
•Fi
eld
lines
•Eq
uipo
tent
ial s
urfa
ces
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Re
pres
entin
g so
urce
s of
mas
s an
d ch
arge
, lin
es o
f ele
ctric
and
gra
vita
tiona
l fo
rce,
and
fiel
d pa
tter
ns u
sing
an
appr
opria
te s
ymbo
lism
•M
appi
ng fi
elds
usi
ng p
oten
tial
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e co
nnec
tion
betw
een
equi
pote
ntia
l sur
face
s an
d fie
ld li
nes
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•A
lthou
gh g
ravi
tatio
nal a
nd e
lect
rost
atic
forc
es d
ecre
ase
with
the
squa
re o
f di
stan
ce a
nd w
ill o
nly
beco
me
zero
at i
nfin
ite s
epar
atio
n, fr
om a
pra
ctic
al
stan
dpoi
nt th
ey b
ecom
e ne
glig
ible
at m
uch
smal
ler d
ista
nces
. How
do
scie
ntis
ts d
ecid
e w
hen
an e
ffec
t is
so s
mal
l tha
t it c
an b
e ig
nore
d?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Kn
owle
dge
of v
ecto
r ana
lysi
s is
use
ful f
or th
is s
ub-t
opic
(see
Phy
sics
sub-
topi
c 1.
3)
Aim
s:
•A
im 9
: mod
els
deve
lope
d fo
r ele
ctric
and
gra
vita
tiona
l fie
lds
usin
g lin
es o
f fo
rces
allo
w p
redi
ctio
ns to
be
mad
e bu
t hav
e lim
itatio
ns in
term
s of
the
finite
w
idth
of a
line
Topi
c 10
: Fie
lds
11 h
ours
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topic 10: Fields
Physics guide 81
10.1
– D
escr
ibin
g fi
elds
Gui
danc
e:
•El
ectr
osta
tic fi
elds
are
rest
ricte
d to
the
radi
al fi
elds
aro
und
poin
t or s
pher
ical
ch
arge
s, th
e fie
ld b
etw
een
two
poin
t cha
rges
and
the
unifo
rm fi
elds
bet
wee
n ch
arge
d pa
ralle
l pla
tes
•G
ravi
tatio
nal f
ield
s ar
e re
stric
ted
to th
e ra
dial
fiel
ds a
roun
d po
int o
r sph
eric
al
mas
ses
and
the
(ass
umed
) uni
form
fiel
d cl
ose
to th
e su
rfac
e of
mas
sive
ce
lest
ial b
odie
s an
d pl
anet
ary
bodi
es
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d re
cogn
ize
that
no
wor
k is
don
e in
mov
ing
char
ge o
r mas
s on
an
equ
ipot
entia
l sur
face
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•W
qV e
=∆
•W
mV g
=∆
Topic 10: Fields
Physics guide82
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
imila
r app
roac
hes
can
be ta
ken
in a
naly
sing
ele
ctric
al a
nd g
ravi
tatio
nal p
oten
tial p
robl
ems.
10.2
– F
ield
s at
wor
k
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Com
mun
icat
ion
of s
cien
tific
exp
lana
tions
: The
abi
lity
to a
pply
fiel
d th
eory
to th
e un
obse
rvab
le (c
harg
es) a
nd th
e m
assi
vely
sca
led
(mot
ion
of s
atel
lites
) req
uire
d sc
ient
ists
to
dev
elop
new
way
s to
inve
stig
ate,
ana
lyse
and
repo
rt fi
ndin
gs to
a g
ener
al p
ublic
use
d to
sci
entif
ic d
isco
verie
s ba
sed
on ta
ngib
le a
nd d
isce
rnib
le e
vide
nce.
(5.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Po
tent
ial a
nd p
oten
tial e
nerg
y
•Po
tent
ial g
radi
ent
•Po
tent
ial d
iffer
ence
•Es
cape
spe
ed
•O
rbita
l mot
ion,
orb
ital s
peed
and
orb
ital e
nerg
y
•Fo
rces
and
inve
rse-
squa
re la
w b
ehav
iour
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
eter
min
ing
the
pote
ntia
l ene
rgy
of a
poi
nt m
ass
and
the
pote
ntia
l ene
rgy
of
a po
int c
harg
e
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g po
tent
ial e
nerg
y
•D
eter
min
ing
the
pote
ntia
l ins
ide
a ch
arge
d sp
here
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e sp
eed
requ
ired
for a
n ob
ject
to g
o in
to o
rbit
arou
nd a
pla
net a
nd fo
r an
obje
ct to
esc
ape
the
grav
itatio
nal f
ield
of a
pla
net
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g or
bita
l ene
rgy
of c
harg
ed p
artic
les
in c
ircul
ar
orbi
tal m
otio
n an
d m
asse
s in
circ
ular
orb
ital m
otio
n
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g fo
rces
on
char
ges
and
mas
ses
in ra
dial
and
un
iform
fiel
ds
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
e gl
obal
pos
ition
ing
syst
em d
epen
ds o
n co
mpl
ete
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
sa
telli
te m
otio
n
•G
eost
atio
nary
/pol
ar s
atel
lites
•Th
e ac
cele
ratio
n of
cha
rged
par
ticle
s in
par
ticle
acc
eler
ator
s an
d in
man
y m
edic
al im
agin
g de
vice
s de
pend
s on
the
pres
ence
of e
lect
ric fi
elds
(see
Ph
ysic
s opt
ion
sub-
topi
c C.
4)
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: New
ton’
s la
w o
f gra
vita
tion
and
Coul
omb’
s la
w fo
rm p
art o
f the
st
ruct
ure
know
n as
“cla
ssic
al p
hysi
cs”.
This
bod
y of
kno
wle
dge
has
prov
ided
th
e m
etho
ds a
nd to
ols
of a
naly
sis
up to
the
adve
nt o
f the
theo
ry o
f rel
ativ
ity
and
the
quan
tum
theo
ry
•A
im 4
: the
theo
ries
of g
ravi
tatio
n an
d el
ectr
osta
tic in
tera
ctio
ns a
llow
s fo
r a
grea
t syn
thes
is in
the
desc
riptio
n of
a la
rge
num
ber o
f phe
nom
ena
Topic 10: Fields
Physics guide 83
10.2
– F
ield
s at
wor
k
Gui
danc
e:
•O
rbita
l mot
ion
of a
sat
ellit
e ar
ound
a p
lane
t is
rest
ricte
d to
a c
onsi
dera
tion
of
circ
ular
orb
its (l
inks
to 6
.1 a
nd 6
.2)
•Bo
th u
nifo
rm a
nd ra
dial
fiel
ds n
eed
to b
e co
nsid
ered
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d re
cogn
ize
that
line
s of
forc
e ca
n be
two-
dim
ensi
onal
re
pres
enta
tions
of t
hree
-dim
ensi
onal
fiel
ds
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d as
sum
e th
at th
e el
ectr
ic fi
eld
ever
ywhe
re b
etw
een
para
llel
plat
es is
uni
form
with
edg
e ef
fect
s oc
curr
ing
beyo
nd th
e lim
its o
f the
pla
tes.
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
VG
M rg
=−
Vkq r
e=
gV rg
=−
∆ ∆E
V re=
−∆ ∆
Em
VG
Mm r
Pg
==
−E
qVkq
q rP
e1
2=
=
FG
mm r
G1
22
=F
kq
q rE
12
2=
•V
GM r
2es
c=
•V
GM r
orbi
t=
Physics guide84
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he m
ajor
ity o
f ele
ctric
ity g
ener
ated
thro
ugho
ut th
e w
orld
is g
ener
ated
by
mac
hine
s th
at w
ere
desi
gned
to o
pera
te u
sing
the
prin
cipl
es o
f ele
ctro
mag
netic
in
duct
ion.
11.1
– E
lect
rom
agne
tic
indu
ctio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Expe
rimen
tatio
n: In
183
1 M
icha
el F
arad
ay, u
sing
prim
itive
equ
ipm
ent,
obse
rved
a m
inut
e pu
lse
of c
urre
nt in
one
coi
l of w
ire o
nly
whe
n th
e cu
rren
t in
a se
cond
coi
l of w
ire
was
sw
itche
d on
or o
ff b
ut n
othi
ng w
hile
a c
onst
ant c
urre
nt w
as e
stab
lishe
d. F
arad
ay’s
obse
rvat
ion
of th
ese
smal
l tra
nsie
nt c
urre
nts
led
him
to p
erfo
rm e
xper
imen
ts th
at
led
to h
is la
w o
f ele
ctro
mag
netic
indu
ctio
n. (1
.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•El
ectr
omot
ive
forc
e (e
mf)
•M
agne
tic fl
ux a
nd m
agne
tic fl
ux li
nkag
e
•Fa
rada
y’s
law
of i
nduc
tion
•Le
nz’s
law
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e pr
oduc
tion
of a
n in
duce
d em
f by
a ch
angi
ng m
agne
tic fl
ux
and
with
in a
uni
form
mag
netic
fiel
d
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g m
agne
tic fl
ux, m
agne
tic fl
ux li
nkag
e an
d
Fara
day’
s la
w
•Ex
plai
ning
Len
z’s
law
thro
ugh
the
cons
erva
tion
of e
nerg
y
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Te
rmin
olog
y us
ed in
ele
ctro
mag
netic
fiel
d th
eory
is e
xten
sive
and
can
co
nfus
e pe
ople
who
are
not
dire
ctly
invo
lved
. Wha
t eff
ect c
an la
ck o
f cla
rity
in
term
inol
ogy
have
on
com
mun
icat
ing
scie
ntifi
c co
ncep
ts to
the
publ
ic?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
pplic
atio
ns o
f ele
ctro
mag
netic
indu
ctio
n ca
n be
foun
d in
man
y pl
aces
in
clud
ing
tran
sfor
mer
s, e
lect
rom
agne
tic b
raki
ng, g
eoph
ones
use
d in
se
ism
olog
y, a
nd m
etal
det
ecto
rs
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: the
sim
ple
prin
cipl
es o
f ele
ctro
mag
netic
indu
ctio
n ar
e a
pow
erfu
l as
pect
of t
he p
hysi
cist
’s or
tech
nolo
gist
’s ar
mou
ry w
hen
desi
gnin
g sy
stem
s th
at tr
ansf
er e
nerg
y fr
om o
ne fo
rm to
ano
ther
Topi
c 11
: Ele
ctro
mag
netic
indu
ctio
n 16
hou
rs
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction
Physics guide 85
11.1
– E
lect
rom
agne
tic
indu
ctio
n
Gui
danc
e:
•Q
uant
itativ
e tr
eatm
ents
will
be
expe
cted
for s
trai
ght c
ondu
ctor
s m
ovin
g at
rig
ht a
ngle
s to
mag
netic
fiel
ds a
nd re
ctan
gula
r coi
ls m
ovin
g in
and
out
of
field
s an
d ro
tatin
g in
fiel
ds
•Q
ualit
ativ
e tr
eatm
ents
onl
y w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed fo
r fix
ed c
oils
in a
cha
ngin
g m
agne
tic fi
eld
and
ac g
ener
ator
s
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•BA
cos
Φθ
=
•N
tε
Φ=
−∆ ∆
•�
Bvε
=
•�
BvN
ε=
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction
Physics guide86
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: G
ener
atio
n an
d tr
ansm
issio
n of
alte
rnat
ing
curr
ent (
ac) e
lect
ricity
has
tran
sfor
med
the
wor
ld.
11.2
– P
ower
gen
erat
ion
and
tran
smis
sion
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Bias
: In
the
late
19t
h ce
ntur
y Ed
ison
was
a p
ropo
nent
of d
irect
cur
rent
ele
ctric
al e
nerg
y tr
ansm
issi
on w
hile
Wes
tingh
ouse
and
Tes
la fa
vour
ed a
ltern
atin
g cu
rren
t tr
ansm
issi
on. T
he s
o ca
lled
“bat
tle o
f cur
rent
s” h
ad a
sig
nific
ant i
mpa
ct o
n to
day’
s so
ciet
y. (3
.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•A
ltern
atin
g cu
rren
t (ac
) gen
erat
ors
•Av
erag
e po
wer
and
root
mea
n sq
uare
(rm
s) v
alue
s of
cur
rent
and
vol
tage
•Tr
ansf
orm
ers
•D
iode
brid
ges
•H
alf-w
ave
and
full-
wav
e re
ctifi
catio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ex
plai
ning
the
oper
atio
n of
a b
asic
ac
gene
rato
r, in
clud
ing
the
effe
ct o
f ch
angi
ng th
e ge
nera
tor f
requ
ency
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e av
erag
e po
wer
in a
n ac
circ
uit
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g st
ep-u
p an
d st
ep-d
own
tran
sfor
mer
s
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e us
e of
tran
sfor
mer
s in
ac
elec
tric
al p
ower
dis
trib
utio
n
•In
vest
igat
ing
a di
ode
brid
ge re
ctifi
catio
n ci
rcui
t exp
erim
enta
lly
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribin
g th
e ef
fect
of a
ddin
g a
capa
cito
r to
a di
ode
brid
ge
rect
ifica
tion
circ
uit
Gui
danc
e:
•Ca
lcul
atio
ns w
ill b
e re
stric
ted
to id
eal t
rans
form
ers b
ut st
uden
ts sh
ould
be
awar
e of
som
e of
the
reas
ons w
hy re
al tr
ansf
orm
ers a
re n
ot id
eal (
for e
xam
ple:
flux
le
akag
e, jo
ule
heat
ing,
edd
y cu
rren
t hea
ting,
mag
netic
hys
tere
sis)
•Pr
oof o
f the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
the
peak
and
rms
valu
es w
ill n
ot b
e ex
pect
ed
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e ab
ility
to m
aint
ain
a re
liabl
e po
wer
grid
has
bee
n th
e ai
m o
f all
gove
rnm
ents
sin
ce th
e w
ides
prea
d us
e of
ele
ctric
ity s
tart
ed
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
ere
is c
ontin
ued
deba
te o
f the
eff
ect o
f ele
ctro
mag
netic
wav
es o
n
the
heal
th o
f hum
ans,
esp
ecia
lly c
hild
ren.
Is it
just
ifiab
le to
mak
e us
e of
s
cien
tific
adv
ance
s ev
en if
we
do n
ot k
now
wha
t the
ir lo
ng-t
erm
co
nseq
uenc
es m
ay b
e?
Aim
s:
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): co
nstr
uctio
n of
a
basi
c ac
gen
erat
or; i
nves
tigat
ion
of v
aria
tion
of in
put a
nd o
utpu
t coi
ls o
n a
tran
sfor
mer
; obs
ervi
ng W
heat
ston
e an
d W
ien
brid
ge c
ircui
ts
•A
im 7
: con
stru
ctio
n an
d ob
serv
atio
n of
the
adju
stm
ents
mad
e in
ver
y la
rge
elec
tric
ity d
istr
ibut
ion
syst
ems
are
best
car
ried
out u
sing
com
pute
r-m
odel
ling
soft
war
e an
d w
ebsi
tes
•A
im 9
: pow
er tr
ansm
issi
on is
mod
elle
d us
ing
perf
ectly
eff
icie
nt s
yste
ms
but n
o su
ch s
yste
m tr
uly
exis
ts. A
lthou
gh th
e m
odel
is im
perf
ect,
it re
nder
s th
e m
axim
um p
ower
tran
smis
sion
. Rec
ogni
tion
of, a
nd a
ccou
ntin
g fo
r, th
e di
ffer
ence
s be
twee
n th
e “p
erfe
ct” s
yste
m a
nd th
e pr
actic
al s
yste
m is
one
of
the
mai
n fu
nctio
ns o
f pro
fess
iona
l sci
entis
ts
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction
Physics guide 87
11.2
– P
ower
gen
erat
ion
and
tran
smis
sion
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•I
I 2rm
s0
=
•V
V 2rm
s0
=
•R
V IV I
0 0
rms
rms
==
•P
IVm
ax0
0=
•P
IV1 2
00
=
•N N
I Ip s
p s
s p
ε ε=
=
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction
Physics guide88
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
apac
itors
can
be
used
to st
ore
elec
tric
al e
nerg
y fo
r lat
er u
se.
11.3
– C
apac
itan
ce
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Rela
tions
hips
: Exa
mpl
es o
f exp
onen
tial g
row
th a
nd d
ecay
per
vade
the
who
le o
f sci
ence
. It i
s a
clea
r exa
mpl
e of
the
way
that
sci
entis
ts u
se m
athe
mat
ics
to m
odel
real
ity.
This
topi
c ca
n be
use
d to
cre
ate
links
bet
wee
n ph
ysic
s to
pics
but
als
o to
use
s in
che
mis
try,
bio
logy
, med
icin
e an
d ec
onom
ics.
(3.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ca
paci
tanc
e
•D
iele
ctric
mat
eria
ls
•Ca
paci
tors
in s
erie
s an
d pa
ralle
l
•Re
sist
or-c
apac
itor (
RC) s
erie
s ci
rcui
ts
•Ti
me
cons
tant
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ef
fect
of d
iffer
ent d
iele
ctric
mat
eria
ls o
n ca
paci
tanc
e
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g pa
ralle
l-pla
te c
apac
itors
•In
vest
igat
ing
com
bina
tions
of c
apac
itors
in s
erie
s or
par
alle
l circ
uits
•D
eter
min
ing
the
ener
gy s
tore
d in
a c
harg
ed c
apac
itor
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e na
ture
of t
he e
xpon
entia
l dis
char
ge o
f a c
apac
itor
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e di
scha
rge
of a
cap
acito
r thr
ough
a fi
xed
resi
stor
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e tim
e co
nsta
nt o
f an
RC c
ircui
t for
cha
rge,
vo
ltage
and
cur
rent
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Li
ghtn
ing
is a
phe
nom
enon
that
has
fasc
inat
ed p
hysi
cist
s fr
om P
liny
thro
ugh
New
ton
to F
rank
lin. T
he c
harg
ed c
loud
s fo
rm o
ne p
late
of a
cap
acito
r with
ot
her c
loud
s or
Ear
th fo
rmin
g th
e se
cond
pla
te. T
he fr
eque
ncy
of li
ghtn
ing
strik
es v
arie
s gl
obal
ly, b
eing
par
ticul
arly
pre
vale
nt in
equ
ator
ial r
egio
ns. T
he
impa
ct o
f lig
htni
ng s
trik
es is
sig
nific
ant,
with
man
y hu
man
s an
d an
imal
s be
ing
kille
d an
nual
ly a
nd h
uge
finan
cial
cos
ts to
indu
stry
from
dam
age
to b
uild
ings
, co
mm
unic
atio
n an
d po
wer
tran
smis
sion
sys
tem
s, a
nd d
elay
s or
the
need
to
rero
ute
air t
rans
port
.
