Guidance : Habitat Enhancement Initiative (HEI) : Farming ...adlib.everysite.co.uk/resources/000/015/775/... · RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994) The New Rivers and Wildlife HandbookRSPB,

Introduction Scotland’s rivers and burnsAbout this handbookKey references

Section 1 Basics of river behaviour 1.1How rivers create their channels 1.1Factors determining river stability 1.2Factors increasing the risk of instability 1.3Getting things in perspective 1.4

Section 2 Farms and water 2.1Why should farmers bother thinking about water management? 2.1How farming can affect water and watercourses 2.210-point action plan for individual farms 2.3Golden rules for sorting out river management problems 2.4Key Scottish river wildlife - breeding times and habitat preferences 2.5Basic river survey checklist 2.7

Section 3 What to aim for - a blueprint for watercourse management 3.1Trees and shrubs along rivers, ditches and burns 3.3

Section 4 Legislation 4.1

Section 5 Pollution 5.1

Section 6 Cropping and grazing beside rivers 6.1Buffer strips 6.2Fencing 6.4

Section 7 Bank erosion 7.1Checklist for assessing erosion problems 7.1Soft revetment techniques 7.3Hard revetment techniques 7.6Bank reshaping and reprofiling 7.7Deflecting water away from the eroding bank 7.8

Section 8 Field drainage and ditch management 8.1Dredging and channel widening 8.2Chemical control of vegetation 8.5

Section 9 Reducing flood damage 9.1Managed flooding 9.1Embankments and floodbanks 9.2Partial dredging 9.3Construction of relief channels 9.4Channel realignment 9.4

Section 10 Using water wisely - abstraction and irrigation 10.1

Section 11 Gravel extraction 11.1

Glossary of terms

Sources of financial assistance

Farming and Watercourse Management Handbook

CON

TENTS

CONTENTS

1.SE

CTIO

N


ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis handbook has been produced thanks to funding from Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) andScottish Natural Heritage (SNH) in partnership with Worldwide Fund for Nature Scotland (WWF Scotland),Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) and the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG) under the directionof Elizabeth Leighton (WWF Scotland). A pilot version was compiled and evaluated in 1998 by HarrietPalmer, Natural Resource Economics Department, SAC Aberdeen. Vyv Wood-Gee was subsequently employedas freelance consultant responsible for editing, revising and updating the text, co-ordinating associatedtraining, and managing design, print and distribution of the final publication.

Help and advice have also been gratefully received from Ian Fozzard, Scot Mathieson and Peter Campbell(SEPA); Duncan Glen (The Tweed Foundation); Nigel Holmes (River Restoration Centre); David Howell, KathLeys and Nikki Wood (SNH); Peter Pollard (Scottish Wildlife Trust); Steven Bell (Wild Rivers Demonstrationand Advisory Project); Jeremy Roberts and Caroline Davies (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds); HilaryBarker and Alison Espie (FWAG); Ken Davies, Ian Dickson, Gareth Edwards-Jones, Garth Foster, Alan Frost,Richard Huxtable, Davy McCracken, Dave Merrilees, John Nicol, Bruce Philp, and Alex Sinclair (SAC).

Any enquiries about this handbook should be addressed to WWF Scotland.8 The Square, Aberfeldy PH15 2DD. Tel: 01887 820449

Written and produced by Vyv Wood-Gee, Scabgill, Braehead, Lanark ML11 8HA. Tel: 01555 870530.

Designed and printed by Hay Nisbet Press, Dilwara Avenue, Glasgow. Tel: 0141 959 3325.

SCOTLAND'S RIVERS AND BURNS


INTRO

DUCTION

Further information and adviceRivers, burns, streams and drainage ditches are key features of the Scottish landscape, forming a vital part of ourcountry’s environment and economy. Salmon, for which Scotland is world renowned, is but one of the many andvaried animals and plants which rivers and burns support. Fishing, canoeing, whisky distilling, many other touristattractions and non-agricultural industries all depend on a regular supply of clean water, as do all those who liveand work in Scotland. Equally important, rivers and burns are integral to farm management, providing water forstock, crops and irrigation and the final conduit for land drainage.

There is much talk about how farmers, the guardians of the countryside, are adversely affecting the quality ofwatercourses in the name of increasing productivity. Considerable attention is also being drawn to the benefitsof natural river management - in other words respecting and encouraging the natural physical processes of riversand burns whilst at the same time ensuring that they fulfil their essential function for drainage, fisheries, wildlife,stock watering etc. Yet how many of those directly involved in land and water management are aware of theimportance of watercourses for anything other than drainage, the potentially damaging effects of everyday farmmanagement or exactly how rivers and burns could, and arguably should, be managed for the benefit of allconcerned? SEPA and others produce a range of useful leaflets, but up until now there has been no readyreference for farmers or their advisers specifically addressing the interaction between agriculture and water.

About this handbookThis handbook is targeted principally at those advising farmers and others responsible for management of riversand burns. It aims to increase awareness of how farming affects watercourses and to identify simple practicalways in which management could be improved for multiple benefit. This handbook is not intended to be a fullycomprehensive guide to watercourse management. It is intended to complement rather than duplicate otherpublications, including those in course of production, which are cross-referenced in the text where appropriate.