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
e ch
arge
and
dis
char
ge o
f cap
acito
rs o
beys
rule
s th
at h
ave
para
llels
in o
ther
br
anch
es o
f phy
sics
incl
udin
g ra
dioa
ctiv
ity (s
ee P
hysic
s sub
-top
ic 7
.1)
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: the
trea
tmen
t of e
xpon
entia
l gro
wth
and
dec
ay b
y gr
aphi
cal a
nd
alge
brai
c m
etho
ds o
ffer
s bo
th th
e vi
sual
and
rigo
rous
app
roac
h so
oft
en
char
acte
ristic
of s
cien
ce a
nd te
chno
logy
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): in
vest
igat
ing
basi
c RC
circ
uits
; usi
ng a
cap
acito
r in
a br
idge
circ
uit;
exam
inin
g ot
her t
ypes
of
capa
cito
rs; v
erify
ing
time
cons
tant
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction
Physics guide 89
11.3
– C
apac
itan
ce
Gui
danc
e:
•O
nly
sing
le p
aral
lel-p
late
cap
acito
rs p
rovi
ding
a u
nifo
rm e
lect
ric fi
eld,
in s
erie
s w
ith a
load
, nee
d to
be
cons
ider
ed (e
dge
effe
ct w
ill b
e ne
glec
ted)
•Pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e di
scha
rge
of c
apac
itors
thro
ugh
fixed
resi
stor
s ne
ed to
be
trea
ted
both
gra
phic
ally
and
alg
ebra
ical
ly
•Pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e ch
argi
ng o
f a c
apac
itor w
ill o
nly
be tr
eate
d gr
aphi
cally
•D
eriv
atio
n of
the
char
ge, v
olta
ge a
nd c
urre
nt e
quat
ions
as
a fu
nctio
n of
tim
e is
not
requ
ired
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•C
q V=
•�
CC
Cpa
ralle
l1
2=
++
•1
11
12
CC
Cse
ries
=+
+�
•C
A dε
=
•E
CV1 2
2=
•RC
τ=
•q
qe
t
0=
τ−
•I
Ie
t
0=
τ−
•V
Ve
t
0=
τ−
Physics guide90
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he m
icro
scop
ic q
uant
um w
orld
off
ers
a ra
nge
of p
heno
men
a, th
e in
terp
reta
tion
and
expl
anat
ion
of w
hich
requ
ire n
ew id
eas
and
conc
epts
not
foun
d in
the
clas
sica
l wor
ld.
12.1
– T
he in
tera
ctio
n of
mat
ter w
ith
radi
atio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obs
erva
tions
: Muc
h of
the
wor
k to
war
ds a
qua
ntum
theo
ry o
f ato
ms
was
gui
ded
by th
e ne
ed to
exp
lain
the
obse
rved
pat
tern
s in
ato
mic
spe
ctra
. The
firs
t qua
ntum
mod
el
of m
atte
r is
the
Bohr
mod
el fo
r hyd
roge
n. (1
.8)
Para
digm
shi
ft: T
he a
ccep
tanc
e of
the
wav
e–pa
rtic
le d
ualit
y pa
rado
x fo
r lig
ht a
nd p
artic
les
requ
ired
scie
ntis
ts in
man
y fie
lds
to v
iew
rese
arch
from
new
per
spec
tives
. (2.
3)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ph
oton
s
•Th
e ph
otoe
lect
ric e
ffec
t
•M
atte
r wav
es
•Pa
ir pr
oduc
tion
and
pair
anni
hila
tion
•Q
uant
izat
ion
of a
ngul
ar m
omen
tum
in th
e Bo
hr m
odel
for h
ydro
gen
•Th
e w
ave
func
tion
•Th
e un
cert
aint
y pr
inci
ple
for e
nerg
y an
d tim
e an
d po
sitio
n an
d m
omen
tum
•Tu
nnel
ling,
pot
entia
l bar
rier a
nd fa
ctor
s af
fect
ing
tunn
ellin
g pr
obab
ility
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e du
ality
of m
atte
r and
tunn
ellin
g ar
e ca
ses
whe
re th
e la
ws
of c
lass
ical
ph
ysic
s ar
e vi
olat
ed. T
o w
hat e
xten
t hav
e ad
vanc
es in
tech
nolo
gy e
nabl
ed
para
digm
shi
fts
in s
cien
ce?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
e el
ectr
on m
icro
scop
e an
d th
e tu
nnel
ling
elec
tron
mic
rosc
ope
rely
on
the
findi
ngs
from
stu
dies
in q
uant
um p
hysi
cs
•Pr
obab
ility
is tr
eate
d in
a m
athe
mat
ical
sen
se in
Mat
hem
atic
al st
udie
s SL
sub-
topi
cs 3
.6–3
.7
Topi
c 12
: Qua
ntum
and
nuc
lear
phy
sics
16
hou
rs
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics
Physics guide 91
12.1
– T
he in
tera
ctio
n of
mat
ter w
ith
radi
atio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
iscu
ssin
g th
e ph
otoe
lect
ric e
ffec
t exp
erim
ent a
nd e
xpla
inin
g w
hich
feat
ures
of
the
expe
rimen
t can
not b
e ex
plai
ned
by th
e cl
assi
cal w
ave
theo
ry o
f lig
ht
•So
lvin
g ph
otoe
lect
ric p
robl
ems
both
gra
phic
ally
and
alg
ebra
ical
ly
•D
iscu
ssin
g ex
perim
enta
l evi
denc
e fo
r mat
ter w
aves
, inc
ludi
ng a
n ex
perim
ent
in w
hich
the
wav
e na
ture
of e
lect
rons
is e
vide
nt
•St
atin
g or
der o
f mag
nitu
de e
stim
ates
from
the
unce
rtai
nty
prin
cipl
e
Gui
danc
e:
•Th
e or
der o
f mag
nitu
de e
stim
ates
from
the
unce
rtai
nty
prin
cipl
e m
ay in
clud
e (b
ut is
not
lim
ited
to) e
stim
ates
of t
he e
nerg
y of
the
grou
nd s
tate
of a
n at
om,
the
impo
ssib
ility
of a
n el
ectr
on e
xist
ing
with
in a
nuc
leus
, and
the
lifet
ime
of
an e
lect
ron
in a
n ex
cite
d en
ergy
sta
te
•Tu
nnel
ling
to b
e tr
eate
d qu
alita
tivel
y us
ing
the
idea
of c
ontin
uity
of w
ave
func
tions
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•E
hf=
•E
hfm
axΦ
=−
•E
neV
13.6 2
=−
•m
vrnh 2π
=
•P
rV
()
2=
Ψ∆
•x
ph 4π
∆∆
≥
•E
th 4π
∆∆
≥
Aim
s:
•A
im 1
: stu
dy o
f qua
ntum
phe
nom
ena
intr
oduc
es s
tude
nts
to a
n ex
citin
g ne
w
wor
ld th
at is
not
exp
erie
nced
at t
he m
acro
scop
ic le
vel.
The
stud
y of
tunn
elin
g is
a n
ovel
phe
nom
enon
not
obs
erve
d in
mac
rosc
opic
phy
sics
.
•A
im 6
: the
pho
toel
ectr
ic e
ffec
t can
be
inve
stig
ated
usi
ng L
EDs
•A
im 9
: the
Boh
r mod
el is
ver
y su
cces
sful
with
hyd
roge
n bu
t not
of a
ny u
se fo
r ot
her e
lem
ents
Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics
Physics guide92
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he id
ea o
f dis
cret
enes
s th
at w
e m
et in
the
atom
ic w
orld
con
tinue
s to
exi
st in
the
nucl
ear w
orld
as
wel
l.
12.2
– N
ucle
ar p
hysi
cs
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Theo
retic
al a
dvan
ces
and
insp
iratio
n: P
rogr
ess
in a
tom
ic, n
ucle
ar a
nd p
artic
le p
hysi
cs o
ften
cam
e fr
om th
eore
tical
adv
ance
s an
d st
roke
s of
insp
iratio
n.
Adv
ance
s in
inst
rum
enta
tion:
New
way
s of
det
ectin
g su
bato
mic
par
ticle
s du
e to
adv
ance
s in
ele
ctro
nic
tech
nolo
gy w
ere
also
cru
cial
.
Mod
ern
com
putin
g po
wer
: Fin
ally
, the
ana
lysi
s of
the
data
gat
here
d in
mod
ern
part
icle
det
ecto
rs in
par
ticle
acc
eler
ator
exp
erim
ents
wou
ld b
e im
poss
ible
with
out m
oder
n co
mpu
ting
pow
er. (
1.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Ru
ther
ford
sca
tter
ing
and
nucl
ear r
adiu
s
•N
ucle
ar e
nerg
y le
vels
•Th
e ne
utrin
o
•Th
e la
w o
f rad
ioac
tive
deca
y an
d th
e de
cay
cons
tant
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g a
scat
terin
g ex
perim
ent i
nclu
ding
loca
tion
of m
inim
um in
tens
ity
for t
he d
iffra
cted
par
ticle
s ba
sed
on th
eir d
e Br
oglie
wav
elen
gth
•Ex
plai
ning
dev
iatio
ns fr
om R
uthe
rfor
d sc
atte
ring
in h
igh
ener
gy e
xper
imen
ts
•D
escr
ibin
g ex
perim
enta
l evi
denc
e fo
r nuc
lear
ene
rgy
leve
ls
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e ra
dioa
ctiv
e de
cay
law
for a
rbitr
ary
time
inte
rval
s
•Ex
plai
ning
the
met
hods
for m
easu
ring
shor
t and
long
hal
f-liv
es
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•M
uch
of th
e kn
owle
dge
abou
t sub
atom
ic p
artic
les
is b
ased
on
the
mod
els
one
uses
to in
terp
ret t
he d
ata
from
exp
erim
ents
. How
can
we
be s
ure
that
we
are
disc
over
ing
an “i
ndep
ende
nt tr
uth”
not
influ
ence
d by
our
mod
els?
Is th
ere
such
a th
ing
as a
sin
gle
trut
h?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Kn
owle
dge
of ra
dioa
ctiv
ity, r
adio
activ
e su
bsta
nces
and
the
radi
oact
ive
deca
y la
w a
re c
ruci
al in
mod
ern
nucl
ear m
edic
ine
(see
Phy
sics o
ptio
n su
b-to
pic
C.4)
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: det
ectio
n of
the
neut
rino
dem
onst
rate
s th
e co
ntin
uing
gro
win
g bo
dy
of k
now
ledg
e sc
ient
ists
are
gat
herin
g in
this
are
a of
stu
dy
Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics
Physics guide 93
12.2
– N
ucle
ar p
hysi
cs
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d be
aw
are
that
nuc
lear
den
sitie
s ar
e ap
prox
imat
ely
the
sam
e fo
r all
nucl
ei a
nd th
at th
e on
ly m
acro
scop
ic o
bjec
ts w
ith th
e sa
me
dens
ity a
s nu
clei
are
neu
tron
sta
rs
•Th
e sm
all a
ngle
app
roxi
mat
ion
is u
sual
ly n
ot a
ppro
pria
te to
use
to d
eter
min
e th
e lo
catio
n of
the
min
imum
inte
nsity
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•R
RA
01/
3=
•N
Ne
t0
=λ
−
•A
Ne
t0
λ=
λ−
•D
sin
θλ
≈
Physics guide94
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
inst
ein’
s st
udy
of e
lect
rom
agne
tism
reve
aled
inco
nsis
tenc
ies
betw
een
the
theo
ry o
f Max
wel
l and
New
ton‘
s m
echa
nics
. He
reco
gniz
ed th
at b
oth
theo
ries
coul
d no
t be
reco
ncile
d an
d so
cho
osin
g to
trus
t Max
wel
l’s th
eory
of e
lect
rom
agne
tism
he
was
forc
ed to
cha
nge
long
-che
rishe
d id
eas
abou
t spa
ce a
nd ti
me
in m
echa
nics
.
A.1
– T
he b
egin
ning
s of
rela
tivi
ty
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Para
digm
shi
ft: T
he fu
ndam
enta
l fac
t tha
t the
spe
ed o
f lig
ht is
con
stan
t for
all
iner
tial o
bser
vers
has
far-
reac
hing
con
sequ
ence
s ab
out o
ur u
nder
stan
ding
of s
pace
and
tim
e.
Idea
s ab
out s
pace
and
tim
e th
at w
ent u
ncha
lleng
ed fo
r mor
e th
an 2
,000
yea
rs w
ere
show
n to
be
fals
e. T
he e
xten
sion
of t
he p
rinci
ple
of re
lativ
ity to
acc
eler
ated
fram
es o
f re
fere
nce
lead
s to
the
revo
lutio
nary
idea
of g
ener
al re
lativ
ity th
at th
e m
ass
and
ener
gy th
at s
pace
time
cont
ains
det
erm
ines
the
geom
etry
of s
pace
time.
(2.3
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Re
fere
nce
fram
es
•G
alile
an re
lativ
ity a
nd N
ewto
n’s
post
ulat
es c
once
rnin
g tim
e an
d sp
ace
•M
axw
ell a
nd th
e co
nsta
ncy
of th
e sp
eed
of li
ght
•Fo
rces
on
a ch
arge
or c
urre
nt
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•U
sing
the
Gal
ilean
tran
sfor
mat
ion
equa
tions
•D
eter
min
ing
whe
ther
a fo
rce
on a
cha
rge
or c
urre
nt is
ele
ctric
or m
agne
tic in
a
give
n fr
ame
of re
fere
nce
•D
eter
min
ing
the
natu
re o
f the
fiel
ds o
bser
ved
by d
iffer
ent o
bser
vers
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•W
hen
scie
ntis
ts c
laim
a n
ew d
irect
ion
in th
inki
ng re
quire
s a
para
digm
shi
ft in
ho
w w
e ob
serv
e th
e un
iver
se, h
ow d
o w
e en
sure
thei
r cla
ims
are
valid
?
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: thi
s su
b-to
pic
is th
e co
rner
ston
e of
dev
elop
men
ts th
at fo
llow
ed in
re
lativ
ity a
nd m
oder
n ph
ysic
s
Core
topi
cs
15 h
ours
Opt
ion
A: R
elat
ivity
Core topics
Physics guide 95
A.1
– T
he b
egin
ning
s of
rela
tivi
ty
Gui
danc
e:
•M
axw
ell’s
equ
atio
ns d
o no
t nee
d to
be
desc
ribed
•Q
ualit
ativ
e tr
eatm
ent o
f ele
ctric
and
mag
netic
fiel
ds a
s m
easu
red
by
obse
rver
s in
rela
tive
mot
ion.
Exa
mpl
es w
ill in
clud
e a
char
ge m
ovin
g in
a
mag
netic
fiel
d or
two
char
ged
part
icle
s m
ovin
g w
ith p
aral
lel v
eloc
ities
. St
uden
ts w
ill b
e as
ked
to a
naly
se th
ese
mot
ions
from
the
poin
t of v
iew
of
obse
rver
s at
rest
with
resp
ect t
o th
e pa
rtic
les
and
obse
rver
s at
rest
with
re
spec
t to
the
mag
netic
fiel
d.
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•x
xvt
′=−
•u
uv
′=−
Core topics
Physics guide96
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: O
bser
vers
in re
lativ
e un
iform
mot
ion
disa
gree
on
the
num
eric
al v
alue
s of
spa
ce a
nd ti
me
coor
dina
tes
for e
vent
s, b
ut a
gree
with
the
num
eric
al v
alue
of
the
spee
d of
ligh
t in
a va
cuum
. The
Lor
entz
tran
sfor
mat
ion
equa
tions
rela
te th
e va
lues
in o
ne re
fere
nce
fram
e to
thos
e in
ano
ther
. The
se e
quat
ions
repl
ace
the
Gal
ilean
tr
ansf
orm
atio
n eq
uatio
ns th
at fa
il fo
r spe
eds
clos
e to
that
of l
ight
.
A.2
– L
oren
tz tr
ansf
orm
atio
ns
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Pure
sci
ence
: Ein
stei
n ba
sed
his
theo
ry o
f rel
ativ
ity o
n tw
o po
stul
ates
and
ded
uced
the
rest
by
mat
hem
atic
al a
naly
sis.
The
firs
t pos
tula
te in
tegr
ates
all
of th
e la
ws
of p
hysi
cs
incl
udin
g th
e la
ws
of e
lect
rom
agne
tism
, not
onl
y N
ewto
n’s
law
s of
mec
hani
cs. (
1.2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e tw
o po
stul
ates
of s
peci
al re
lativ
ity
•Cl
ock
sync
hron
izat
ion
•Th
e Lo
rent
z tr
ansf
orm
atio
ns
•Ve
loci
ty a
dditi
on
•In
varia
nt q
uant
ities
(spa
cetim
e in
terv
al, p
rope
r tim
e, p
rope
r len
gth
and
re
st m
ass)
•Ti
me
dila
tion
•Le
ngth
con
trac
tion
•Th
e m
uon
deca
y ex
perim
ent
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•U
sing
the
Lore
ntz
tran
sfor
mat
ions
to d
escr
ibe
how
diff
eren
t mea
sure
men
ts
of s
pace
and
tim
e by
two
obse
rver
s ca
n be
con
vert
ed in
to th
e m
easu
rem
ents
ob
serv
ed in
eith
er fr
ame
of re
fere
nce
•U
sing
the
Lore
ntz
tran
sfor
mat
ion
equa
tions
to d
eter
min
e th
e po
sitio
n an
d tim
e co
ordi
nate
s of
var
ious
eve
nts
•U
sing
the
Lore
ntz
tran
sfor
mat
ion
equa
tions
to s
how
that
if tw
o ev
ents
are
si
mul
tane
ous
for o
ne o
bser
ver b
ut h
appe
n at
diff
eren
t poi
nts
in s
pace
, the
n th
e ev
ents
are
not
sim
ulta
neou
s fo
r an
obse
rver
in a
diff
eren
t ref
eren
ce fr
ame
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g ve
loci
ty a
dditi
on
•D
eriv
ing
the
time
dila
tion
and
leng
th c
ontr
actio
n eq
uatio
ns u
sing
the
Lore
ntz
equa
tions
Uti
lizat
ion:
•O
nce
a ve
ry e
sote
ric p
art o
f phy
sics
, rel
ativ
ity id
eas
abou
t spa
ce a
nd ti
me
are
need
ed in
ord
er to
pro
duce
acc
urat
e gl
obal
pos
ition
ing
syst
ems
(GPS
)
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: the
Lor
entz
tran
sfor
mat
ion
form
ulae
pro
vide
a c
onsi
sten
t bod
y of
kn
owle
dge
that
can
be
used
to c
ompa
re th
e de
scrip
tion
of m
otio
n by
one
ob
serv
er to
the
desc
riptio
n of
ano
ther
obs
erve
r in
rela
tive
mot
ion
to
the
first
•A
im 3
: the
se fo
rmul
ae c
an b
e ap
plie
d to
a v
arie
d se
t of c
ondi
tions
and
si
tuat
ions
•A
im 9
: the
intr
oduc
tion
of re
lativ
ity p
ushe
d th
e lim
its o
f Gal
ilean
thou
ghts
on
spac
e an
d m
otio
n
Core topics
Physics guide 97
A.2
– L
oren
tz tr
ansf
orm
atio
ns
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g tim
e di
latio
n an
d le
ngth
con
trac
tion
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e m
uon
deca
y ex
perim
ent
Gui
danc
e:
•Pr
oble
ms
will
be
limite
d to
one
dim
ensi
on
•D
eriv
atio
n of
the
Lore
ntz
tran
sfor
mat
ion
equa
tions
will
not
be
exam
ined
•M
uon
deca
y ex
perim
ents
can
be
used
as
evid
ence
for b
oth
time
dila
tion
and
leng
th c
ontr
actio
n
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•v c
1
12 2
γ=
−
•x
xvt
xx
vt
();
()
γγ
′=−
∆′=
∆−
∆
•′ =
−
′ =
−
t
tvx c
tt
vx
cγ
γ2
2;∆
∆∆
•u
uv uv c
12
′=− −
•t
t 0γ
∆=
∆
•L
L 0 γ=
•ct
xct
x(
)(
)(
)(
)2
22
2′
−′
=−
Core topics
Physics guide98
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
pace
time
diag
ram
s are
a v
ery
clea
r and
illu
stra
tive
way
to sh
ow g
raph
ical
ly h
ow d
iffer
ent o
bser
vers
in re
lativ
e m
otio
n to
eac
h ot
her h
ave
mea
sure
men
ts th
at
diff
er fr
om e
ach
othe
r.
A.3
– S
pace
tim
e di
agra
ms
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Visu
aliz
atio
n of
mod
els:
The
visu
aliz
atio
n of
the
desc
riptio
n of
eve
nts i
n te
rms o
f spa
cetim
e di
agra
ms i
s an
enor
mou
s adv
ance
in u
nder
stan
ding
the
conc
ept o
f spa
cetim
e. (1
.10)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Sp
acet
ime
diag
ram
s
•W
orld
lines
•Th
e tw
in p
arad
ox
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Re
pres
entin
g ev
ents
on
a sp
acet
ime
diag
ram
as
poin
ts
•Re
pres
entin
g th
e po
sitio
ns o
f a m
ovin
g pa
rtic
le o
n a
spac
etim
e di
agra
m b
y a
curv
e (th
e w
orld
line)
•Re
pres
entin
g m
ore
than
one
iner
tial r
efer
ence
fram
e on
the
sam
e sp
acet
ime
diag
ram
•D
eter
min
ing
the
angl
e be
twee
n a
wor
ldlin
e fo
r spe
cific
spe
ed a
nd th
e tim
e ax
is o
n a
spac
etim
e di
agra
m
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
on s
imul
tane
ity a
nd k
inem
atic
s us
ing
spac
etim
e di
agra
ms
•Re
pres
entin
g tim
e di
latio
n an
d le
ngth
con
trac
tion
on s
pace
time
diag
ram
s
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e tw
in p
arad
ox
•Re
solv
ing
of th
e tw
in p
arad
ox th
roug
h sp
acet
ime
diag
ram
s
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Ca
n pa
rado
xes
be s
olve
d by
reas
on a
lone
, or d
o th
ey re
quire
the
utili
zatio
n of
ot
her w
ays
of k
now
ing?
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: spa
cetim
e di
agra
ms
allo
w o
ne to
ana
lyse
pro
blem
s in
rela
tivity
m
ore
relia
bly
Core topics
Physics guide 99
A.3
– S
pace
tim
e di
agra
ms
Gui
danc
e:
•Ex
amin
atio
n qu
estio
ns w
ill re
fer t
o sp
acet
ime
diag
ram
s; th
ese
are
also
kno
wn
as M
inko
wsk
i dia
gram
s
•Q
uant
itativ
e qu
estio
ns in
volv
ing
spac
etim
e di
agra
ms
will
be
limite
d to
co
nsta
nt v
eloc
ity
•Sp
acet
ime
diag
ram
s ca
n ha
ve t
or c
t on
the
vert
ical
axi
s
•Ex
amin
atio
n qu
estio
ns m
ay u
se u
nits
in w
hich
c =
1
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•c
tan
1θ
υ=
−
Physics guide100
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he re
lativ
ity o
f spa
ce a
nd ti
me
requ
ires
new
def
initi
ons
for e
nerg
y an
d m
omen
tum
in o
rder
to p
rese
rve
the
cons
erve
d na
ture
of t
hese
law
s.
A.4
– R
elat
ivis
tic
mec
hani
cs
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Para
digm
shi
ft: E
inst
ein
real
ized
that
the
law
of c
onse
rvat
ion
of m
omen
tum
cou
ld n
ot b
e m
aint
aine
d as
a la
w o
f phy
sics
. He
ther
efor
e de
duce
d th
at in
ord
er fo
r mom
entu
m
to b
e co
nser
ved
unde
r all
cond
ition
s, th
e de
finiti
on o
f mom
entu
m h
ad to
cha
nge
and
alon
g w
ith it
the
defin
ition
s of
oth
er m
echa
nics
qua
ntiti
es s
uch
as k
inet
ic e
nerg
y an
d to
tal e
nerg
y of
a p
artic
le. T
his
was
a m
ajor
par
adig
m s
hift
. (2.
3)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•To
tal e
nerg
y an
d re
st e
nerg
y
•Re
lativ
istic
mom
entu
m
•Pa
rtic
le a
ccel
erat
ion
•El
ectr
ic c
harg
e as
an
inva
riant
qua
ntity
•Ph
oton
s
•M
eV c–2
as
the
unit
of m
ass
and
MeV
c–1 a
s th
e un
it of
mom
entu
m
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e la
ws
of c
onse
rvat
ion
of m
omen
tum
and
con
serv
atio
n of
en
ergy
with
in s
peci
al re
lativ
ity
•D
eter
min
ing
the
pote
ntia
l diff
eren
ce n
eces
sary
to a
ccel
erat
e a
part
icle
to a
gi
ven
spee
d or
ene
rgy
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g re
lativ
istic
ene
rgy
and
mom
entu
m c
onse
rvat
ion
in c
ollis
ions
and
par
ticle
dec
ays
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•In
wha
t way
s do
law
s in
the
natu
ral s
cien
ces
diff
er fr
om la
ws
in e
cono
mic
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
e la
ws
of re
lativ
istic
mec
hani
cs a
re ro
utin
ely
used
in o
rder
to m
anag
e th
e op
erat
ion
of n
ucle
ar p
ower
pla
nts,
par
ticle
acc
eler
ator
s an
d pa
rtic
le d
etec
tors
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: rel
ativ
istic
mec
hani
cs s
ynth
esiz
es k
now
ledg
e on
the
beha
viou
r of
mat
ter a
t spe
eds
clos
e to
the
spee
d of
ligh
t
•A
im 9
: the
theo
ry o
f rel
ativ
ity im
pose
s on
e se
vere
lim
itatio
n: n
othi
ng c
an
exce
ed th
e sp
eed
of li
ght
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
opt
ion
topi
cs
10 h
ours
Opt
ion
A: R
elat
ivity
Additional higher level option topics
Physics guide 101
A.4
– R
elat
ivis
tic
mec
hani
cs
Gui
danc
e:
•A
pplic
atio
ns w
ill in
volv
e re
lativ
istic
dec
ays
such
as
calc
ulat
ing
the
wav
elen
gths
of p
hoto
ns in
the
deca
y of
a m
ovin
g pi
on [
2]
oπ
γ→
•Th
e sy
mbo
l m0 r
efer
s to
the
inva
riant
rest
mas
s of a
par
ticle
•Th
e co
ncep
t of a
rela
tivis
tic m
ass
that
var
ies
with
spe
ed w
ill n
ot b
e us
ed
•Pr
oble
ms
will
be
limite
d to
one
dim
ensi
on
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•E
mc
02
γ=
•E
mc
00
2=
•E
mc
(1)
K0
2γ
=−
•p
m0
γυ
=
•E
pc
mc
22
202
4=
+
•qV
E K=
∆
Additional higher level option topics
Physics guide102
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: G
ener
al re
lativ
ity is
app
lied
to b
ring
toge
ther
fund
amen
tal c
once
pts
of m
ass,
spa
ce a
nd ti
me
in o
rder
to d
escr
ibe
the
fate
of t
he u
nive
rse.
A.5
– G
ener
al re
lati
vity
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Crea
tive
and
criti
cal t
hink
ing:
Ein
stei
n’s
grea
t ach
ieve
men
t, th
e ge
nera
l the
ory
of re
lativ
ity, i
s ba
sed
on in
tuiti
on, c
reat
ive
thin
king
and
imag
inat
ion,
nam
ely
to c
onne
ct th
e ge
omet
ry o
f spa
cetim
e (th
roug
h its
cur
vatu
re) t
o th
e m
ass
and
ener
gy c
onte
nt o
f spa
cetim
e. F
or y
ears
it w
as th
ough
t tha
t not
hing
cou
ld e
scap
e a
blac
k ho
le a
nd th
is is
tr
ue b
ut o
nly
for c
lass
ical
bla
ck h
oles
. Whe
n qu
antu
m th
eory
is ta
ken
into
acc
ount
a b
lack
hol
e ra
diat
es li
ke a
bla
ck b
ody.
Thi
s un
expe
cted
resu
lt re
veal
ed o
ther
equ
ally
un
expe
cted
con
nect
ions
bet
wee
n bl
ack
hole
s an
d th
erm
odyn
amic
s. (1
.4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e eq
uiva
lenc
e pr
inci
ple
•Th
e be
ndin
g of
ligh
t
•G
ravi
tatio
nal r
edsh
ift a
nd th
e Po
und–
Rebk
a–Sn
ider
exp
erim
ent
•Sc
hwar
zsch
ild b
lack
hol
es
•Ev
ent h
oriz
ons
•Ti
me
dila
tion
near
a b
lack
hol
e
•A
pplic
atio
ns o
f gen
eral
rela
tivity
to th
e un
iver
se a
s a
who
le
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•U
sing
the
equi
vale
nce
prin
cipl
e to
ded
uce
and
expl
ain
light
ben
ding
nea
r mas
sive
obje
cts
•U
sing
the
equi
vale
nce
prin
cipl
e to
ded
uce
and
expl
ain
grav
itatio
nal t
ime
dila
tion
•Ca
lcul
atin
g gr
avita
tiona
l fre
quen
cy s
hift
s
•D
escr
ibin
g an
exp
erim
ent i
n w
hich
gra
vita
tiona
l red
shift
is o
bser
ved
and
mea
sure
d
•Ca
lcul
atin
g th
e Sc
hwar
zsch
ild ra
dius
of a
bla
ck h
ole
•A
pply
ing
the
form
ula
for g
ravi
tatio
nal t
ime
dila
tion
near
the
even
t hor
izon
of a
bl
ack
hole
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•A
lthou
gh E
inst
ein
self-
desc
ribed
the
cosm
olog
ical
con
stan
t as
his
“gre
ates
t bl
unde
r”, t
he 2
011
Nob
el P
rize
was
won
by
scie
ntis
ts w
ho h
ad p
rove
d it
to b
e va
lid th
roug
h th
eir s
tudi
es o
n da
rk e
nerg
y. W
hat o
ther
exa
mpl
es a
re th
ere
of
initi
ally
dou
bted
cla
ims
bein
g pr
oven
cor
rect
late
r in
hist
ory?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Fo
r the
glo
bal p
ositi
onin
g sy
stem
to b
e so
acc
urat
e, g
ener
al re
lativ
ity m
ust b
e ta
ken
into
acc
ount
in c
alcu
latin
g th
e de
tails
of t
he s
atel
lite’
s or
bit
•Th
e de
velo
pmen
t of t
he g
ener
al th
eory
of r
elat
ivity
has
bee
n us
ed to
exp
lain
th
e ve
ry la
rge-
scal
e be
havi
our o
f the
uni
vers
e as
a w
hole
with
far-r
each
ing
impl
icat
ions
abo
ut th
e fu
ture
dev
elop
men
t and
fate
of t
he u
nive
rse
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: the
gen
eral
theo
ry o
f rel
ativ
ity is
a g
reat
synt
hesis
of i
deas
that
are
requ
ired
to d
escr
ibe
the
larg
e-sc
ale
stru
ctur
e of
the
univ
erse
•A
im 9
: it m
ust b
e ap
prec
iate
d th
at th
e m
agni
ficen
t New
toni
an st
ruct
ure
had
serio
us li
mita
tions
whe
n it
cam
e to
the
desc
riptio
n of
ver
y de
taile
d as
pect
s of
plan
etar
y m
otio
n
Additional higher level option topics
Physics guide 103
A.5
– G
ener
al re
lati
vity
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d re
cogn
ize
the
equi
vale
nce
prin
cipl
e in
term
s of
acc
eler
atin
g re
fere
nce
fram
es a
nd fr
eely
falli
ng fr
ames
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•f f
gh
c2
∆=
∆
•R
GM
c2s
2=
•t
t R r1
0
S
∆=
∆ −
Physics guide104
Esse
ntia
l id
ea: T
he b
asic
law
s of
mec
hani
cs h
ave
an e
xten
sion
whe
n eq
uiva
lent
pri
ncip
les
are
appl
ied
to r
otat
ion.
Act
ual o
bjec
ts h
ave
dim
ensi
ons
and
they
req
uire
th
e ex
pans
ion
of th
e p
oint
par
ticl
e m
odel
to c
onsi
der t
he p
ossi
bilit
y of
dif
fere
nt p
oint
s on
an
obje
ct h
avin
g di
ffer
ent s
tate
s of
mot
ion
and/
or d
iffe
rent
vel
ocit
ies.
B.1
– Ri
gid
bodi
es a
nd ro
tati
onal
dyn
amic
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mod
ellin
g: T
he u
se o
f mod
els
has
diff
eren
t pur
pose
s an
d ha
s al
low
ed s
cien
tists
to id
entif
y, s
impl
ify a
nd a
naly
se a
pro
blem
with
in a
giv
en c
onte
xt to
tack
le it
suc
cess
fully
. Th
e ex
tens
ion
of th
e po
int p
artic
le m
odel
to a
ctua
lly c
onsi
der t
he d
imen
sion
s of
an
obje
ct le
d to
man
y gr
ound
brea
king
dev
elop
men
ts in
eng
inee
ring.
(1.2
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•To
rque
•M
omen
t of i
nert
ia
•Ro
tatio
nal a
nd tr
ansl
atio
nal e
quili
briu
m
•A
ngul
ar a
ccel
erat
ion
•Eq
uatio
ns o
f rot
atio
nal m
otio
n fo
r uni
form
ang
ular
acc
eler
atio
n
•N
ewto
n’s
seco
nd la
w a
pplie
d to
ang
ular
mot
ion
•Co
nser
vatio
n of
ang
ular
mom
entu
m
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ca
lcul
atin
g to
rque
for s
ingl
e fo
rces
and
cou
ples
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms i
nvol
ving
mom
ent o
f ine
rtia
, tor
que
and
angu
lar a
ccel
erat
ion
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms i
n w
hich
obj
ects
are
in b
oth
rota
tiona
l and
tran
slatio
nal
equi
libriu
m
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•M
odel
s ar
e al
way
s va
lid w
ithin
a c
onte
xt a
nd th
ey a
re m
odifi
ed, e
xpan
ded
or re
plac
ed w
hen
that
con
text
is a
ltere
d or
con
side
red
diff
eren
tly. A
re th
ere
exam
ples
of u
ncha
ngin
g m
odel
s in
the
natu
ral s
cien
ces
or in
any
oth
er a
reas
of
kno
wle
dge?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•St
ruct
ural
des
ign
and
civi
l eng
inee
ring
rely
on
the
know
ledg
e of
how
obj
ects
ca
n m
ove
in a
ll si
tuat
ions
Aim
s:
•A
im 7
: tec
hnol
ogy
has a
llow
ed fo
r com
pute
r sim
ulat
ions
that
acc
urat
ely
mod
el
the
com
plic
ated
out
com
es o
f act
ions
on
bodi
es
Core
topi
cs
15 h
ours
Opt
ion
B: E
ngin
eerin
g ph
ysic
s
Core topics
Physics guide 105
B.1
– Ri
gid
bodi
es a
nd ro
tati
onal
dyn
amic
s
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms u
sing
rota
tiona
l qua
ntiti
es a
nalo
gous
to li
near
qua
ntiti
es
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
grap
hs o
f rot
atio
nal m
otio
n
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms i
nvol
ving
rolli
ng w
ithou
t slip
ping
Gui
danc
e:
•A
naly
sis
will
be
limite
d to
bas
ic g
eom
etric
sha
pes
•Th
e eq
uatio
n fo
r the
mom
ent o
f ine
rtia
of a
spe
cific
sha
pe w
ill b
e pr
ovid
ed
whe
n ne
cess
ary
•G
raph
s w
ill b
e lim
ited
to a
ngul
ar d
ispl
acem
ent–
time,
ang
ular
vel
ocity
–tim
e an
d to
rque
–tim
e
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•Fr
sin
Γθ
=
•I
mr2
=Σ
•I
Γα
=
•f
2ω
π=
•t
fi
ωω
α=
+
•2
f2i2
ωω
αθ
=+
•t
t1 2
i2
θω
α=
+
•L
Iω=
•E
I1 2
K2
rot
ω=
Core topics
Physics guide106
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he fi
rst l
aw o
f the
rmod
ynam
ics
rela
tes
the
chan
ge in
inte
rnal
ene
rgy
of a
sys
tem
to th
e en
ergy
tran
sfer
red
and
the
wor
k do
ne. T
he e
ntro
py o
f the
uni
vers
e te
nds
to a
max
imum
.