Emphasis is on summarising essential information which is not readily available elsewhere, including:• Identification of how farming can adversely affect watercourses and related habitat;• Examples of ways in which farmers can readily enhance the environmental value of watercourses and river

corridors without detrimentally affecting their farming operations, and potentially with cost savings;• Practical solutions to common farm water management problems such as erosion and flood risk management;• Sources of financial assistance;• Where to get further advice;• A brief summary of relevant legislation affecting watercourse management.

The whole handbook has been written and designed to facilitate photocopying, attachment to reports or othermeans of distribution to anyone interested in specific watercourse management issues. The handbook is alsoavailable on the internet.

Throughout the text, the terms ‘river’, ‘stream’ ‘burn’ and ‘watercourse’ should be considered interchangeable.

KEY REFERENCESForestry Commission (1997) Forest and Water Guidelines 3rd edition HMSO (due for reprinting 2000)

Hoey TB, Smart DWJ, Pender G and Metcalfe N (1998) Engineering methods for Scottish gravel bed riversEditor K. Leys, SNH, Edinburgh

River Restoration Centre (1999) River Restoration Manual of Techniques RRC, Silsoe, Bedford

RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994) The New Rivers and Wildlife Handbook RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire

RSPB (1997) The Wet Grassland Guide RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire

Parrott, J. and MacKenzie, N. (2000) Restoring and Managing Riparian Woodlands, Scottish Native Woods,Aberfeldy, Perthshire


INTR

ODU

CTIO

N


1.1 BASICS OF RIVER BEH

AVIOUR

In their natural state, watercourses are by nature dynamic but stable - or more accurately ‘metastable’ -gradually adapting their course and changing their flow patterns as they travel from source to sea. Suchwatercourses exist in a state of equilibrium with the surrounding environment, which allows development of arich variety of habitats and species. The New Rivers and Wildlife Handbook (RSPB, NRA and RSNC,1994)includes a wealth of information on river biology and the habitat requirements of a variety of species.

As land comes under increasingly intensive management, natural shifts in channel and rivers spilling over inspate are no longer considered acceptable because valuable grazing or arable land is at stake. Embankmentsconstructed for flood control are but one example of the many attempts which have been made to controlthe flow and course of rivers and burns. The natural state of equilibrium is also often threatened by bankerosion resulting from intensive stocking or cultivation of land adjacent to rivers and burns. Land drainagefor farming or forestry purposes can have an unexpected impact on the behaviour of watercourses into whichdrains feed, sometimes at a considerable distance from the drainage site. In many cases, action taken locallyhas resulted in an increase in erosion and flood problems, upstream, downstream or further on in time,necessitating costly remedial work. Interfering with the natural state of the river or stream often leads to aloss of physical diversity, and a loss of habitats for associated animals and plants.

A basic understanding of river behaviour is essential in order to assess the cause(s) of river-related problemslikely to be encountered on farms, and will underpin identification of appropriate remedial action and futuremanagement options. Of course there does not have to be a problem to make it worthwhile to take a freshlook at the interaction between farming and watercourses, and to consider scope for improvement.

How rivers create their channels

As water flows downstream from source to sea, much of its energy is spent overcoming the resistive forces ofthe valley floor: erosion dissipates energy. Material eroded from floodplains, riverbeds and banks is deposited asthe underlying slope declines and the stream loses energy. A natural grading system comes into force, withheavier, coarse material deposited first. Sediment gradually becomes finer downstream. Gravel bars created bydeposition of coarse sediment add to the diversity of water speeds and depths. As the river changes its course,meanders develop, new and secondary channels are formed, often during floods, and old channels are abandoned(see diagram overleaf).

Flow variations and channel fluctuations are essential to allow rivers and burns to function properly – to filtersediment, to store flood water and to replenish wetlands. Variety and change are also all-important from aconservation perspective in providing the contrasting conditions necessary for a range of different wildlifehabitats to flourish. In more stable rivers, the process of change is very slow, whereas in other more dynamicrivers, changes in course and flow-pattern can be dramatic.

SECTION 1 BASICS OF RIVER BEHAVIOUR


Factors determining river stabilityThe stability of any particular river or watercourse is affected by factors at both the catchment and theindividual reach scale.

At the catchment scale, ‘macro-factors’ such as climate, under-lying bedrock, drift geology, soil cover,topography and slope form are important because they will determine the amount and rate of water enteringthe watercourse, and the type and quantity of sediment available for erosion and transportation downstream.Catchment land use is also very important. For example, overgrazing in a significant part of a catchment willgreatly increase soil erosion and therefore the sediment load of a watercourse.

At the individual reach scale, factors such as the gradient of the watercourse, type of bankside vegetation andthe nature and size of the bed and bank material are important. These factors will affect the velocity of thewater, and the ability of the bed and banks to withstand erosion.

Assessment of the basic features of bank slope, material and vegetation type will be a useful preliminaryindicator of how susceptible a watercourse is to erosion and hence instability. Adjacent land use is alsoimportant to consider.