B.2
– Th
erm
odyn
amic
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Varie
ty o
f per
spec
tives
: With
thre
e al
tern
ativ
e an
d eq
uiva
lent
sta
tem
ents
of t
he s
econ
d la
w o
f the
rmod
ynam
ics,
this
are
a of
phy
sics
dem
onst
rate
s th
e co
llabo
ratio
n an
d te
stin
g in
volv
ed in
con
firm
ing
abst
ract
not
ions
suc
h as
this
. (4.
1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e fir
st la
w o
f the
rmod
ynam
ics
•Th
e se
cond
law
of t
herm
odyn
amic
s
•En
trop
y
•Cy
clic
pro
cess
es a
nd p
V di
agra
ms
•Is
ovol
umet
ric, i
soba
ric, i
soth
erm
al a
nd a
diab
atic
pro
cess
es
•Ca
rnot
cyc
le
•Th
erm
al e
ffic
ienc
y
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e fir
st la
w o
f the
rmod
ynam
ics a
s a st
atem
ent o
f con
serv
atio
n of
en
ergy
•Ex
plai
ning
sign
con
vent
ion
used
whe
n st
atin
g th
e fir
st la
w o
f the
rmod
ynam
ics a
QU
W=
∆+
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e fir
st la
w o
f the
rmod
ynam
ics
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e se
cond
law
of t
herm
odyn
amic
s in
Cla
usiu
s fo
rm, K
elvi
n fo
rm
and
as a
con
sequ
ence
of e
ntro
py
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e de
velo
pmen
t of t
his
topi
c w
as th
e su
bjec
t of i
nten
se d
ebat
e be
twee
n sc
ient
ists
of m
any
coun
trie
s in
the
19th
cen
tury
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Th
is w
ork
lead
s di
rect
ly to
the
conc
ept o
f the
hea
t eng
ines
that
pla
y su
ch a
la
rge
role
in m
oder
n so
ciet
y
•Th
e po
ssib
ility
of t
he h
eat d
eath
of t
he u
nive
rse
is b
ased
on
ever
-incr
easi
ng
entr
opy
•Ch
emis
try
of e
ntro
py (s
ee C
hem
istry
sub-
topi
c 15
.2)
Aim
s:
•A
im 5
: dev
elop
men
t of t
he se
cond
law
dem
onst
rate
s the
col
labo
ratio
n in
volv
ed
in sc
ient
ific
purs
uits
•A
im 1
0: th
e re
latio
nshi
ps a
nd si
mila
ritie
s bet
wee
n sc
ient
ific
disc
iplin
es a
re
part
icul
arly
app
aren
t her
e
Core topics
Physics guide 107
B.2
– Th
erm
odyn
amic
s
•D
escr
ibin
g ex
ampl
es o
f pro
cess
es in
term
s of
ent
ropy
cha
nge
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g en
trop
y ch
ange
s
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
cycl
ic p
roce
sses
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
for a
diab
atic
pro
cess
es fo
r mon
atom
ic g
ases
usi
ng
pV5 3 =
con
stan
t
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
erm
al e
ffic
ienc
y
Gui
danc
e:
•If
cycl
es o
ther
than
the
Carn
ot c
ycle
are
use
d qu
antit
ativ
ely,
full
deta
ils w
ill b
e pr
ovid
ed
•O
nly
grap
hica
l ana
lysi
s w
ill b
e re
quire
d fo
r det
erm
inat
ion
of w
ork
done
on
a pV
dia
gram
whe
n pr
essu
re is
not
con
stan
t
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•Q
UW
=∆
+
•U
nRT
3 2=
•S
Q T∆
=∆
•pV
5 3 =
con
stan
t (fo
r mon
atom
ic g
ases
)
•W
pV
=∆
•us
eful
wor
kdo
neen
ergy
inpu
tη
=
•T T
1Ca
rnot
cold
hot
η=
−
Physics guide108
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: F
luid
s ca
nnot
be
mod
elle
d as
poi
nt p
artic
les.
The
ir di
stin
guis
habl
e re
spon
se to
com
pres
sion
from
sol
ids
crea
tes
a se
t of c
hara
cter
istic
s th
at re
quire
an
in-
dept
h st
udy.
B.3
– Fl
uids
and
flui
d dy
nam
ics
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Hum
an u
nder
stan
ding
s: U
nder
stan
ding
and
mod
ellin
g flu
id fl
ow h
as b
een
impo
rtan
t in
man
y te
chno
logi
cal d
evel
opm
ents
suc
h as
des
igns
of t
urbi
nes,
aer
odyn
amic
s of
ca
rs a
nd a
ircra
ft, a
nd m
easu
rem
ent o
f blo
od fl
ow. (
1.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•D
ensi
ty a
nd p
ress
ure
•Bu
oyan
cy a
nd A
rchi
med
es’ p
rinci
ple
•Pa
scal
’s pr
inci
ple
•H
ydro
stat
ic e
quili
briu
m
•Th
e id
eal f
luid
•St
ream
lines
•Th
e co
ntin
uity
equ
atio
n
•Th
e Be
rnou
lli e
quat
ion
and
the
Bern
oulli
eff
ect
•St
okes
’ law
and
vis
cosi
ty
•La
min
ar a
nd tu
rbul
ent f
low
and
the
Reyn
olds
num
ber
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
eter
min
ing
buoy
ancy
forc
es u
sing
Arc
him
edes
’ prin
cipl
e
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g pr
essu
re, d
ensi
ty a
nd P
asca
l’s p
rinci
ple
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
usin
g th
e Be
rnou
lli e
quat
ion
and
the
cont
inui
ty e
quat
ion
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•W
ater
sou
rces
for d
ams
and
irrig
atio
n re
ly o
n th
e kn
owle
dge
of fl
uid
flow
. Th
ese
reso
urce
s ca
n cr
oss
natio
nal b
ound
arie
s le
adin
g to
sha
ring
of w
ater
or
disp
utes
ove
r ow
ners
hip
and
use.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e m
ytho
logy
beh
ind
the
anec
dote
of A
rchi
med
es’ “
Eure
ka!”
mom
ent o
f di
scov
ery
dem
onst
rate
s on
e of
the
man
y w
ays
scie
ntifi
c kn
owle
dge
has
been
tr
ansm
itted
thro
ugho
ut th
e ag
es. W
hat r
ole
can
myt
holo
gy a
nd a
necd
otes
pl
ay in
pas
sing
on
scie
ntifi
c kn
owle
dge?
Wha
t rol
e m
ight
they
pla
y in
pas
sing
on
sci
entif
ic k
now
ledg
e w
ithin
indi
geno
us k
now
ledg
e sy
stem
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•H
ydro
elec
tric
pow
er s
tatio
ns
•A
erod
ynam
ic d
esig
n of
airc
raft
and
veh
icle
s
•Fl
uid
mec
hani
cs is
ess
entia
l in
unde
rsta
ndin
g bl
ood
flow
in a
rter
ies
•Bi
omec
hani
cs (s
ee S
port
s, ex
erci
se a
nd h
ealth
scie
nce
SL s
ub-t
opic
4.3
)
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
opt
ion
topi
cs
10 h
ours
Opt
ion
B: E
ngin
eerin
g ph
ysic
s
Additional higher level option topics
Physics guide 109
B.3
– Fl
uids
and
flui
d dy
nam
ics
•Ex
plai
ning
situ
atio
ns in
volv
ing
the
Bern
oulli
eff
ect
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e fr
ictio
nal d
rag
forc
e ex
erte
d on
sm
all s
pher
ical
obj
ects
in
lam
inar
flui
d flo
w
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g St
okes
’ law
•D
eter
min
ing
the
Reyn
olds
num
ber i
n si
mpl
e si
tuat
ions
Gui
danc
e:
•Id
eal f
luid
s w
ill b
e ta
ken
to m
ean
fluid
s th
at a
re in
com
pres
sibl
e an
d no
n-vi
scou
s an
d ha
ve s
tead
y flo
ws
•A
pplic
atio
ns o
f the
Ber
noul
li eq
uatio
n w
ill in
volv
e (b
ut n
ot b
e lim
ited
to) f
low
ou
t of a
con
tain
er, d
eter
min
ing
the
spee
d of
a p
lane
(pito
t tub
es),
and
vent
uri
tube
s
•Pr
oof o
f the
Ber
noul
li eq
uatio
n w
ill n
ot b
e re
quire
d fo
r exa
min
atio
n pu
rpos
es
•La
min
ar a
nd tu
rbul
ent f
low
will
onl
y be
con
side
red
in s
impl
e si
tuat
ions
•Va
lues
of
R10
3<
will
be
take
n to
repr
esen
t co
nditi
ons
for l
amin
ar fl
ow
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•B
Vg
ff
ρ=
•ρ
=+
PP
gd0
f
•Av
cons
tant
=
•v
gzp
1 2co
nsta
nt2
ρρ
++
=
•F
rv6
Dπη
=
•R
vrρ η
=
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: flu
id d
ynam
ics i
s an
esse
ntia
l par
t of a
ny u
nive
rsity
phy
sics o
r eng
inee
ring
cour
se
•A
im 7
: the
com
plex
ity o
f flu
id d
ynam
ics m
akes
it a
n id
eal t
opic
to b
e vi
sual
ized
th
roug
h co
mpu
ter s
oftw
are
Additional higher level option topics
Physics guide110
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: In
the
real
wor
ld, d
ampi
ng o
ccur
s in
osc
illat
ors
and
has
impl
icat
ions
that
nee
d to
be
cons
ider
ed.
B.4
– Fo
rced
vib
rati
ons
and
reso
nanc
e
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Risk
ass
essm
ent:
The
idea
s of
reso
nanc
e an
d fo
rced
osc
illat
ion
have
app
licat
ion
in m
any
area
s of
eng
inee
ring
rang
ing
from
ele
ctric
al o
scill
atio
n to
the
safe
des
ign
of c
ivil
stru
ctur
es. I
n la
rge-
scal
e ci
vil s
truc
ture
s, m
odel
ling
all p
ossi
ble
effe
cts
is e
ssen
tial b
efor
e co
nstr
uctio
n. (4
.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•N
atur
al fr
eque
ncy
of v
ibra
tion
•Q
fact
or a
nd d
ampi
ng
•Pe
riodi
c st
imul
us a
nd th
e dr
ivin
g fr
eque
ncy
•Re
sona
nce
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
and
quan
titat
ivel
y de
scrib
ing
exam
ples
of u
nder
-, ov
er- a
nd c
ritic
ally
-da
mpe
d os
cilla
tions
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Co
mm
unic
atio
n th
roug
h ra
dio
and
tele
visi
on s
igna
ls is
bas
ed o
n re
sona
nce
of
the
broa
dcas
t sig
nals
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Sc
ienc
e an
d te
chno
logy
mee
t hea
d-on
whe
n th
e re
al b
ehav
iour
of d
ampe
d os
cilla
ting
syst
ems
is m
odel
led
Additional higher level option topics
Physics guide 111
B.4
– Fo
rced
vib
rati
ons
and
reso
nanc
e
•G
raph
ical
ly d
escr
ibin
g th
e va
riatio
n of
the
ampl
itude
of v
ibra
tion
with
driv
ing
freq
uenc
y of
an
obje
ct c
lose
to it
s na
tura
l fre
quen
cy o
f vib
ratio
n
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ph
ase
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
driv
ing
freq
uenc
y an
d fo
rced
os
cilla
tions
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g Q
fact
or
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e us
eful
and
des
truc
tive
effe
cts
of re
sona
nce
Gui
danc
e:
•O
nly
ampl
itude
reso
nanc
e is
requ
ired
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•Q
2en
ergy
stor
eden
ergy
diss
ipat
edpe
rcyc
leπ
=
•Q
2re
sona
ntfre
quen
cyen
ergy
stor
edpo
wer
loss
π=
××
Aim
s:
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): ob
serv
atio
n of
sand
on
a vi
brat
ing
surf
ace
of v
aryi
ng fr
eque
ncie
s; in
vest
igat
ion
of th
e ef
fect
of i
ncre
asin
g da
mpi
ng o
n an
osc
illat
ing
syst
em, s
uch
as a
tuni
ng fo
rk; o
bser
ving
the
use
of a
dr
ivin
g fre
quen
cy o
n fo
rced
osc
illat
ions
•A
im 7
: to
inve
stig
ate
the
use
of re
sona
nce
in e
lect
rical
circ
uits
, ato
ms/
mol
ecul
es,
or w
ith ra
dio/
tele
visio
n co
mm
unic
atio
ns is
bes
t ach
ieve
d th
roug
h so
ftw
are
mod
ellin
g ex
ampl
es
Physics guide112
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he p
rogr
ess o
f a w
ave
can
be m
odel
led
via
the
ray
or th
e w
avef
ront
. The
cha
nge
in w
ave
spee
d w
hen
mov
ing
betw
een
med
ia c
hang
es th
e sh
ape
of th
e w
ave.
C.1
– In
trod
ucti
on to
imag
ing
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ded
uctiv
e lo
gic:
The
use
of v
irtua
l im
ages
is e
ssen
tial f
or o
ur a
naly
sis
of le
nses
and
mirr
ors.
(1.6
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
in le
nses
•Co
nver
ging
and
div
ergi
ng le
nses
•Co
nver
ging
and
div
ergi
ng m
irror
s
•Ra
y di
agra
ms
•Re
al a
nd v
irtua
l im
ages
•Li
near
and
ang
ular
mag
nific
atio
n
•Sp
heric
al a
nd c
hrom
atic
abe
rrat
ions
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g ho
w a
cur
ved
tran
spar
ent i
nter
face
mod
ifies
the
shap
e of
an
inci
dent
wav
efro
nt
•Id
entif
ying
the
prin
cipa
l axi
s, fo
cal p
oint
and
foca
l len
gth
of a
sim
ple
conv
ergi
ng o
r div
ergi
ng le
ns o
n a
scal
ed d
iagr
am
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g no
t mor
e th
an tw
o le
nses
by
cons
truc
ting
scal
ed
ray
diag
ram
s
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•O
ptic
s is
an
anci
ent s
tudy
enc
ompa
ssin
g de
velo
pmen
t mad
e in
the
early
G
reco
-Rom
an a
nd m
edie
val I
slam
ic w
orld
s
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Co
uld
sign
con
vent
ion,
usi
ng th
e sy
mbo
ls o
f pos
itive
and
neg
ativ
e,
emot
iona
lly in
fluen
ce s
cien
tists
?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•M
icro
scop
es a
nd te
lesc
opes
•Ey
egla
sses
and
con
tact
lens
es
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: the
theo
ries
of o
ptic
s, o
rigin
atin
g w
ith h
uman
cur
iosi
ty o
f our
ow
n se
nses
, con
tinue
to b
e of
gre
at v
alue
in le
adin
g to
new
and
use
ful t
echn
olog
y
•A
im 6
: exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e (b
ut a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
): m
agni
ficat
ion
dete
rmin
atio
n us
ing
an o
ptic
al b
ench
; inv
estig
atin
g re
al a
nd v
irtua
l im
ages
fo
rmed
by
lens
es; o
bser
ving
abe
rrat
ions
Core
topi
cs
15 h
ours
Opt
ion
C: Im
agin
g
Core topics
Physics guide 113
C.1
– In
trod
ucti
on to
imag
ing
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g no
t mor
e th
an tw
o cu
rved
mirr
ors
by c
onst
ruct
ing
scal
ed ra
y di
agra
ms
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e th
in le
ns e
quat
ion,
line
ar m
agni
ficat
ion
and
angu
lar m
agni
ficat
ion
•Ex
plai
ning
sph
eric
al a
nd c
hrom
atic
abe
rrat
ions
and
des
crib
ing
way
s to
redu
ce
thei
r eff
ects
on
imag
es
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts s
houl
d tr
eat t
he p
assa
ge o
f lig
ht th
roug
h le
nses
from
the
stan
dpoi
nt
of b
oth
rays
and
wav
efro
nts
•Cu
rved
mirr
ors
are
limite
d to
sph
eric
al a
nd p
arab
olic
con
verg
ing
mirr
ors
and
sphe
rical
div
ergi
ng m
irror
s
•O
nly
thin
lens
es a
re to
be
cons
ider
ed in
this
topi
c
•Th
e le
ns-m
aker
’s fo
rmul
a is
not
requ
ired
•Si
gn c
onve
ntio
n us
ed in
exa
min
atio
ns w
ill b
e ba
sed
on re
al b
eing
pos
itive
(th
e “r
eal-i
s-po
sitiv
e” c
onve
ntio
n)
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•f
vu
11
1=
+
•P
f1=
•m
h hv u
i o
==
−
•M
i oθ θ=
•M
D fM
D fne
ar p
oint
infin
ity
=+
=1
;
Core topics
Physics guide114
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: O
ptic
al m
icro
scop
es a
nd te
lesc
opes
util
ize
sim
ilar p
hysi
cal p
rope
rtie
s of
lens
es a
nd m
irror
s. A
naly
sis
of th
e un
iver
se is
per
form
ed b
oth
optic
ally
and
by
usin
g ra
dio
tele
scop
es to
inve
stig
ate
diff
eren
t reg
ions
of t
he e
lect
rom
agne
tic s
pect
rum
.
C.2
– Im
agin
g in
stru
men
tati
on
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impr
oved
inst
rum
enta
tion:
The
opt
ical
tele
scop
e ha
s be
en in
use
for o
ver 5
00 y
ears
. It h
as e
nabl
ed h
uman
kind
to o
bser
ve a
nd h
ypot
hesi
ze a
bout
the
univ
erse
. Mor
e re
cent
ly, r
adio
tele
scop
es h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed to
inve
stig
ate
the
elec
trom
agne
tic ra
diat
ion
beyo
nd th
e vi
sibl
e re
gion
. Tel
esco
pes
(bot
h vi
sual
and
radi
o) a
re n
ow p
lace
d aw
ay fr
om th
e Ea
rth’
s su
rfac
e to
avo
id th
e im
age
degr
adat
ion
caus
ed b
y th
e at
mos
pher
e, w
hile
cor
rect
ive
optic
s ar
e us
ed to
enh
ance
imag
es c
olle
cted
at t
he E
arth
’s su
rfac
e. M
any
sate
llite
s ha
ve b
een
laun
ched
with
sen
sors
cap
able
of r
ecor
ding
vas
t am
ount
s of
dat
a in
the
infr
ared
, ultr
avio
let,
X-ra
y an
d ot
her e
lect
rom
agne
tic s
pect
rum
ra
nges
. (1.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•O
ptic
al c
ompo
und
mic
rosc
opes
•Si
mpl
e op
tical
ast
rono
mic
al re
frac
ting
tele
scop
es
•Si
mpl
e op
tical
ast
rono
mic
al re
flect
ing
tele
scop
es
•Si
ngle
-dis
h ra
dio
tele
scop
es
•Ra
dio
inte
rfer
omet
ry te
lesc
opes
•Sa
telli
te-b
orne
tele
scop
es
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Co
nstr
uctin
g an
d in
terp
retin
g ra
y di
agra
ms
of o
ptic
al c
ompo
und
mic
rosc
opes
at
nor
mal
adj
ustm
ent
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e an
gula
r mag
nific
atio
n an
d re
solu
tion
of
optic
al c
ompo
und
mic
rosc
opes
•In
vest
igat
ing
the
optic
al c
ompo
und
mic
rosc
ope
expe
rimen
tally
•Co
nstr
uctin
g or
com
plet
ing
ray
diag
ram
s of
sim
ple
optic
al a
stro
nom
ical
re
frac
ting
tele
scop
es a
t nor
mal
adj
ustm
ent
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e us
e of
the
radi
o in
terf
erom
etry
tele
scop
e cr
osse
s cu
lture
s w
ith
colla
bora
tion
betw
een
scie
ntis
ts fr
om m
any
coun
trie
s to
pro
duce
arr
ays
of
inte
rfer
omet
ers
that
spa
n th
e co
ntin
ents
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•H
owev
er a
dvan
ced
the
tech
nolo
gy, m
icro
scop
es a
nd te
lesc
opes
alw
ays
invo
lve
sens
e pe
rcep
tion.
Can
tech
nolo
gy b
e us
ed e
ffec
tivel
y to
ext
end
or
corr
ect o
ur s
ense
s?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Ce
ll ob
serv
atio
n (s
ee B
iolo
gy s
ub-t
opic
1.2
)
•Th
e in
form
atio
n th
at th
e as
tron
omic
al te
lesc
opes
gat
her c
ontin
ues
to a
llow
us
to im
prov
e ou
r und
erst
andi
ng o
f the
uni
vers
e
•Re
solu
tion
is c
over
ed fo
r oth
er s
ourc
es in
Phy
sics s
ub-t
opic
9.4
Core topics
Physics guide 115
C.2
– Im
agin
g in
stru
men
tati
on
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e an
gula
r mag
nific
atio
n of
sim
ple
optic
al
astr
onom
ical
tele
scop
es
•In
vest
igat
ing
the
perf
orm
ance
of a
sim
ple
optic
al a
stro
nom
ical
refr
actin
g te
lesc
ope
expe
rimen
tally
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e co
mpa
rativ
e pe
rfor
man
ce o
f Ear
th-b
ased
tele
scop
es a
nd
sate
llite
-bor
ne te
lesc
opes
Gui
danc
e:
•Si
mpl
e op
tical
ast
rono
mic
al re
flect
ing
tele
scop
e de
sign
is li
mite
d to
N
ewto
nian
and
Cas
segr
ain
mou
ntin
g
•Ra
dio
inte
rfer
omet
er te
lesc
opes
sho
uld
be a
ppro
xim
ated
as
a di
sh o
f dia
met
er
equa
l to
the
max
imum
sep
arat
ion
of th
e an
tenn
ae
•Ra
dio
inte
rfer
omet
ry te
lesc
opes
refe
r to
arra
y te
lesc
opes
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•=
Mf fo e
Aim
s:
•A
im 3
: im
ages
from
mic
rosc
opes
and
tele
scop
es b
oth
in th
e sc
hool
labo
rato
ry
and
obta
ined
via
the
inte
rnet
ena
ble
stud
ents
to a
pply
thei
r kno
wle
dge
of
thes
e te
chni
ques
•A
im 5
: res
earc
h as
tron
omy
and
astr
ophy
sics
is a
n ex
ampl
e of
the
need
fo
r col
labo
ratio
n be
twee
n te
ams
of s
cien
tists
from
diff
eren
t cou
ntrie
s an
d co
ntin
ents
•A
im 6
: loc
al a
mat
eur o
r pro
fess
iona
l ast
rono
mic
al o
rgan
izat
ions
can
be
usef
ul
for a
rran
ging
dem
onst
ratio
ns o
f the
nig
ht s
ky
Core topics
Physics guide116
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
otal
inte
rnal
refle
ctio
n al
low
s lig
ht o
r inf
rare
d ra
diat
ion
to tr
avel
alo
ng a
tran
spar
ent f
ibre
. How
ever
, the
per
form
ance
of a
fibr
e ca
n be
deg
rade
d by
di
sper
sion
and
att
enua
tion
effe
cts.
C.3
– Fi
bre
opti
cs
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
App
lied
scie
nce:
Adv
ance
s in
com
mun
icat
ion
links
usi
ng fi
bre
optic
s ha
ve le
d to
a g
loba
l net
wor
k of
opt
ical
fibr
es th
at h
as tr
ansf
orm
ed g
loba
l com
mun
icat
ions
by
voic
e,
vide
o an
d da
ta. (
1.2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•St
ruct
ure
of o
ptic
fibr
es
•St
ep-in
dex
fibre
s and
gra
ded-
inde
x fib
res
•To
tal i
nter
nal r
efle
ctio
n an
d cr
itica
l ang
le
•W
aveg
uide
and
mat
eria
l disp
ersio
n in
opt
ic fi
bres
•At
tenu
atio
n an
d th
e de
cibe
l (dB
) sca
le
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms i
nvol
ving
tota
l int
erna
l ref
lect
ion
and
criti
cal a
ngle
in th
e co
ntex
t of f
ibre
opt
ics
•D
escr
ibin
g ho
w w
aveg
uide
and
mat
eria
l disp
ersio
n ca
n le
ad to
att
enua
tion
and
how
this
can
be a
ccou
nted
for
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g at
tenu
atio
n
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ad
vant
ages
of f
ibre
opt
ics
over
twis
ted
pair
and
coax
ial c
able
s
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
e un
der-
sea
optic
fibr
es a
re a
vita
l par
t of t
he c
omm
unic
atio
n be
twee
n co
ntin
ents
Uti
lizat
ion:
•W
ill a
com
mun
icat
ion
limit
be re
ache
d as
we
cann
ot m
ove
info
rmat
ion
fast
er
than
the
spee
d of
ligh
t?
Aim
s:
•A
im 1
: thi
s is
a g
loba
l tec
hnol
ogy
that
em
brac
es a
nd d
rives
incr
ease
s in
co
mm
unic
atio
n sp
eeds
•A
im 9
: the
dis
pers
ion
effe
cts
illus
trat
e th
e in
here
nt li
mita
tions
that
can
be
part
of a
tech
nolo
gy
Core topics
Physics guide 117
C.3
– Fi
bre
opti
cs
Gui
danc
e:
•Q
uant
itativ
e de
scrip
tions
of a
tten
uatio
n ar
e re
quire
d an
d in
clud
e at
tenu
atio
n pe
r uni
t len
gth
•Th
e te
rm w
aveg
uide
disp
ersio
n w
ill b
e us
ed in
exa
min
atio
ns. W
aveg
uide
di
sper
sion
is s
omet
imes
kno
wn
as m
odal
disp
ersio
n.
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•n
c1
sin
=
•I I
atte
nuat
ion
=10
log
0
Physics guide118
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he b
ody
can
be im
aged
usi
ng ra
diat
ion
gene
rate
d fr
om b
oth
outs
ide
and
insi
de. I
mag
ing
has e
nabl
ed m
edic
al p
ract
ition
ers t
o im
prov
e di
agno
sis w
ith fe
wer
in
vasi
ve p
roce
dure
s.
C.4
– M
edic
al im
agin
g
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Risk
ana
lysi
s: Th
e do
ctor
’s ro
le is
to m
inim
ize
patie
nt ri
sk in
med
ical
dia
gnos
is a
nd p
roce
dure
s ba
sed
on a
n as
sess
men
t of t
he o
vera
ll be
nefit
to th
e pa
tient
. Arg
umen
ts
invo
lvin
g pr
obab
ility
are
use
d in
con
side
ring
the
atte
nuat
ion
of ra
diat
ion
tran
smitt
ed th
roug
h th
e bo
dy. (
4.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•D
etec
tion
and
reco
rdin
g of
X-r
ay im
ages
in m
edic
al c
onte
xts
•G
ener
atio
n an
d de
tect
ion
of u
ltras
ound
in m
edic
al c
onte
xts
•M
edic
al im
agin
g te
chni
ques
(mag
netic
reso
nanc
e im
agin
g) in
volv
ing
nucl
ear
mag
netic
reso
nanc
e (N
MR)
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ex
plai
ning
feat
ures
of X
-ray
imag
ing,
incl
udin
g at
tenu
atio
n co
effic
ient
, hal
f-val
ue
thic
knes
s, lin
ear/m
ass a
bsor
ptio
n co
effic
ient
s and
tech
niqu
es fo
r im
prov
emen
ts
of sh
arpn
ess a
nd c
ontr
ast
•So
lvin
g X-
ray
atte
nuat
ion
prob
lem
s
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms i
nvol
ving
ultr
asou
nd a
cous
tic im
peda
nce,
spee
d of
ultr
asou
nd
thro
ugh
tissu
e an
d ai
r and
rela
tive
inte
nsity
leve
ls
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
ere
is c
onst
ant d
ialo
gue
betw
een
rese
arch
clin
icia
ns in
diff
eren
t cou
ntrie
s to
com
mun
icat
e ne
w m
etho
ds a
nd tr
eatm
ents
for t
he g
ood
of p
atie
nts
ever
ywhe
re
•O
rgan
izat
ions
suc
h as
Méd
ecin
s San
s Fro
ntiè
res p
rovi
de v
alua
ble
med
ical
ski
lls
in p
arts
of t
he w
orld
whe
re m
edic
al h
elp
is re
quire
d
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•“I
t’s n
ot w
hat y
ou lo
ok a
t tha
t mat
ters
, it’s
wha
t you
see
.” –
Hen
ry D
avid
Th
orea
u. T
o w
hat e
xten
t do
you
agre
e w
ith th
is c
omm
ent o
n th
e im
pact
of
fact
ors
such
as
expe
ctat
ion
on p
erce
ptio
n?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Sc
anni
ng th
e hu
man
bra
in (s
ee B
iolo
gy s
ub-t
opic
A.4
)
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
opt
ion
topi
cs
10 h
ours
Opt
ion
C: Im
agin
g
Additional higher level topics
Physics guide 119
C.4
– M
edic
al im
agin
g
•Ex
plai
ning
feat
ures
of m
edic
al u
ltras
ound
tech
niqu
es, in
clud
ing
choi
ce o
f fre
quen
cy, u
se o
f gel
and
the
diffe
renc
e be
twee
n A
and
B sc
ans
•Ex
plai
ning
the
use
of g
radi
ent f
ield
s in
NM
R
•Ex
plai
ning
the
orig
in o
f the
rela
xatio
n of
pro
ton
spin
and
con
sequ
ent e
miss
ion
of
signa
l in
NM
R
•D
iscus
sing
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isadv
anta
ges o
f ultr
asou
nd a
nd N
MR
scan
ning
m
etho
ds, in
clud
ing
a sim
ple
asse
ssm
ent o
f risk
in th
ese
med
ical
pro
cedu
res
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
com
pute
fina
l bea
m in
tens
ity a
fter
pas
sage
thro
ugh
mul
tiple
laye
rs o
f tiss
ue. O
nly
para
llel p
lane
inte
rfac
es w
ill b
e tr
eate
d.
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•=
LI I
10lo
gI
1 0
•I
Ie
x0
=µ
−
•x
ln2
1 2
µ=
•Z
cρ=
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: the
re a
re m
any
oppo
rtun
ities
for s
tude
nts
to a
naly
se a
nd e
valu
ate
scie
ntifi
c in
form
atio
n
•A
im 8
: the
soc
ial i
mpa
ct o
f the
se s
cien
tific
tech
niqu
es fo
r the
ben
efit
of
hum
anki
nd c
anno
t be
over
-em
phas
ized
•A
im 1
0: m
edic
ine
and
phys
ics
mee
t in
the
hi-t
ech
wor
ld o
f sca
nnin
g an
d tr
eatm
ent.
Mod
ern
doct
ors
rely
on
tech
nolo
gy th
at a
rises
from
dev
elop
men
ts
in th
e ph
ysic
al s
cien
ces.
Physics guide120
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: O
ne o
f the
mos
t diff
icul
t pro
blem
s in
ast
rono
my
is c
omin
g to
term
s w
ith th
e va
st d
ista
nces
bet
wee
n st
ars
and
gala
xies
and
dev
isin
g ac
cura
te m
etho
ds fo
r m
easu
ring
them
.
D.1
– S
tella
r qua
ntit
ies
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Real
ity: T
he s
yste
mat
ic m
easu
rem
ent o
f dis
tanc
e an
d br
ight
ness
of s
tars
and
gal
axie
s ha
s le
d to
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
univ
erse
on
a sc
ale
that
is d
iffic
ult t
o im
agin
e an
d co
mpr
ehen
d. (1
.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•O
bjec
ts in
the
univ
erse
•Th
e na
ture
of s
tars
•A
stro
nom
ical
dis
tanc
es
•St
ella
r par
alla
x an
d its
lim
itatio
ns
•Lu
min
osity
and
app
aren
t brig
htne
ss
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Id
entif
ying
obj
ects
in th
e un
iver
se
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribin
g th
e eq
uilib
rium
bet
wee
n pr
essu
re a
nd g
ravi
tatio
n
in s
tars
•U
sing
the
astr
onom
ical
uni
t (AU
), lig
ht y
ear (
ly) a
nd p
arse
c (p
c)
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e m
etho
d to
det
erm
ine
dist
ance
to s
tars
thro
ugh
stel
lar p
aral
lax
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g lu
min
osity
, app
aren
t brig
htne
ss a
nd d
ista
nce
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e va
st d
ista
nces
bet
wee
n st
ars
and
gala
xies
are
diff
icul
t to
com
preh
end
or
imag
ine.
Are
oth
er w
ays
of k
now
ing
mor
e us
eful
than
imag
inat
ion
for g
aini
ng
know
ledg
e in
ast
rono
my?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•Si
mila
r par
alla
x te
chni
ques
can
be
used
to a
ccur
atel
y m
easu
re d
ista
nces
her
e on
Ear
th
Aim
s:
•A
im 1
: cre
ativ
ity is
requ
ired
to a
naly
se o
bjec
ts th
at a
re s
uch
vast
dis
tanc
es
from
us
•A
im 6
: loc
al a
mat
eur o
r pro
fess
iona
l ast
rono
mic
al o
rgan
izat
ions
can
be
usef
ul
for a
rran
ging
vie
win
g ev
enin
gs
•A
im 9
: as
we
are
able
to o
bser
ve fu
rthe
r int
o th
e un
iver
se, w
e re
ach
the
limits
of
our
cur
rent
tech
nolo
gy to
mak
e ac
cura
te m
easu
rem
ents
Core
topi
cs
15 h
ours
Opt
ion
D: A
stro
phys
ics
Core topics
Physics guide 121
D.1
– S
tella
r qua
ntit
ies
Gui
danc
e:
•Fo
r thi
s co
urse
, obj
ects
in th
e un
iver
se in
clud
e pl
anet
s, c
omet
s, s
tars
(sin
gle
and
bina
ry),
plan
etar
y sy
stem
s, c
onst
ella
tions
, ste
llar c
lust
ers
(ope
n an
d gl
obul
ar),
nebu
lae,
gal
axie
s, c
lust
ers
of g
alax
ies
and
supe
r clu
ster
s of
gal
axie
s
•St
uden
ts a
re e
xpec
ted
to h
ave
an a
war
enes
s of
the
vast
cha
nges
in d
ista
nce
scal
e fr
om p
lane
tary
sys
tem
s th
roug
h to
sup
er c
lust
ers
of g
alax
ies
and
the
univ
erse
as
a w
hole
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•d
p(p
arse
c)1
(arc
–sec
ond)
=
•L
AT4
σ=
•b
L d4
2π
=
Core topics
Physics guide122
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
sim
ple
diag
ram
that
plo
ts th
e lu
min
osity
ver
sus t
he su
rfac
e te
mpe
ratu
re o
f sta
rs re
veal
s unu
sual
ly d
etai
led
patt
erns
that
hel
p un
ders
tand
the
inne
r wor
king
s of
star
s. S
tars
follo
w w
ell-d
efin
ed p
atte
rns f
rom
the
mom
ent t
hey
are
crea
ted
out o
f col
laps
ing
inte
rste
llar g
as, t
o th
eir l
ives
on
the
mai
n se
quen
ce a
nd to
thei
r eve
ntua
l dea
th.