Typical features of a stable watercourse include:-• well-vegetated margins, including some trees along the banks, the roots of which may help bind the banks• gently sloping banks or steeper banks on soil types that resist erosion e.g. clay

1.2

BASI

CS O

F RI

VER

BEH

AVIO

UR

shallow rifles form asgravel is depodited

sidebars are formedon straight sections

pools typically form onthe outside of meanders

riffle

glide

deeper pools onoutside of meandersas erosion occurs

shallow riflesform as gravel isdepodited

point bars developon the inside of bends




riffle

glide







riffle

glide







riffle

glide




River form – meanders, pools and riffles

shallow riffles form asgravel is deposited


Typical features of an unstable watercourse:-• bare banks of fine sediments• steeply sloping banks of coarse erodable soils such as sandy material• a large amount of mobile sediment ranging from cobbles to small gravel within the watercourse• banks undercutting and slumping into watercourses

Two other factors are important:-

(i) the channel slope, or river gradient - generally, a steeper slope generates increased erosive power;

(ii) the cross-sectional profile of the river (or width:depth ratio). This determines the depth of flow, which isdirectly proportional to the force exerted by the flow on the river bed, which affects the river’s capacity tocarry sediment. In a stable reach of river, sediment erosion and deposition will be more or less in equilibrium.If the width:depth ratio is altered, for example by deepening the river, the amount of sediment transportedwill change and the equilibrium will be lost. This is particularly a problem in gravel bed rivers, where acoarse surface layer of river bed material acts as armouring to protect finer sediments underneath. Removalof the surface layers of gravel will upset the width:depth ratio, and the problem will be exacerbated becauseof the ease with which the finer unprotected sediments can be eroded.

Factors increasing the risk of instabilityAt times of peak flow, floodplains help absorb and store excess water and fine sediments. In the lowlands, riverlevels typically rise and fall gradually as water stored by the floodplain drains slowly. Such gradual changeallows time for wildlife to respond to the prevailing conditions, and poses less risk to buildings, people anddomestic livestock than rapid changes in water level.

In upland rivers, floods tend to be shorter-lived, with the catchment responding rapidly to rainfall and thefloodplain draining quickly as water levels recede. Where a watercourse has been ‘engineered’ and flow overthe floodplain has been restricted, peak and low flows are also generally much more marked, or ‘flashy’. Thesteep gradients of straighter, deeper ‘engineered’ channels encourage and allow far more rapid flow rates atpeak times, with greater erosive power than found in watercourses in their natural state. The amount and sizeof sediment that the river carries will be increased, and this, often combined with the fact that the river isunable to overflow onto its natural floodplain, means that fast-flowing, highly damaging and erosive flows canresult. Further engineering may well then be necessary downstream to try and combat the damage that is beingcaused by water flows due to inappropriate works upstream. The impact of this type of behaviour is alsopotentially damaging and costly to owners of riverside land.

Engineering work within watercourses and on their banks has the further disadvantage of being disruptive anddirectly damaging to plants and animals. Bankside and floodplain habitats are lost in many cases. Heavyengineering work can also be visually unattractive.

In general, therefore, rivers in their natural state are usually dynamic, but stable (‘metastable’). Intervention inthe natural course or flow rate of the river will increase the risk of instability. Poorly planned engineering workin watercourses already prone to instability can lead to very serious problems. Impacts can include:-

• increased erosion and flooding further downstream due to flashier flows;• increased erosion on opposite banks as water flow patterns are disrupted (with potentially serious

implications for neighbouring farmers);• loss of bankside and in-river vegetation, leading to further local erosion;• loss of habitat for plants and animals;• downstream deposition of sediment leading to calls for management intervention.

Well-planned work on unstable reaches of river can be effective, as long as the original causes of the instabilityare understood and are the target for intervention, rather than the symptoms resulting from the underlyingproblem. Elsewhere, the best advice is often to respect the processes of natural change and resist intervention.

1.3 BASICS OF RIVER BEH

AVIOUR


Getting things in perspectiveScotland’s rivers have been changing since the last ice age. Most now have defined courses cut into the valleyfloor. Underlying geology and other local conditions are the major factors in determining the most balancedroute. Considered in this context, any changes made now will be relatively short-term.

An awareness of the timescale within which changes are occurring will help when making managementdecisions about whether to take remedial action or whether changes are part of a long-term process, which itmay be easier and more cost-effective to leave alone. For example, what seems like a large isolated erosionincident may prove to be long-term migration of a river channel. Looking at old maps to see how the shape ofa water channel is changing is one way in which the timescale of river-related problems can be put intocontext.

There is little to be gained by looking at only a short stretch of watercourse without considering it in relationto the whole farm, and indeed the whole river system. Remember that changes in conditions at one particularlocation can affect the behaviour of a river both upstream and downstream.

1.4

BASI

CS O

F RI

VER

BEH

AVIO

UR

SECTION 2 FARMS AND WATER


2.1 FARMS AN

D WATER

Why should farmers bother thinking about water management?• Opportunity to reduce variable costs and increase farm profitability.

• Improved soils, crop yields, animal health and production.

• Less risk of land being lost to erosion.

• Reduced erosion means fewer problems from gravel movement choking watercourses and drainage outflows.

• Preventing pollution ensures compliance with legislative requirements and so avoids legal action.

• Reduced flooding damage and disturbance.

• Improves wildlife interest.

• Opportunity to make a real contribution to local biodiversity action plan (LBAP).

• Improves fisheries and game interest/potential.

• Enhances the visual appeal of the farm - can be important for farms with associated tourist enterprises, or

potential to diversity into this sphere.

• Potential to increase farm capital value.

• Voluntary grant schemes may help generate income.