D.2
– S
tella
r cha
ract
eris
tics
and
ste
llar e
volu
tion
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Evid
ence
: The
sim
ple
light
spe
ctra
of a
gas
on
Eart
h ca
n be
com
pare
d to
the
light
spe
ctra
of d
ista
nt s
tars
. Thi
s ha
s al
low
ed u
s to
det
erm
ine
the
velo
city
, com
posi
tion
and
stru
ctur
e of
sta
rs a
nd c
onfir
med
hyp
othe
ses
abou
t the
exp
ansi
on o
f the
uni
vers
e. (1
.11)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•St
ella
r spe
ctra
•H
ertz
spru
ng–R
usse
ll (H
R) d
iagr
am
•M
ass–
lum
inos
ity re
latio
n fo
r mai
n se
quen
ce s
tars
•Ce
phei
d va
riabl
es
•St
ella
r evo
lutio
n on
HR
diag
ram
s
•Re
d gi
ants
, whi
te d
war
fs, n
eutr
on s
tars
and
bla
ck h
oles
•Ch
andr
asek
har a
nd O
ppen
heim
er–V
olko
ff li
mits
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ex
plai
ning
how
sur
face
tem
pera
ture
may
be
obta
ined
from
a s
tar’s
spe
ctru
m
•Ex
plai
ning
how
the
chem
ical
com
posi
tion
of a
sta
r may
be
dete
rmin
ed fr
om
the
star
’s sp
ectr
um
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
HR
diag
ram
s
•Id
entif
ying
the
mai
n re
gion
s of
the
HR
diag
ram
and
des
crib
ing
the
mai
n pr
oper
ties
of s
tars
in th
ese
regi
ons
•A
pply
ing
the
mas
s–lu
min
osity
rela
tion
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e re
ason
for t
he v
aria
tion
of C
ephe
id v
aria
bles
•D
eter
min
ing
dist
ance
usi
ng d
ata
on C
ephe
id v
aria
bles
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
evol
utio
nary
pat
hs o
f sta
rs o
n an
HR
diag
ram
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ev
olut
ion
of s
tars
off
the
mai
n se
quen
ce
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ro
le o
f mas
s in
ste
llar e
volu
tion
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Th
e in
form
atio
n re
veal
ed th
roug
h sp
ectr
a ne
eds
a tr
aine
d m
ind
to b
e in
terp
rete
d. W
hat i
s th
e ro
le o
f int
erpr
etat
ion
in g
aini
ng k
now
ledg
e in
the
natu
ral s
cien
ces?
How
doe
s th
is d
iffer
from
the
role
of i
nter
pret
atio
n in
oth
er
area
s of
kno
wle
dge?
Uti
lizat
ion:
•A
n un
ders
tand
ing
of h
ow s
imila
r sta
rs to
our
Sun
hav
e ag
ed a
nd e
volv
ed
assi
sts
in o
ur p
redi
ctio
ns o
f our
fate
on
Eart
h
Aim
s:
•A
im 4
: ana
lysi
s of
sta
r spe
ctra
pro
vide
s m
any
oppo
rtun
ities
for e
valu
atio
n
and
synt
hesi
s
•A
im 6
: sof
twar
e-ba
sed
anal
ysis
is a
vaila
ble
for s
tude
nts
to p
artic
ipat
e in
as
trop
hysi
cs re
sear
ch
Core topics
Physics guide 123
D.2
– S
tella
r cha
ract
eris
tics
and
ste
llar e
volu
tion
Gui
danc
e:
•Re
gion
s of
the
HR
diag
ram
are
rest
ricte
d to
the
mai
n se
quen
ce, w
hite
dw
arfs
, re
d gi
ants
, sup
er g
iant
s an
d th
e in
stab
ility
str
ip (v
aria
ble
star
s), a
s w
ell a
s lin
es
of c
onst
ant r
adiu
s
•H
R di
agra
ms
will
be
labe
lled
with
lum
inos
ity o
n th
e ve
rtic
al a
xis
and
tem
pera
ture
on
the
horiz
onta
l axi
s
•O
nly
one
spec
ific
expo
nent
(3.5
) will
be
used
in th
e m
ass–
lum
inos
ity re
latio
n
•Re
fere
nces
to e
lect
ron
and
neut
ron
dege
nera
cy p
ress
ures
nee
d to
be
mad
e
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•λ m
axT=
×−
29
103
.m
K
•L
M3.
5∝
Core topics
Physics guide124
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he H
ot B
ig B
ang
mod
el is
a th
eory
that
des
crib
es th
e or
igin
and
exp
ansi
on o
f the
uni
vers
e an
d is
sup
port
ed b
y ex
tens
ive
expe
rimen
tal e
vide
nce.
D.3
– C
osm
olog
y
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Occ
am’s
Razo
r: Th
e Bi
g Ba
ng m
odel
was
pur
ely
spec
ulat
ive
until
it w
as c
onfir
med
by
the
disc
over
y of
the
cosm
ic m
icro
wav
e ba
ckgr
ound
radi
atio
n. T
he m
odel
, whi
le
corr
ectly
des
crib
ing
man
y as
pect
s of
the
univ
erse
as
we
obse
rve
it to
day,
stil
l can
not e
xpla
in w
hat h
appe
ned
at ti
me
zero
. (2.
7)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e Bi
g Ba
ng m
odel
•Co
smic
mic
row
ave
back
grou
nd (C
MB)
radi
atio
n
•H
ubbl
e’s l
aw
•Th
e ac
cele
ratin
g un
iver
se a
nd re
dshi
ft (z
)
•Th
e co
smic
scal
e fa
ctor
(R)
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g bo
th sp
ace
and
time
as o
rigin
atin
g w
ith th
e Bi
g Ba
ng
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e ch
arac
teris
tics o
f the
CM
B ra
diat
ion
•Ex
plai
ning
how
the
CMB
radi
atio
n is
evid
ence
for a
Hot
Big
Ban
g
•So
lvin
g pr
oble
ms i
nvol
ving
z, R
and
Hub
ble’
s law
•Es
timat
ing
the
age
of th
e un
iver
se b
y as
sum
ing
a co
nsta
nt e
xpan
sion
rate
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Co
ntrib
utio
ns fr
om s
cien
tists
from
man
y na
tions
mad
e th
e an
alys
is o
f the
co
smic
mic
row
ave
back
grou
nd ra
diat
ion
poss
ible
Uti
lizat
ion:
•D
oppl
er e
ffec
t (se
e Ph
ysic
s sub
-top
ic 9
.5)
Aim
s:
•A
im 1
: sci
entif
ic e
xpla
natio
n of
bla
ck h
oles
requ
ires
a he
ight
ened
leve
l of
cre
ativ
ity
•A
im 9
: our
lim
it of
und
erst
andi
ng is
gui
ded
by o
ur a
bilit
y to
obs
erve
with
in
our u
nive
rse
Core topics
Physics guide 125
D.3
– C
osm
olog
y
Gui
danc
e:
•CM
B ra
diat
ion
will
be
cons
ider
ed to
be
isotr
opic
with
T≈
2.76
K
•Fo
r CM
B ra
diat
ion
a sim
ple
expl
anat
ion
in te
rms o
f the
uni
vers
e co
olin
g do
wn
or
dist
ance
s (an
d he
nce
wav
elen
gths
) bei
ng st
retc
hed
out i
s all
that
is re
quire
d
•A
qual
itativ
e de
scrip
tion
of th
e ro
le o
f typ
e Ia
supe
rnov
ae a
s pro
vidi
ng e
vide
nce
for a
n ac
cele
ratin
g un
iver
se is
requ
ired
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•z
v c0λ λ
=∆
≈
•z
R R1
0
=−
•v
Hd
0=
•T ≈
H1 0
Physics guide126
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he la
ws
of n
ucle
ar p
hysi
cs a
pplie
d to
nuc
lear
fusi
on p
roce
sses
insi
de s
tars
det
erm
ine
the
prod
uctio
n of
all
elem
ents
up
to ir
on.
D.4
– S
tella
r pro
cess
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obs
erva
tion
and
dedu
ctio
n: O
bser
vatio
ns o
f ste
llar s
pect
ra s
how
ed th
e ex
iste
nce
of d
iffer
ent e
lem
ents
in s
tars
. Ded
uctio
ns fr
om n
ucle
ar fu
sion
theo
ry w
ere
able
to e
xpla
in
this
. (1.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e Je
ans c
riter
ion
•N
ucle
ar fu
sion
•N
ucle
osyn
thes
is of
f the
mai
n se
quen
ce
•Ty
pe Ia
and
II su
pern
ovae
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•Ap
plyi
ng th
e Je
ans c
riter
ion
to st
ar fo
rmat
ion
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e di
ffere
nt ty
pes o
f nuc
lear
fusio
n re
actio
ns ta
king
pla
ce o
ff th
e m
ain
sequ
ence
•Ap
plyi
ng th
e m
ass–
lum
inos
ity re
latio
n to
com
pare
life
times
on
the
mai
n se
quen
ce re
lativ
e to
that
of o
ur S
un
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e fo
rmat
ion
of e
lem
ents
in st
ars t
hat a
re h
eavi
er th
an ir
on in
clud
ing
the
requ
ired
incr
ease
s in
tem
pera
ture
•Q
ualit
ativ
ely
desc
ribe
the
s and
r pr
oces
ses f
or n
eutr
on c
aptu
re
•D
istin
guish
ing
betw
een
type
Ia a
nd II
supe
rnov
ae
Aim
s:
•A
im 1
0: a
naly
sis
of n
ucle
osyn
thes
is in
volv
es th
e w
ork
of c
hem
ists
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
opt
ion
topi
cs
10 h
ours
Opt
ion
D: A
stro
phys
ics
Additional higher level topics
Physics guide 127
D.4
– S
tella
r pro
cess
es
Gui
danc
e:
•O
nly
an e
lem
enta
ry a
pplic
atio
n of
the
Jean
s cr
iterio
n is
requ
ired,
ie c
olla
pse
of
an in
ters
tella
r clo
ud m
ay b
egin
if M
> M
j
•St
uden
ts sh
ould
be
awar
e of
the
use
of ty
pe Ia
supe
rnov
ae a
s sta
ndar
d ca
ndle
s
Additional higher level topics
Physics guide128
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he m
oder
n fie
ld o
f cos
mol
ogy
uses
adv
ance
d ex
perim
enta
l and
obs
erva
tiona
l tec
hniq
ues
to c
olle
ct d
ata
with
an
unpr
eced
ente
d de
gree
of p
reci
sion
and
as
a re
sult
very
sur
pris
ing
and
deta
iled
conc
lusi
ons
abou
t the
str
uctu
re o
f the
uni
vers
e ha
ve b
een
reac
hed.
D.5
– F
urth
er c
osm
olog
y
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Cogn
itive
bia
s: A
ccor
ding
to e
very
body
’s ex
pect
atio
ns th
e ra
te o
f exp
ansi
on o
f the
uni
vers
e sh
ould
be
slow
ing
dow
n be
caus
e of
gra
vity
. The
det
aile
d re
sults
from
the
1998
(and
sub
sequ
ent)
obs
erva
tions
on
dist
ant s
uper
nova
e sh
owed
that
the
oppo
site
was
in fa
ct tr
ue. T
he a
ccel
erat
ed e
xpan
sion
of t
he u
nive
rse,
whe
reas
exp
erim
enta
lly
verif
ied,
is s
till a
n un
expl
aine
d ph
enom
enon
. (3.
5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
•Th
e co
smol
ogic
al p
rinci
ple
•Ro
tatio
n cu
rves
and
the
mas
s of g
alax
ies
•D
ark
mat
ter
•Fl
uctu
atio
ns in
the
CMB
•Th
e co
smol
ogic
al o
rigin
of r
edsh
ift
•Cr
itica
l den
sity
•D
ark
ener
gy
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
•D
escr
ibin
g th
e co
smol
ogic
al p
rinci
ple
and
its ro
le in
mod
els o
f the
uni
vers
e
•D
escr
ibin
g ro
tatio
n cu
rves
as e
vide
nce
for d
ark
mat
ter
•D
eriv
ing
rota
tiona
l vel
ocity
from
New
toni
an g
ravi
tatio
n
•D
escr
ibin
g an
d in
terp
retin
g th
e ob
serv
ed a
niso
trop
ies i
n th
e CM
B
•D
eriv
ing
criti
cal d
ensit
y fro
m N
ewto
nian
gra
vita
tion
•Sk
etch
ing
and
inte
rpre
ting
grap
hs sh
owin
g th
e va
riatio
n of
the
cosm
ic sc
ale
fact
or
with
tim
e
•D
escr
ibin
g qu
alita
tivel
y th
e co
smic
scal
e fa
ctor
in m
odel
s with
and
with
out
dark
ene
rgy
Inte
rnat
iona
l-m
inde
dnes
s:
•Th
is is
a h
ighl
y co
llabo
rativ
e fie
ld o
f res
earc
h in
volv
ing
scie
ntis
ts fr
om a
ll ov
er
the
wor
ld
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
•Ex
perim
enta
l fac
ts s
how
that
the
expa
nsio
n of
the
univ
erse
is a
ccel
erat
ing
ye
t no
one
unde
rsta
nds
why
. Is
this
an
exam
ple
of s
omet
hing
that
we
will
ne
ver k
now
?
Aim
s:
•A
im 2
: unl
ike
how
it w
as ju
st a
few
dec
ades
ago
, the
fiel
d of
cos
mol
ogy
has
now
dev
elop
ed s
o m
uch
that
cos
mol
ogy
has
beco
me
a ve
ry e
xact
sci
ence
on
the
sam
e le
vel a
s th
e re
st o
f phy
sics
•A
im 1
0: it
is q
uite
ext
raor
dina
ry th
at to
set
tle th
e is
sue
of th
e fa
te o
f the
un
iver
se, c
osm
olog
y, th
e ph
ysic
s of
the
very
larg
e, re
quire
d th
e he
lp o
f pa
rtic
le p
hysi
cs, t
he p
hysi
cs o
f the
ver
y sm
all
Additional higher level topics
Physics guide 129
D.5
– F
urth
er c
osm
olog
y
Gui
danc
e:
•St
uden
ts a
re e
xpec
ted
to b
e ab
le to
refe
r to
rota
tion
curv
es a
s evi
denc
e fo
r dar
k m
atte
r and
mus
t be
awar
e of
type
s of c
andi
date
s for
dar
k mat
ter
•St
uden
ts m
ust b
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e m
ain
resu
lts o
f CO
BE, W
MAP
and
the
Plan
ck
spac
e ob
serv
ator
y
•St
uden
ts a
re e
xpec
ted
to d
emon
stra
te th
at th
e te
mpe
ratu
re o
f the
uni
vers
e va
ries
with
the
cosm
ic sc
ale
fact
or a
s T
R1∝
Dat
a bo
okle
t ref
eren
ce:
•v
Gr
43π
ρ=
•H G
3 8c
2
ρπ
=
Physics guide130130
Assessment
GeneralAssessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. The most important aims of assessment in the Diploma Programme are that it should support curricular goals and encourage appropriate student learning. Both external and internal assessments are used in the Diploma Programme. IB examiners mark work produced for external assessment, while work produced for internal assessment is marked by teachers and externally moderated by the IB.
There are two types of assessment identified by the IB.
• Formative assessment informs both teaching and learning. It is concerned with providing accurate and helpful feedback to students and teachers on the kind of learning taking place and the nature of students’ strengths and weaknesses in order to help develop students’ understanding and capabilities. Formative assessment can also help to improve teaching quality, as it can provide information to monitor progress towards meeting the course aims and objectives.
• Summative assessment gives an overview of previous learning and is concerned with measuring student achievement.
The Diploma Programme primarily focuses on summative assessment designed to record student achievement at, or towards the end of, the course of study. However, many of the assessment instruments can also be used formatively during the course of teaching and learning, and teachers are encouraged to do this. A comprehensive assessment plan is viewed as being integral with teaching, learning and course organization. For further information, see the IB Programme standards and practices document.
The approach to assessment used by the IB is criterion-related, not norm-referenced. This approach to assessment judges students’ work by their performance in relation to identified levels of attainment, and not in relation to the work of other students. For further information on assessment within the Diploma Programme please refer to the publication Diploma Programme assessment: principles and practice.
To support teachers in the planning, delivery and assessment of the Diploma Programme courses, a variety of resources can be found on the OCC or purchased from the IB store (http://store.ibo.org). Additional publications such as specimen papers and markschemes, teacher support materials, subject reports and grade descriptors can also be found on the OCC. Past examination papers as well as markschemes can be purchased from the IB store.
Methods of assessmentThe IB uses several methods to assess work produced by students.
Assessment criteriaAssessment criteria are used when the assessment task is open-ended. Each criterion concentrates on a particular skill that students are expected to demonstrate. An assessment objective describes what students should be able to do, and assessment criteria describe how well they should be able to do it. Using assessment criteria allows discrimination between different answers and encourages a variety of responses. Each criterion comprises a set of hierarchically ordered level descriptors. Each level descriptor is worth one
Assessment in the Diploma Programme
Assessment in the Diploma Programme
Physics guide 131
or more marks. Each criterion is applied independently using a best-fit model. The maximum marks for each criterion may differ according to the criterion’s importance. The marks awarded for each criterion are added together to give the total mark for the piece of work.
MarkbandsMarkbands are a comprehensive statement of expected performance against which responses are judged. They represent a single holistic criterion divided into level descriptors. Each level descriptor corresponds to a range of marks to differentiate student performance. A best-fit approach is used to ascertain which particular mark to use from the possible range for each level descriptor.
Analytic markschemesAnalytic markschemes are prepared for those examination questions that expect a particular kind of response and/or a given final answer from students. They give detailed instructions to examiners on how to break down the total mark for each question for different parts of the response.
Marking notesFor some assessment components marked using assessment criteria, marking notes are provided. Marking notes give guidance on how to apply assessment criteria to the particular requirements of a question.
Inclusive assessment arrangementsInclusive assessment arrangements are available for candidates with assessment access requirements. These arrangements enable candidates with diverse needs to access the examinations and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the constructs being assessed.