Advantages of well-managed watercourses (Alan Scott)

attractive featuresin the landscape

act as corridorfor movementof Wildlife

offer rich wildlife habitat

aid pollination of avariety of crops

drain and improveworkability of the land

many ditches are of historicalorigin, marking ancient boundaries

provide haven for beneficial predatorsof rodent and insect pests

provide water for stockor irrigation of crops


CHECKLIST OF HOW FARMING CAN AFFECT WATER ANDWATERCOURSES

Nutrient enrichment and pollution resulting from farm operations have long been recognised as having aneffect on water quality. Efficient functioning of ditches has also been a concern of farmers for many years, toprovide constant water supply for livestock and crops and to ensure that drains outflow freely. However, untilrelatively recently, the majority of farmers have given little time or thought to the many other ways in whichfarm management affects watercourses.

Ditches and burns are very evidently more than just drains or water-supplies: they form an integral part of ariver system, as fundamental to the local economy as the main river. Pollution by agrochemicals is only one ofmany ways in which farming affects watercourses. What farmers and foresters do on their land has importantconsequences for other people, for wildlife and for the look of the countryside. The list below summarises someof the many ways in which farming can affect watercourses. The remainder of the handbook looks at some ofthese issues in more detail.

Cropping and grazing• Nutrients leaching from fertiliser or from muck middens and feeding rings sited too close to watercourses

result in direct pollution. • Cropping too close to watercourses without leaving a buffer zone of natural vegetation between the river

and the cultivated area increases risk of erosion, bank slippage, sediment and nutrient pollution.• Heavy grazing of river margins and use of rivers for watering livestock leads to poaching, loss of riverside

vegetation and bankside erosion, which may lead to loss of land.

Drainage and ditching• Inappropriate ditch-cleaning operations, deepening and straightening of watercourses to increase gradient

and speed of flow in the hope of improving land drainage results in alterations to the natural flow,deposition and erosion processes of watercourses.

• Field drains contribute to the problem of diffuse pollution by speeding up the rate at which water isconducted away without allowing opportunity for natural soil and plant processes to fully utilise nitrates forvegetation growth.

• Machinery used for drainage and ditching all too often destabilises banks and damages vegetation.

Flood management and erosion control• Construction of artificial embankments to try and prevent flooding simply moves the problem downstream

and usually results in loss of valuable floodplain habitat.• Attempts to prevent or limit erosion of riverbanks and loss of productive land by unsuitable methods, e.g.

shoring up eroding river banks with builders rubble or other waste material, can result in pollution and rarelyoffer a long-term solution.

Culvert construction and stream crossing• One of the major factors affecting fish movement, and therefore reproductive success in watercourses, is the

ability of fish to pass upstream to reach spawning grounds. Even small structures such as weirs, dams, bridgeaprons, culverts, elevated fords, log jams or gravel shoals built up at stream entrances can hinder fishmovement. Concrete pans and culverts made of concrete pipes are usually completely inaccessible to fish,but even structures which delay fish until water levels rise can be critical to successful spawning - fish donot stop maturing just because they have stopped travelling.

Further reading

Environment Agency/BDB Associates (consultation draft 1999, final print due July 2000) Best FarmingPractices: Profiting from a good environment. Environment Agency R&D publication 23

2.2

FARM

S AN

D W

ATER


10-POINT ACTION PLAN FOR INDIVIDUAL FARMSDetailed waste management plans and nutrient budgets are likely to remain the province of experts, but thereis much to be gained by encouraging everyone involved in watercourse management, whether in an advisoryor practical farming capacity, to think about watercourses in the widest possible context. Limiting advice toresponse to specific problems risks missing out on other opportunities to improve rivers and watercourses forthe benefit of everyone concerned.

1 Start by taking an overall look at the farm. Review how individual enterprises and current farmmanagement practices affect water quality, watercourses and riparian habitat. Aspects to considerinclude:• storage, use and application of fertilisers, slurry, manure and non-agricultural waste;• impact of livestock on water quality and watercourses - timing and stock density of grazing

regimes, access to watercourses, watering points, crossing points, supplementary feeding practice,animal health issues;

• cropping regimes and rotations; which soils/fields are most vulnerable to erosion? Are they winteror spring cropped?

• silage storage and effluent disposal;• Irrigation.

2 Carry out a simple survey of watercourses, looking at the water margins, in-stream and riparianhabitat - the checklist overleaf will help assess what is there already, the most valuable features andspecies, current management and scope for improvement. It will also help focus attention on thenature and extent of any problems, possible solutions and impacts elsewhere. Once completed, thischecklist can save time and money by providing a useful aide-memoir as the basis for consultationswith other authorities.

3 Highlight and endorse commendable aspects of existing management. 4 Identify on a map specific problems and opportunities for improvement. 5 Seek further specialist advice if necessary to confirm detailed recommendations.6 Evaluate the costs and benefits (particularly cost savings) for both farming and conservation.7 Check what grants or financial assistance might be available, eligibility criteria and amendments which

might be required in order to qualify.8 Concentrate efforts by identifying three priorities for immediate improvement and other significant

opportunities for longer term improvement, including zero-cost options.9 Consult with neighbours, statutory organisations and where appropriate riparian owners as required to

confirm approval.10 Assess success of agreed action at regular intervals, review and revise as necessary.

GOLDEN RULES FOR SORTING OUTRIVER MANAGEMENT PROBLEMSThe following golden rules can help identify simple environmentally sound solutions to river managementproblems and avoid mistakes which can prove costly both financially and in terms of the impact on watercoursehabitats, wildlife and the interests of downstream users.