The IB document Candidates with assessment access requirements provides details on all the inclusive assessment arrangements available to candidates with learning support requirements. The IB document Learning diversity within the International Baccalaureate programmes/Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes outlines the position of the IB with regard to candidates with diverse learning needs in the IB programmes. For candidates affected by adverse circumstances, the IB documents General regulations: Diploma Programme and the Handbook of procedures for the Diploma Programme provide details on special consideration.
Responsibilities of the schoolThe school is required to ensure that equal access arrangements and reasonable adjustments are provided to candidates with special educational needs that are in line with the IB documents Candidates with assessment access requirements and Learning diversity within the International Baccalaureate programmes/Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes.
Physics guide132132
Assessment
Assessment outline—SL
First assessment 2016
Component Overall weighting
(%)
Approximate weighting of
objectives (%)
Duration (hours)
1+2 3
Paper 1 20 10 10 ¾
Paper 2 40 20 20 1¼
Paper 3 20 10 10 1
Internal assessment
20Covers objectives
1, 2, 3 and 410
Physics guide 133133
Assessment outline—HL
Assessment
First assessment 2016
Component Overall weighting (%)
Approximate weighting of
objectives (%)
Duration (hours)
1+2 3
Paper 1 20 10 10 1
Paper 2 36 18 18 2¼
Paper 3 24 12 12 1¼
Internal assessment
20 Covers objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4
10
Physics guide134134
External assessment
Assessment
The method used to assess students is the use of detailed markschemes specific to each examination paper.
External assessment details—SL
Paper 1 Duration: 3/4 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 30
• 30 multiple-choice questions on core, about 15 of which are common with HL.
• The questions on paper 1 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is not permitted.
• No marks are deducted for incorrect answers.
• A physics data booklet is provided.
Paper 2 Duration: 1¼ hoursWeighting: 40%Marks: 50
• Short-answer and extended-response questions on core material.
• The questions on paper 2 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A physics data booklet is provided.
Paper 3Duration: 1 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 35
• This paper will have questions on core and SL option material.
• Section A: one data-based question and several short-answer questions on experimental work.
• Section B: short-answer and extended-response questions from one option.
• The questions on paper 3 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A physics data booklet is provided.
External assessment
Physics guide 135
External assessment details—HL
Paper 1Duration: 1 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 40
• 40 multiple-choice questions on core and AHL, about 15 of which are common with SL.
• The questions on paper 1 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is not permitted.
• No marks are deducted for incorrect answers.
• A physics data booklet is provided.
Paper 2Duration: 2¼ hoursWeighting: 36%Marks: 95
• Short-answer and extended-response questions on the core and AHL material.
• The questions on paper 2 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A physics data booklet is provided.
Paper 3Duration: 1¼ hoursWeighting: 24%Marks: 45
• This paper will have questions on core, AHL and option material.
• Section A: one data-based question and several short-answer questions on experimental work.
• Section B: short-answer and extended-response questions from one option.
• The questions on paper 3 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A physics data booklet is provided.
Physics guide136136
Assessment
Internal assessment
Purpose of internal assessmentInternal assessment is an integral part of the course and is compulsory for both SL and HL students. It enables students to demonstrate the application of their skills and knowledge, and to pursue their personal interests, without the time limitations and other constraints that are associated with written examinations. The internal assessment should, as far as possible, be woven into normal classroom teaching and not be a separate activity conducted after a course has been taught.
The internal assessment requirements at SL and at HL are the same. This internal assessment section of the guide should be read in conjunction with the internal assessment section of the teacher support materials.
Guidance and authenticityThe work submitted for internal assessment must be the student’s own work. However, it is not the intention that students should decide upon a title or topic and be left to work on the internal assessment component without any further support from the teacher. The teacher should play an important role during both the planning stage and the period when the student is working on the internally assessed work. It is the responsibility of the teacher to ensure that students are familiar with:
• the requirements of the type of work to be internally assessed
• the IB animal experimentation policy
• the assessment criteria—students must understand that the work submitted for assessment must address these criteria effectively.
Teachers and students must discuss the internally assessed work. Students should be encouraged to initiate discussions with the teacher to obtain advice and information, and students must not be penalized for seeking guidance. As part of the learning process, teachers should read and give advice to students on one draft of the work. The teacher should provide oral or written advice on how the work could be improved, but not edit the draft. The next version handed to the teacher must be the final version for submission.
It is the responsibility of teachers to ensure that all students understand the basic meaning and significance of concepts that relate to academic honesty, especially authenticity and intellectual property. Teachers must ensure that all student work for assessment is prepared according to the requirements and must explain clearly to students that the internally assessed work must be entirely their own. Where collaboration between students is permitted, it must be clear to all students what the difference is between collaboration and collusion.
All work submitted to the IB for moderation or assessment must be authenticated by a teacher, and must not include any known instances of suspected or confirmed academic misconduct. Each student must confirm that the work is his or her authentic work and constitutes the final version of that work. Once a student has officially submitted the final version of the work it cannot be retracted. The requirement to confirm the authenticity of work applies to the work of all students, not just the sample work that will be submitted to the IB for the purpose of moderation. For further details refer to the IB publications Academic honesty (2011), The Diploma Programme: From principles into practice (2009) and the relevant articles in General regulations: Diploma Programme (2012).
Internal assessment
Physics guide 137
Authenticity may be checked by discussion with the student on the content of the work, and scrutiny of one or more of the following:
• the student’s initial proposal
• the first draft of the written work
• the references cited
• the style of writing compared with work known to be that of the student
• the analysis of the work by a web-based plagiarism detection service such as http://www.turnitin.com.
The same piece of work cannot be submitted to meet the requirements of both the internal assessment and the extended essay.
Group workEach investigation is an individual piece of work based on different data collected or measurements generated. Ideally, students should work on their own when collecting data. In some cases, data collected or measurements made can be from a group experiment provided each student collected his or her own data or made his or her own measurements. In physics, in some cases, group data or measurements may be combined to provide enough for individual analysis. Even in this case, students should have collected and recorded their own data and they should clearly indicate which data are theirs.
It should be made clear to students that all work connected with the investigation should be their own. It is therefore helpful if teachers try to encourage in students a sense of responsibility for their own learning so that they accept a degree of ownership and take pride in their own work.
Time allocationInternal assessment is an integral part of the physics course, contributing 20% to the final assessment in the SL and the HL courses. This weighting should be reflected in the time that is allocated to teaching the knowledge, skills and understanding required to undertake the work, as well as the total time allocated to carry out the work.
It is recommended that a total of approximately 10 hours of teaching time for both SL and HL should be allocated to the work. This should include:
• time for the teacher to explain to students the requirements of the internal assessment
• class time for students to work on the internal assessment component and ask questions
• time for consultation between the teacher and each student
• time to review and monitor progress, and to check authenticity.
Safety requirements and recommendationsWhile teachers are responsible for following national or local guidelines, which may differ from country to country, attention should be given to the guidelines below, which were developed for the International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE) Safety Committee by The Laboratory Safety Institute (LSI).
It is a basic responsibility of everyone involved to make safety and health an ongoing commitment. Any advice given will acknowledge the need to respect the local context, the varying educational and cultural traditions, the financial constraints and the legal systems of differing countries.
Internal assessment
Physics guide138
The Laboratory Safety Institute’s Laboratory Safety Guidelines...40 suggestions for a safer labSteps Requiring Minimal Expense
1. Have a written health, safety and environmental affairs (HS&E) policy statement.
2. Organize a departmental HS&E committee of employees, management, faculty, staff and students that will meet regularly to discuss HS&E issues.
3. Develop an HS&E orientation for all new employees and students.
4. Encourage employees and students to care about their health and safety and that of others.
5. Involve every employee and student in some aspect of the safety program and give each specific responsibilities.
6. Provide incentives to employees and students for safety performance.
7. Require all employees to read the appropriate safety manual. Require students to read the institution’s laboratory safety rules. Have both groups sign a statement that they have done so, understand the contents, and agree to follow the procedures and practices. Keep these statements on file in the department office
8. Conduct periodic, unannounced laboratory inspections to identify and correct hazardous conditions and unsafe practices. Involve students and employees in simulated OSHA inspections.
9. Make learning how to be safe an integral and important part of science education, your work, and your life.
10. Schedule regular departmental safety meetings for all students and employees to discuss the results of inspections and aspects of laboratory safety.
11. When conducting experiments with hazards or potential hazards, ask yourself these questions:
– What are the hazards?
– What are the worst possible things that could go wrong?
– How will I deal with them?
– What are the prudent practices, protective facilities and equipment necessary to minimize the risk of exposure to the hazards?
12. Require that all accidents (incidents) be reported, evaluated by the departmental safety committee, and discussed at departmental safety meetings.
13. Require every pre-lab/pre-experiment discussion to include consideration of the health and safety aspects.
14. Don’t allow experiments to run unattended unless they are failsafe.
15. Forbid working alone in any laboratory and working without prior knowledge of a staff member.
16. Extend the safety program beyond the laboratory to the automobile and the home.
17. Allow only minimum amounts of flammable liquids in each laboratory.
18. Forbid smoking, eating and drinking in the laboratory.
19. Do not allow food to be stored in chemical refrigerators.
20. Develop plans and conduct drills for dealing with emergencies such as fire, explosion, poisoning, chemical spill or vapour release, electric shock, bleeding and personal contamination.
21. Require good housekeeping practices in all work areas.
Internal assessment
Physics guide 139
22. Display the phone numbers of the fire department, police department, and local ambulance either on or immediately next to every phone.
23. Store acids and bases separately. Store fuels and oxidizers separately.
24. Maintain a chemical inventory to avoid purchasing unnecessary quantities of chemicals.
25. Use warning signs to designate particular hazards.
26. Develop specific work practices for individual experiments, such as those that should be conducted only in a ventilated hood or involve particularly hazardous materials. When possible most hazardous experiments should be done in a hood.
Steps Requiring Moderate Expense
27. Allocate a portion of the departmental budget to safety.
28. Require the use of appropriate eye protection at all times in laboratories and areas where chemicals are transported.
29. Provide adequate supplies of personal protective equipment—safety glasses, goggles, face shields, gloves, lab coats and bench top shields.
30. Provide fire extinguishers, safety showers, eye wash fountains, first aid kits, fire blankets and fume hoods in each laboratory and test or check monthly.
31. Provide guards on all vacuum pumps and secure all compressed gas cylinders.
32. Provide an appropriate supply of first aid equipment and instruction on its proper use.
33. Provide fireproof cabinets for storage of flammable chemicals.
34. Maintain a centrally located departmental safety library:
– “Safety in School Science Labs”, Clair Wood, 1994, Kaufman & Associates, 101 Oak Street, Wellesley, MA 02482
– “The Laboratory Safety Pocket Guide”, 1996, Genium Publisher, One Genium Plaza, Schnectady, NY
– “Safety in Academic Chemistry Laboratories”, ACS, 1155 Sixteenth Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
– “Manual of Safety and Health Hazards in The School Science Laboratory”, “Safety in the School Science Laboratory”, “School Science Laboratories: A guide to Some Hazardous Substances” Council of State Science Supervisors (now available only from LSI.)
– “Handbook of Laboratory Safety”, 4th Edition, CRC Press, 2000 Corporate Boulevard NW, Boca Raton, FL 33431
– “Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials”, National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269
– ”Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of Hazardous Chemicals”, 2nd Edition, 1995
– “Biosafety in the Laboratory”, National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418
– “Learning By Accident”, Volumes 1–3, 1997–2000, The Laboratory Safety Institute, Natick, MA 01760
(All are available from LSI.)
35. Remove all electrical connections from inside chemical refrigerators and require magnetic closures.
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36. Require grounded plugs on all electrical equipment and install ground fault interrupters (GFIs) where appropriate.
37. Label all chemicals to show the name of the material, the nature and degree of hazard, the appropriate precautions, and the name of the person responsible for the container.
38. Develop a program for dating stored chemicals and for recertifying or discarding them after predetermined maximum periods of storage.
39. Develop a system for the legal, safe and ecologically acceptable disposal of chemical wastes.
40. Provide secure, adequately spaced, well-ventilated storage of chemicals.
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Using assessment criteria for internal assessmentFor internal assessment, a number of assessment criteria have been identified. Each assessment criterion has level descriptors describing specific achievement levels, together with an appropriate range of marks. The level descriptors concentrate on positive achievement, although for the lower levels failure to achieve may be included in the description.
Teachers must judge the internally assessed work at SL and at HL against the criteria using the level descriptors.
• Assessment criteria are the same for both SL and HL.
• The aim is to find, for each criterion, the descriptor that conveys most accurately the level attained by the student, using the best-fit model. A best-fit approach means that compensation should be made when a piece of work matches different aspects of a criterion at different levels. The mark awarded should be one that most fairly reflects the balance of achievement against the criterion. It is not necessary for every single aspect of a level descriptor to be met for that mark to be awarded.
• When assessing a student’s work, teachers should read the level descriptors for each criterion until they reach a descriptor that most appropriately describes the level of the work being assessed. If a piece of work seems to fall between two descriptors, both descriptors should be read again and the one that more appropriately describes the student’s work should be chosen.
• Where there are two or more marks available within a level, teachers should award the upper marks if the student’s work demonstrates the qualities described to a great extent; the work may be close to achieving marks in the level above. Teachers should award the lower marks if the student’s work demonstrates the qualities described to a lesser extent; the work may be close to achieving marks in the level below.
• Only whole numbers should be recorded; partial marks (fractions and decimals) are not acceptable.
• Teachers should not think in terms of a pass or fail boundary, but should concentrate on identifying the appropriate descriptor for each assessment criterion.
• The highest level descriptors do not imply faultless performance but should be achievable by a student. Teachers should not hesitate to use the extremes if they are appropriate descriptions of the work being assessed.
• A student who attains a high achievement level in relation to one criterion will not necessarily attain high achievement levels in relation to the other criteria. Similarly, a student who attains a low achievement level for one criterion will not necessarily attain low achievement levels for the other criteria. Teachers should not assume that the overall assessment of the students will produce any particular distribution of marks.
• It is recommended that the assessment criteria be made available to students.
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Practical work and internal assessment
General introductionThe internal assessment requirements are the same for biology, chemistry and physics. The internal assessment, worth 20% of the final assessment, consists of one scientific investigation. The individual investigation should cover a topic that is commensurate with the level of the course of study.
Student work is internally assessed by the teacher and externally moderated by the IB. The performance in internal assessment at both SL and HL is marked against common assessment criteria, with a total mark out of 24.
Note: Any investigation that is to be used to assess students should be specifically designed to match the relevant assessment criteria.
The internal assessment task will be one scientific investigation taking about 10 hours and the write-up should be about 6 to 12 pages long. Investigations exceeding this length will be penalized in the communications criterion as lacking in conciseness.
The practical investigation, with generic criteria, will allow a wide range of practical activities satisfying the varying needs of biology, chemistry and physics. The investigation addresses many of the learner profile attributes well. See section on “Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics” for further links.
The task produced should be complex and commensurate with the level of the course. It should require a purposeful research question and the scientific rationale for it. The marked exemplar material in the teacher support materials will demonstrate that the assessment will be rigorous and of the same standard as the assessment in the previous courses.
Some of the possible tasks include:
• a hands-on laboratory investigation
• using a spreadsheet for analysis and modelling
• extracting data from a database and analysing it graphically
• producing a hybrid of spreadsheet/database work with a traditional hands-on investigation
• using a simulation, provided it is interactive and open-ended
Some task may consist of relevant and appropriate qualitative work combined with quantitative work.
The tasks include the traditional hands-on practical investigations as in the previous course. The depth of treatment required for hands-on practical investigations is unchanged from the previous internal assessment and will be shown in detail in the teacher support materials. In addition, detailed assessment of specific aspects of hands-on practical work will be assessed in the written papers as detailed in the relevant topic(s) in the “Syllabus content” section of the guide.
The task will have the same assessment criteria for SL and HL. The five assessment criteria are personalengagement, exploration, analysis, evaluation and communication.
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Internal assessment details
Internal assessment componentDuration: 10 hoursWeighting: 20%
• Individual investigation
• This investigation covers assessment objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Internal assessment criteriaThe new assessment model uses five criteria to assess the final report of the individual investigation with the following raw marks and weightings assigned:
Personal engagement
Exploration Analysis Evaluation Communication Total
2 (8%) 6 (25%) 6 (25%) 6 (25%) 4 (17%) 24 (100%)
Levels of performance are described using multiple indicators per level. In many cases the indicators occur together in a specific level, but not always. Also, not all indicators are always present. This means that a candidate can demonstrate performances that fit into different levels. To accommodate this, the IB assessment models use markbands and advise examiners and teachers to use a best-fit approach in deciding the appropriate mark for a particular criterion.
Teachers should read the guidance on using markbands shown above in the section called “Using assessment criteria for internal assessment” before starting to mark. It is also essential to be fully acquainted with the marking of the exemplars in the teacher support material. The precise meaning of the command terms used in the criteria can be found in the glossary of the subject guides.
Personal engagement
This criterion assesses the extent to which the student engages with the exploration and makes it their own. Personal engagement may be recognized in different attributes and skills. These could include addressing personal interests or showing evidence of independent thinking, creativity or initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1 The evidence of personal engagement with the exploration is limited with little independent thinking, initiative or creativity.
The justification given for choosing the research question and/or the topic under investigation does not demonstrate personal significance, interest or curiosity.
There is little evidence of personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.
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2 The evidence of personal engagement with the exploration is clear with significant independent thinking, initiative or creativity.
The justification given for choosing the research question and/or the topic under investigation demonstrates personal significance, interest or curiosity.
There is evidence of personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.
Exploration
This criterion assesses the extent to which the student establishes the scientific context for the work, states a clear and focused research question and uses concepts and techniques appropriate to the Diploma Programme level. Where appropriate, this criterion also assesses awareness of safety, environmental, and ethical considerations.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 The topic of the investigation is identified and a research question of some relevance is stated but it is not focused.
The background information provided for the investigation is superficial or of limited relevance and does not aid the understanding of the context of the investigation.
The methodology of the investigation is only appropriate to address the research question to a very limited extent since it takes into consideration few of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.
The report shows evidence of limited awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation*.
3–4 The topic of the investigation is identified and a relevant but not fully focused research question is described.
The background information provided for the investigation is mainly appropriate and relevant and aids the understanding of the context of the investigation.
The methodology of the investigation is mainly appropriate to address the research question but has limitations since it takes into consideration only some of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.
The report shows evidence of some awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation*.
5–6 The topic of the investigation is identified and a relevant and fully focused research question is clearly described.
The background information provided for the investigation is entirely appropriate and relevant and enhances the understanding of the context of the investigation.
The methodology of the investigation is highly appropriate to address the research question because it takes into consideration all, or nearly all, of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.
The report shows evidence of full awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation.*
* This indicator should only be applied when appropriate to the investigation. See exemplars in teacher support material.
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AnalysisThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student’s report provides evidence that the student has selected, recorded, processed and interpreted the data in ways that are relevant to the research question and can support a conclusion.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 The report includes insufficient relevant raw data to support a valid conclusion to the research question.
Some basic data processing is carried out but is either too inaccurate or too insufficient to lead to a valid conclusion.
The report shows evidence of little consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.
The processed data is incorrectly or insufficiently interpreted so that the conclusion is invalid or very incomplete.
3–4 The report includes relevant but incomplete quantitative and qualitative raw data that could support a simple or partially valid conclusion to the research question.
Appropriate and sufficient data processing is carried out that could lead to a broadly valid conclusion but there are significant inaccuracies and inconsistencies in the processing.
The report shows evidence of some consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.
The processed data is interpreted so that a broadly valid but incomplete or limited conclusion to the research question can be deduced.
5–6 The report includes sufficient relevant quantitative and qualitative raw data that could support a detailed and valid conclusion to the research question.
Appropriate and sufficient data processing is carried out with the accuracy required to enable a conclusion to the research question to be drawn that is fully consistent with the experimental data.
The report shows evidence of full and appropriate consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.
The processed data is correctly interpreted so that a completely valid and detailed conclusion to the research question can be deduced.
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EvaluationThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student’s report provides evidence of evaluation of the investigation and the results with regard to the research question and the accepted scientific context.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 A conclusion is outlined which is not relevant to the research question or is not supported by the data presented.
The conclusion makes superficial comparison to the accepted scientific context.
Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are outlined but are restricted to an account of the practical or procedural issues faced.
The student has outlined very few realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.
3–4 A conclusion is described which is relevant to the research question and supported by the data presented.
A conclusion is described which makes some relevant comparison to the accepted scientific context.
Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are described and provide evidence of some awareness of the methodological issues* involved in establishing the conclusion.
The student has described some realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.
5–6 A detailed conclusion is described and justified which is entirely relevant to the research question and fully supported by the data presented.
A conclusion is correctly described and justified through relevant comparison to the accepted scientific context.
Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are discussed and provide evidence of a clear understanding of the methodological issues* involved in establishing the conclusion.
The student has discussed realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.
*See exemplars in teacher support material for clarification.
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CommunicationThis criterion assesses whether the investigation is presented and reported in a way that supports effective communication of the focus, process and outcomes.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 The presentation of the investigation is unclear, making it difficult to understand the focus, process and outcomes.
The report is not well structured and is unclear: the necessary information on focus, process and outcomes is missing or is presented in an incoherent or disorganized way.
The understanding of the focus, process and outcomes of the investigation is obscured by the presence of inappropriate or irrelevant information.
There are many errors in the use of subject specific terminology and conventions*.
3–4 The presentation of the investigation is clear. Any errors do not hamper understanding of the focus, process and outcomes.
The report is well structured and clear: the necessary information on focus, process and outcomes is present and presented in a coherent way.
The report is relevant and concise thereby facilitating a ready understanding of the focus, process and outcomes of the investigation.
The use of subject-specific terminology and conventions is appropriate and correct. Any errors do not hamper understanding.
*For example, incorrect/missing labelling of graphs, tables, images; use of units, decimal places. For issues of referencing and citations refer to the “Academic honesty” section.
Rationale for practical workAlthough the requirements for IA are centred on the investigation, the different types of practical activities that a student may engage in serve other purposes, including:
• illustrating, teaching and reinforcing theoretical concepts
• developing an appreciation of the essential hands-on nature of much scientific work
• developing an appreciation of scientists’ use of secondary data from databases
• developing an appreciation of scientists’ use of modelling
• developing an appreciation of the benefits and limitations of scientific methodology.
Practical scheme of workThe practical scheme of work (PSOW) is the practical course planned by the teacher and acts as a summary of all the investigative activities carried out by a student. Students at SL and HL in the same subject may carry out some of the same investigations.
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Syllabus coverageThe range of practical work carried out should reflect the breadth and depth of the subject syllabus at each level, but it is not necessary to carry out an investigation for every syllabus topic. However, all students must participate in the group 4 project and the IA investigation.
Planning your practical scheme of workTeachers are free to formulate their own practical schemes of work by choosing practical activities according to the requirements outlined. Their choices should be based on:
• subjects, levels and options taught
• the needs of their students
• available resources
• teaching styles.
Each scheme must include some complex experiments that make greater conceptual demands on students. A scheme made up entirely of simple experiments, such as ticking boxes or exercises involving filling in tables, will not provide an adequate range of experience for students.
Teachers are encouraged to use the online curriculum centre (OCC) to share ideas about possible practical activities by joining in the discussion forums and adding resources in the subject home pages.
FlexibilityThe practical programme is flexible enough to allow a wide variety of practical activities to be carried out. These could include:
• short labs or projects extending over several weeks
• computer simulations
• using databases for secondary data
• developing and using models
• data-gathering exercises such as questionnaires, user trials and surveys
• data-analysis exercises
• fieldwork.
Practical work documentationDetails of the practical scheme of work are recorded on Form 4/PSOW provided in the Handbook of procedures for the Diploma Programme. A copy of the class 4/PSOW form must be included with any sample set sent for moderation.
Time allocation for practical workThe recommended teaching times for all Diploma Programme courses are 150 hours at SL and 240 hours at HL. Students at SL are required to spend 40 hours, and students at HL 60 hours, on practical activities (excluding time spent writing up work). These times include 10 hours for the group 4 project and 10 hours for the internal assessment investigation. (Only 2–3 hours of investigative work can be carried out after the deadline for submitting work to the moderator and still be counted in the total number of hours for the practical scheme of work.)
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Assessment
The group 4 project
The group 4 project is an interdisciplinary activity in which all Diploma Programme science students must participate. The intention is that students from the different group 4 subjects analyse a common topic or problem. The exercise should be a collaborative experience where the emphasis is on the processes involved in, rather than the products of, such an activity.
In most cases students in a school would be involved in the investigation of the same topic. Where there are large numbers of students, it is possible to divide them into several smaller groups containing representatives from each of the science subjects. Each group may investigate the same topic or different topics—that is, there may be several group 4 projects in the same school.
Students studying environmental systems and societies are not required to undertake the group 4 project.
Summary of the group 4 projectThe group 4 project is a collaborative activity where students from different group 4 subjects work together on a scientific or technological topic, allowing for concepts and perceptions from across the disciplines to be shared in line with aim 10—that is, to “develop an understanding of the relationships between scientific disciplines and their influence on other areas of knowledge”. The project can be practically or theoretically based. Collaboration between schools in different regions is encouraged.
The group 4 project allows students to appreciate the environmental, social and ethical implications of science and technology. It may also allow them to understand the limitations of scientific study, for example, the shortage of appropriate data and/or the lack of resources. The emphasis is on interdisciplinary cooperation and the processes involved in scientific investigation, rather than the products of such investigation.
The choice of scientific or technological topic is open but the project should clearly address aims 7, 8 and 10 of the group 4 subject guides.
Ideally, the project should involve students collaborating with those from other group 4 subjects at all stages. To this end, it is not necessary for the topic chosen to have clearly identifiable separate subject components. However, for logistical reasons, some schools may prefer a separate subject “action” phase (see the following “Project stages” section).
Project stagesThe 10 hours allocated to the group 4 project, which are part of the teaching time set aside for developing the practical scheme of work, can be divided into three stages: planning, action and evaluation.
PlanningThis stage is crucial to the whole exercise and should last about two hours.
• The planning stage could consist of a single session, or two or three shorter ones.
• This stage must involve all group 4 students meeting to “brainstorm” and discuss the central topic, sharing ideas and information.
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• The topic can be chosen by the students themselves or selected by the teachers.
• Where large numbers of students are involved, it may be advisable to have more than one mixed subject group.
After selecting a topic or issue, the activities to be carried out must be clearly defined before moving from the planning stage to the action and evaluation stages.
A possible strategy is that students define specific tasks for themselves, either individually or as members of groups, and investigate various aspects of the chosen topic. At this stage, if the project is to be experimentally based, apparatus should be specified so that there is no delay in carrying out the action stage. Contact with other schools, if a joint venture has been agreed, is an important consideration at this time.
ActionThis stage should last around six hours and may be carried out over one or two weeks in normal scheduled class time. Alternatively, a whole day could be set aside if, for example, the project involves fieldwork.
• Students should investigate the topic in mixed-subject groups or single-subject groups.
• There should be collaboration during the action stage; findings of investigations should be shared with other students within the mixed/single-subject group. During this stage, in any practically-based activity, it is important to pay attention to safety, ethical and environmental considerations.
Note: Students studying two group 4 subjects are not required to do two separate action phases.
EvaluationThe emphasis during this stage, for which two hours are probably necessary, is on students sharing their findings, both successes and failures, with other students. How this is achieved can be decided by the teachers, the students or jointly.
• One solution is to devote a morning, afternoon or evening to a symposium where all the students, as individuals or as groups, give brief presentations.
• Alternatively, the presentation could be more informal and take the form of a science fair where students circulate around displays summarizing the activities of each group.
The symposium or science fair could also be attended by parents, members of the school board and the press. This would be especially pertinent if some issue of local importance has been researched. Some of the findings might influence the way the school interacts with its environment or local community.
Addressing aims 7 and 8Aim 7: “develop and apply 21st century communication skills in the study of science.”
Aim 7 may be partly addressed at the planning stage by using electronic communication within and between schools. It may be that technology (for example, data logging, spreadsheets, databases and so on) will be used in the action phase and certainly in the presentation/evaluation stage (for example, use of digital images, presentation software, websites, digital video and so on).
Aim 8: “become critically aware, as global citizens, of the ethical implications of using science and technology.”
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Addressing the international dimensionThere are also possibilities in the choice of topic to illustrate the international nature of the scientific endeavour and the increasing cooperation required to tackle global issues involving science and technology. An alternative way to bring an international dimension to the project is to collaborate with a school in another region.
Types of projectWhile addressing aims 7, 8 and 10 the project must be based on science or its applications. The project may have a hands-on practical action phase or one involving purely theoretical aspects. It could be undertaken in a wide range of ways:
• designing and carrying out a laboratory investigation or fieldwork
• carrying out a comparative study (experimental or otherwise) in collaboration with another school
• collating, manipulating and analysing data from other sources, such as scientif ic journals, environmental organizations, science and technology industries and government reports
• designing and using a model or simulation
• contributing to a long-term project organized by the school.
Logistical strategiesThe logistical organization of the group 4 project is often a challenge to schools. The following models illustrate possible ways in which the project may be implemented.
Models A, B and C apply within a single school, and model D relates to a project involving collaboration between schools.
Model A: mixed-subject groups and one topic
Schools may adopt mixed subject groups and choose one common topic. The number of groups will depend on the number of students.
Model B: mixed-subject groups adopting more than one topic
Schools with large numbers of students may choose to do more than one topic.
Model C: single-subject groups
For logistical reasons some schools may opt for single subject groups, with one or more topics in the action phase. This model is less desirable as it does not show the mixed subject collaboration in which many scientists are involved.
Model D: collaboration with another school
The collaborative model is open to any school. To this end, the IB provides an electronic collaboration board on the OCC where schools can post their project ideas and invite collaboration from other schools. This could range from merely sharing evaluations for a common topic to a full-scale collaborative venture at all stages.
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For schools with few Diploma Programme (course) students it is possible to work with non-Diploma Programme or non-group 4 students or undertake the project once every two years. However, these schools are encouraged to collaborate with another school. This strategy is also recommended for individual students who may not have participated in the project, for example, through illness or because they have transferred to a new school where the project has already taken place.
TimingThe 10 hours that the IB recommends be allocated to the project may be spread over a number of weeks. The distribution of these hours needs to be taken into account when selecting the optimum time to carry out the project. However, it is possible for a group to dedicate a period of time exclusively to project work if all/most other schoolwork is suspended.
Year 1In the first year, students’ experience and skills may be limited and it would be inadvisable to start the project too soon in the course. However, doing the project in the final part of the first year may have the advantage of reducing pressure on students later on. This strategy provides time for solving unexpected problems.
Year 1–year 2The planning stage could start, the topic could be decided upon, and provisional discussion in individual subjects could take place at the end of the first year. Students could then use the vacation time to think about how they are going to tackle the project and would be ready to start work early in the second year.
Year 2Delaying the start of the project until some point in the second year, particularly if left too late, increases pressure on students in many ways: the schedule for finishing the work is much tighter than for the other options; the illness of any student or unexpected problems will present extra difficulties. Nevertheless, this choice does mean students know one another and their teachers by this time, have probably become accustomed to working in a team and will be more experienced in the relevant fields than in the first year.
Combined SL and HL
Where circumstances dictate that the project is only carried out every two years, HL beginners and more experienced SL students can be combined.
Selecting a topicStudents may choose the topic or propose possible topics and the teacher then decides which one is the most viable based on resources, staff availability and so on. Alternatively, the teacher selects the topic or proposes several topics from which students make a choice.
Student selection
Students are likely to display more enthusiasm and feel a greater sense of ownership for a topic that they have chosen themselves. A possible strategy for student selection of a topic, which also includes part of the planning stage, is outlined here. At this point, subject teachers may provide advice on the viability of proposed topics.
• Identify possible topics by using a questionnaire or a survey of students.
• Conduct an initial “brainstorming” session of potential topics or issues.
• Discuss, briefly, two or three topics that seem interesting.
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• Select one topic by consensus.
• Students make a list of potential investigations that could be carried out. All students then discuss issues such as possible overlap and collaborative investigations.
A reflective statement written by each student on their involvement in the group 4 project must be included on the cover sheet for each internal assessment investigation. See Handbook of procedures for the Diploma Programme for more details.
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Glossary of command terms
Appendices
Command terms for physicsStudents should be familiar with the following key terms and phrases used in examination questions, which are to be understood as described below. Although these terms will be used frequently in examination questions, other terms may be used to direct students to present an argument in a specific way.
These command terms indicate the depth of treatment required.
Assessment objective 1
Command term Definition
Define Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.
Draw Represent by means of a labelled, accurate diagram or graph, using a pencil. A ruler (straight edge) should be used for straight lines. Diagrams should be drawn to scale. Graphs should have points correctly plotted (if appropriate) and joined in a straight line or smooth curve.
Label Add labels to a diagram.
List Give a sequence of brief answers with no explanation.
Measure Obtain a value for a quantity.
State Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.
Write down Obtain the answer(s), usually by extracting information. Little or no calculation is required. Working does not need to be shown.
Assessment objective 2
Command term Definition
Annotate Add brief notes to a diagram or graph.
Apply Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a given problem or issue.
Calculate Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working.
Describe Give a detailed account.
Distinguish Make clear the differences between two or more concepts or items.
Estimate Obtain an approximate value.
Formulate Express precisely and systematically the relevant concept(s) or argument(s).
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Identify Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.
Outline Give a brief account or summary.
Plot Mark the position of points on a diagram.
Assessment objective 3
Command term Definition
Analyse Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.
Comment Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation.
Compare Give an account of the similarities between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.
Compareand contrast
Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.
Construct Display information in a diagrammatic or logical form.
Deduce Reach a conclusion from the information given.
Demonstrate Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or practical application.
Derive Manipulate a mathematical relationship to give a new equation or relationship.
Design Produce a plan, simulation or model.
Determine Obtain the only possible answer.
Discuss Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
Evaluate Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
Explain Give a detailed account including reasons or causes.
Hence Use the preceding work to obtain the required result.
Hence or otherwise It is suggested that the preceding work is used, but other methods could also receive credit.
Justify Give valid reasons or evidence to support an answer or conclusion.
Predict Give an expected result.
Show Give the steps in a calculation or derivation.
Show that Obtain the required result (possibly using information given) without the formality of proof. “Show that” questions do not generally require the use of a calculator.
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Sketch Represent by means of a diagram or graph (labelled as appropriate). The sketch should give a general idea of the required shape or relationship, and should include relevant features.
Solve Obtain the answer(s) using algebraic and/or numerical and/or graphical methods.
Suggest Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.
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Appendices
Bibliography
This bibliography lists the principal works used to inform the curriculum review. It is not an exhaustive list and does not include all the literature available: judicious selection was made in order to better advise and guide teachers. This bibliography is not a list of recommended textbooks.
Rhoton, J. 2010. Science Education Leadership: Best Practices for the New Century. Arlington, Virginia, USA. National Science Teachers Association Press.
Masood, E. 2009. Science & Islam: A History. London, UK. Icon Books.
Roberts, B. 2009. Educating for Global Citizenship: A Practical Guide for Schools. Cardiff, UK. International Baccalaureate Organization.
Martin, J. 2006. The Meaning of the 21st Century: A vital blueprint for ensuring our future. London, UK. Eden Project Books.
Gerzon, M. 2010. Global Citizens: How our vision of the world is outdated, and what we can do about it. London, UK. Rider Books.
Haydon, G. 2006. Education, Philosophy & the Ethical Environment. Oxon/New York, USA. Routledge.
Anderson, LW et al. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, USA. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Hattie, J. 2009. Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Oxon/New York, USA. Routledge.
Petty, G. 2009. Evidence-based Teaching: A practical approach. (2nd edition). Cheltenham, UK. Nelson Thornes Ltd.
Andain, I and Murphy, G. 2008. Creating Lifelong Learners: Challenges for Education in the 21st Century. Cardiff, UK. International Baccalaureate Organization.
Jewkes, J, Sawers, D and Stillerman, R. 1969. The Sources of Invention. (2nd edition). New York, USA. W.W. Norton & Co.
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