1 Take as broad a view as possible, considering the site in relation to the overall catchment. 2 Go for the softest possible remedial option to reduce costs and minimise disturbance.3 Long-term solutions are generally more cost effective than repeated short-term approaches.4 Always consult with others (including neighbours) at an early stage, and certainly before any in-river work

is carried out. There may be scope for a joint approach involving upstream, downstream and over the burnneighbours which could prove far more effective.

5 If in doubt, seek further advice.

2.3 FARMS AN

D WATER


Remember: Rivers are dynamic - any form of interference will provoke a response somewhere in theriver system. If the natural balance is upset, weak areas will continue to suffer at theexpense of stronger areas: in-channel islands will continue to grow only at the expense ofriver banks or other areas being eroded.

KEY QUESTIONS • Is there a problem?

Try to identify the cause of a problem before tackling the symptoms. Remember to consider the problemand/or watercourse in perspective, both in relation to time and in relation to the overall farm and riversystem. Is this a recent problem or part of a long-term process of change? Is the problem unique to this farmor reach of the river? Are neighbours having similar problems? Would this problem be better tackled on alarger scale (extended reach or catchment scale)?

• What am I trying to achieve?Having a clear idea of exactly what you want to achieve is essential to plan and successfully carry out work.

• Is intervention necessary?Localised bank failures often settle down to a new profile and further erosion is unlikely for some time,provided of course the cause of the problem (such as intensive livestock grazing) has been removed.

• What is the most appropriate method?Choice of method, materials, siting and timing of operations will dictate success or otherwise of projects,and the level of undesirable impacts. Always aim for the method which will cause least disruption to theriver and its banks, which is often also the least cost method. Avoid using machinery in the river whereverpossible - working from the bank causes much less disruption.

• What are the farming implications?Consider impacts of intervention both to the farming system and to the river environment, and ensure thatthe consequences of different types of action are fully understood.

• What effect(s) might proposed work have elsewhere?Any work undertaken on one part of the river is likely to have an effect somewhere else on the river. Considerwhether erosion protection on one bank may lead to increased erosion elsewhere. Discuss your plans withupstream, opposite bank and downstream neighbours if possible.

• When is the best time of year to undertake work?Generally, the best time to carry out in-river work is between June and September when water levels arelow and impact on fish and other wildlife will be minimal. Critical timing for wildlife varies according toriver and species (see table below). Wherever possible, it is worth surveying the reach of river in question toestablish species and features vulnerable to disturbance or damage. Avoid times when flood water couldwash away bare, unvegetated bank material or structures.

• Can I tackle this or is further specialist advice or help required? Do you feel competent to assess the root-cause of any problems or the potential consequences of proposedaction? If the problem appears complex, and/or if any in-stream work is proposed, it is better by far to seekhelp from an expert than to wallow around out of your depth. Organisations with staff experienced indifferent aspects of river management are listed in the table at the end of this handbook. Contact therelevant experts at the earliest possible opportunity to clarify the likely physical and environmental impactsof proposed work. Consultation will also provide the opportunity to make amendments to plans beforetaking action - even a minor amendment such as changing the timing of in-stream works can sometimesbe crucial in determining the level of impact on wildlife and its habitats.

2.4

FARM

S AN

D W

ATER

KEY SCOTTISH RIVER WILDLIFE -BREEDING TIMES AND HABITAT PREFERENCES

The following table gives an indication of when a small selection of river-based species will be particularlyvulnerable to disruption. The table is in no way comprehensive - there are many other species of wildlife,including plants, that may be seriously affected by river works. Fly larvae, for example, are likely to suffer fromdisturbance of river gravels, whereas work on crumbly earth banks may result in loss of habitat for bees.Wherever possible a survey of the relevant river reach should be carried out before starting any work to identifyand protect valuable wildlife.

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION VULNERABLE TIMES OTHER IMPORTANT FACTS

Otter Throughout Scotland. Any time of year, but Otter holts built above and below particularly during spring/ ground on river banks or distantsummer when more cubs born from water. Cubs first venture

outside at 7 weeks, and swim at 3 months.

Water vole Increasingly rare. March-October Preferred habitat is slow-flowingWidely but patchily water of constant depth with distributed in lowland densely vegetated banks. Youngwaters and to 600m voles leave nest at 22 days.in uplands.

Kingfisher Mainly southern March-September Nest in tunnels excavated intoScotland. Rare/absent (peak April-May) banks. Riverside trees importantin north and north-west. as perches. Feed on small fish.

Dipper Throughout Scotland Pair bonds in February-late Nest among exposed tree roots,to 1000m. March and construct nests. rocks or grass tussocks on banks

Breeding season ends June. or on in-river features. Feed onaquatic invertebrates.

Sandmartin Throughout Scotland to Breeding season Nest in burrows excavated in300m, but less common March-September. vertical eroding cliffs of sand orin north and north-west. fine gravel.

Trout Throughout Scotland, Spawning period Normally spawn in gravel. Eggs even in small tributaries. September-January remain in gravel until emergence.

Fry hatch mid-March to early May. Require cover as juveniles and adults.

Atlantic Throughout Scotland. Normally spawn October- Spawning can occur wherever salmon January, peak November. Fry river bed is suitable from close to

emerge from gravel beds the mouth of the river right intousually in early May. headwaters. Eggs remain in

gravel until emergence.


2.5 FARMS AN

D WATER


2.6

FARM

S AN

D W

ATER

Further readingNorthumberland Otter Project Restoring Land for Otters Northumberland Wildlife Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne

Strachan, R. (1998) Water Vole Conservation Handbook Wildlife Conservation Research Unit , Department ofZoology, University of Oxford

JNCC (1997) The Habitats Directive: Selection of Special Areas of Conservation in the UK JNCC, Peterborough


2.7 FARMS AN

D WATER

A BASIC RIVER SURVEY CHECKLIST

Location (approximate grid ref.)

Within which main river catchment?

Type of watercourse -Drainage ditch/tributary burn/Main river channel

Location within river reach - Above a bend/below a bend/on abend / in a straight reach

Substrate - Boulders>250mm / gravel / sand / silt

Gradient and speed of flowFast / medium / slow

Channel characteristicsAverage widthStraight/slight meanders/very meanderingPresence of gravel islands and bars Approx % vegetation within channel

Channel features - Riffles, glides, waterfalls, poolsVegetated island(s),Dams - debris/leafy/artificialBraided / side channelsStagnant standing water

Water qualityClear/good / medium / poor/cloudyObvious sources of pollution

Water margins / bank characteristics - Profile (sketch) Material (describe)Stability - is the bank obviously stableor eroding?

Flood banks? proximity to channel, level of flood intended to withhold

Marginal vegetation - bog / carr / marsh / flush / fringing reed

Trees - density, shading, overhangingboughs, exposed roots

Notable nuisance plants e.g. hogweed,Japanese knotweed

Livestock access?

Evidence of recent management?


Land use within 50 m of banktopBrief descriptionIntensity of land useAny recent changes?Drainage outflows?

Evidence of recent channel change?

Positive influences on watercourse andriparian biodiversity

Negative influences on watercourse andriparian biodiversity

Are there any specific problems? (describe)

Is the flow of the river: Unimpeded / directly approaching theproblem area / parallel to the bank /being directed away from the area /being directed towards the problem area

Proposed action checklist:

➣ Is intervention necessary?What is the most appropriate method?

➣ What are the farming implications?

➣ What effect(s) might proposed work haveelsewhere - upstream/downstream andfor the wider catchment?

➣ When is the best time of year toundertake work?

➣ Who will implement the work?

➣ Is further specialist advice or help required?

➣ Who will consult relevant authoritiesand neighbouring land owners/managers?

2.8

FARM

S AN

D W

ATER

SECTION 3 WHAT TO AIM FORA BLUEPRINT FOR WATERCOURSE MANAGEMENT


3.1 WH

AT TO AIM

FOR

Fishing is by no means the be all and end all when it comes to river management, but as a general rule ofthumb, rivers which support a good salmonid (salmon and trout) population provide good examples of thestate to aim for in many Scottish rivers. To successfully complete their life cycle, salmonids require a range ofenvironmental conditions. If a salmonid population can thrive from birth to maturity, so too can many otherspecies, above and below salmon or trout in the food chain. The notes below will help clarify what to aim for.

In-channel i.e. within the river or burnThe value of a watercourse for wildlife depends on three factors:

water quality, water quantityphysical structure

• Good quality water is generally clear and sediment free (unless in flood), with the exception of rivers andstreams rising on peaty land. Water should be untainted and free of toxic chemicals, contain lowconcentrations of nutrients, and pH should reflect catchment geology. Adequate oxygen content is alsoimportant to support aquatic plants and insects. Vegetation is often a useful guide to a river’s health - forexample mosses such as Fontinalis are indicators of reasonably pure water, whereas species such asblanketweed and sewage fungus are indicators of pollution.

• Water quantity - a high but steady flow is usually desirable, with seasonal variations maintaining increasedhabitat diversity, but with relatively gradual changes in peak flow absorbed by floodplains. Very low flowsor sudden drops in water level, such as caused by abstraction or impoundments, should be avoided.

• Physical structure - from the uplands to the lowlands, a range of habitats, depths and speeds of watercontributes to the landscape and biodiversity interest of Scottish rivers. Pools, riffles, glides, meanders,straight and braided sections, cliffs, sand and gravel deposits, islands, waterfalls and undercut banks are allnatural features of the physical structure of our rivers, providing the building blocks on which habitats andspecies develop. These features, and the associated physical processes which create and destroy them,should be retained as far as possible in considering the need for river works.

Shallow water is vital for fish and other creatures such as freshwater shrimp and caddisfly larvae, and alsosupports invertebrates such as snails, beetles, water bugs (pond skaters and water boatmen), dragonflies andcrustacea.

Deeper water is essential to fish such as brown trout, and also for frogs, toads, newts, eels, and sticklebacks,and may support otters and other mammals such as water voles. It is also important in providingconstant/lower temperatures for species such as salmonids sensitive to temperature fluctuations.

Vegetation growing within the channel and at the margins of watercourses provides cover and food for fish,snails and other invertebrates, birds such as shoveler and moorhen, and small mammals such as water voles.It also provides breeding sites for dragonflies and damselflies, and resting sites for otters. By trapping silt,vegetation can also be instrumental in the formation of islands.

Adequate light reaching the water is essential to plant growth and flourishing insect populations, the idealbeing a mixture of direct sunlight and dappled shade on the water’s surface.


Features of a diverse watercourse (RSPB, NRA and RSNC 1994)

The river corridor From a conservation perspective, the overall river corridor including river banks and adjacent land is asimportant as the river itself. The key features of a river corridor high in biodiversity are:-

• A variety of river-related features - e.g. terraces, old river channels, oxbow lakes and alluvial flood plains,to increase the range of habitats available for colonisation by aquatic and semi-aquatic species, includingplants, mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates. Even dry ditches which carry water for only part ofthe year can be valuable in diversifying the insect life of agricultural land as they provide a damper and moresheltered environment than open fields.

• Relatively stable banks allow the development of vegetation and habitats for animals, result in lesssedimentation in the river, which increases the chance of survival of invertebrates, fish eggs and fry. Theyalso provide good habitat for other wildlife, including otters.

• Bankside vegetation is important in stabilising banks, provides food for insects such as bees, wasps andhoverflies, nesting sites for breeding birds such as redshank and whinchat, and feeding and sheltering sitesfor birds such as mallard and snipe. A strong turf over the bankside will help prevent erosion. Fish feed oninsects falling into the water from overhanging vegetation, whilst leaf litter provides food for other in-stream animals.

• Riparian habitat - A mixture of trees, grasses, shrubs and other herbaceous vegetation will provide optimumhabitat for the greatest number and variety of wildlife.

Grass margins, for example, support a multitude of invertebrates such as beetles and spiders, which are animportant food source for game bird chicks; they provide ideal nesting sites for ground nesting birds,including skylarks, and support many small mammals such as field vole, which in turn support barn owls andother predators.

3.2

WH

AT T

O A

IM F

OR

embankment situated ata distance from main river

fence preventslivestock access

backwater connected tomainstream at downstreamend only

floodflows

continuously flowingside arm withfloodplain pool

’floodplain’

wet woodland scrub

bar feature pool

floodplainwet grasslandseasonally inundated

erodingbanksidecliff

bufferzone

intensive farmingkept well back fromwatercourse


Hedges - Hedges can help reduce risk of run-off and soil erosion, and break up long slopes on steep ground.Effectively intermediate between woodland and grass or arable land, the shrubs which grow in hedges andflowering plants which flourish underneath provide food and nesting habitat for a wide range of wildlife,including many insects, birds and small mammals. A ditch alongside a hedge can support twice as many birdspecies and in higher numbers than a ditch alone.

Trees and woodland - provide habitat for plants and animals, and songposts, food and nesting sites for birds.Roots help stabilise banks and protect fish and invertebrates from predators.

The overall biodiversity of a watercourse will be influenced by the characteristics of its entire catchment, andlocal problems or reduced biodiversity may be a result of activities occurring some way from the watercourseitself or upstream of the reach under consideration.

Wherever possible, the long-term aim is to allow a watercourse to exist in its natural state, which in mostcases is one of relative stability with limited erosion, deposition and sediment transportation. Preventionthrough longer and stronger vegetation is a lot cheaper than engineering works.

Further readingTweed Foundation Streambank management for fish and other wildilfe

3.3 WH

AT TO AIM

FOR

TREES AND SHRUBS ALONG RIVERS,DITCHES AND BURNSBenefits of trees and shrubs• Roots help stabilise banks and protect fish and invertebrates from predators. • Provide food and shelter for many different insects, birds and mammals including providing cover for otters.• Cast shade across water which provides areas where temperatures will remain cool in summer and helps

restrict growth of aquatic vegetation.• Leaf litter dropping into watercourses from overhanging trees and shrubs feeds many types of aquatic

organisms.• Visually attractive.

Guidelines for management• Maintain existing hedges, trees, pollards etc. wherever possible.• Consider coppicing or pollarding at 10-15 year intervals some of the trees which shade the ditch, rather than

removing them (i.e. cutting to encourage regrowth from the stump).• Leave trees where they have fallen wherever this can be done without interfering with cropping or

fencelines. The upended roots make good nest sites for kingfishers and the vegetation which grows throughthe branches forms sheltered sites for a range of wildlife. Branches and timber which accumulate canprovide nest sites for moorhens, coots and swans.

Management guidelines for trees and shrubs along watercourses (Alan Scott)


maintain existing hedges, trees,pollards etc. wherever possible.

consider coppicing rather thanremoving trees that shade the burn leave tres where they

have fallen if possible

never plant on floodembankments

plant on alternate banks to protectaccess for maintenance

avoid planting neardrainage outfalls

New tree plantingThere is often scope for new tree planting in odd corners and to fill in bends in the river or burn. Tree plantingalong water margins or on adjacent land usually qualifies for grant aid.

• Linking new planting to existing woodland will considerably increase habitat value for wildilfe.• Avoid planting near drainage outfalls.• Never plant on flood embankments.• Plant on alternate banks to protect access for maintenance.• Plant only native species which look far more natural in the countryside and are of considerably more

wildlife value than those introduced from abroad. Willow and alder are the two species most commonlyfound growing alongside water.

• Areas of wetland used by breeding waders and other areas of high intrinsic conservation value, for examplespecies-rich grassland, are better left unplanted.

• Ensure adequate fencing and sufficient distance of newly planted trees and shrubs from the fenceline toprevent browsing damage.

3.4

WH

AT T

O A

IM F

OR

SECTION 4 LEGISLATION


The abundant legislation surrounding the use and abuse of watercourses reflects the vulnerability of rivers andburns and their considerable value economically and environmentally. SEPA, who are responsible forimplementing and upholding the legislation, can provide further details and guidance.

Primary Legislation relating to pollutionof Scottish watercourses

1 Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) (Scotland) Act 1951 includes Secretary of State’s duty to promote cleanlinessof waters and SEPA sampling powers

2 Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) (Scotland) Act 1965 includes further sampling provisions

3 Control of Pollution Act 1974 (as amended) includes main criminal offences in water pollution

4 Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991 included control orders for irrigation and drought orders

5 Environment Act 1995 includes general matters which SEPA must take into account in consenting todischarges to water and its other functions, and amended the 1974 Act

Directives relevant to the management of rural watercoursesin ScotlandThe Nitrates Directive concerns protection of water against pollution from nitrates from agricultural sources.It addresses two concerns (i) high nitrate levels in drinking water, and (ii) eutrophication of watercourses bynitrogen compounds. The Directive has identified the Balmalcolm catchment in Fife and the Ythan in north-east Scotland as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ), for which government action plans have been produced.

The Habitats Directive identifies Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) in the UK, and their associated species.The species identified are considered to be under threat, and special protection measures exist for theirconservation. Species relevant in Scotland include:-

Molluscs freshwater pearl mussel,

Fish Atlantic salmon, sea lamprey, river lamprey and brook lamprey

Mammals otter

Planning consentIn-stream and bankside works of a scale that constitute engineering operations will normally requireplanning permission. Examples are deepening of river channels, creation of pools, placing of large boulders,and removal of gravel. Consult with the relevant planning authority as soon as possible to determine ifplanning consent is required, and submit relevant applications if necessary.

4.1 LEGISLATION

SECTION 5 POLLUTION


The most common agricultural pollutants are fertilisers, pesticides, sheep dip, milk, slurry, silage effluent, oil andanimal carcases. Although frequently omitted from the list, soil can be just as polluting as any of these, bothdue to the physical effects of sedimentation causing problems in watercourses, and because of its ability totransport into the river system other nutrients or pollutants bound to soil particles. In many areas, soil run-offis as much of a problem as pollution caused directly by fertiliser and other agro-chemicals. Insensitive irrigationpractice compounds the problems of soil pollution. Two types of agricultural pollution are usually recognised:

Direct (or point source) pollution occurs where one or more specific sources of pollution can be pinpointed,for example a spill or leak.

Diffuse pollution occurs when pollutants seep into watercourses from a much larger area, for example fertiliserand pesticide pollution via ground water and surface run-off.

The effects of pollution from farming activities on water and the wildlife it supports include:

• Organic substances such as silage effluent and animal waste reduce the amount of oxygen available foraquatic plants and animals.

• Contamination with nutrients can lead to algal blooms.• Certain pesticides can wipe out invertebrate populations, food for fish (e.g. trout) and birds (e.g. dipper).• Silt smothers gravel beds used by trout and salmon for spawning. It also reduces the habitat available for

invertebrates which need gravelly beds in which to live.• Heavy loads of silt cause physical damage to fish.

In most cases, a little careful forethought is all that is required to prevent pollution of watercourses. Manypractices which help prevent pollution equate to good farming practice, for example, correct use ofagrochemicals by application at correct/minimal doses and at appropriate times of year.

Key points:• Identify potentially polluting waters coming from farm buildings, yards or draining off land. • Tackle pollution and run-off at source wherever possible.• Consider scope for creating buffer zones or other areas which could be used to intercept and

buffer polluted water.• Observe product safety precautions and always follow guidelines• Turn off outer nozzles or boom sections to avoid spray drift• Load sprayers and spray out washings well away from watercourses or buffer strips• Use appropriate headland settings on fertiliser broadcasters or use a full-width spreader• Take account of wind direction on spread pattern when applying fertiliser

Further readingSERAD (1997) Prevention of Pollution from Agricultural Activity (PEPFAA) Code of Good Practice, SERAD,Edinburgh (copies available from local SERAD offices) - comprehensive guidelines on the protection ofwatercourses from agricultural pollutants.

Pollution prevention leaflets available from SEPA, SAC and the SNFU:Diffuse pollution and agriculture PesticidesSlurry Soil protectionApplication of non-agricultural waste to land Agricultural fuel oil and waste oilSilos and silage effluent Protecting river banksDisposal of agricultural waste products and animal carcases

5.1

POLL

UTIO

N


Until recently, maximising production was the name of the game. Encouraged by agricultural policies,grants and public pressure, farmers have ploughed, cropped and grazed ever closer to rivers and burns.Within the last few years, the tables have turned. Production and profitable farming are still just asimportant, but increasing emphasis is placed on reducing the negative impacts of farming every lastinch as intensively as possible, and on the benefits of taking some land out of production. Watermargins - in other words the land adjacent to ditches, burns and rivers - should be high on the prioritylist for reassessment.

What’s the problem? Cropping and grazing right up to the edge of rivers, burns and field drainage channels without leaving any kindof margin brings with it various problems:

• Destruction of river bank vegetation and consequent loss of wildlife. • Bankside erosion caused directly by heavy machines and poaching by livestock. • Turf weakened by heavy grazing breaks easily allowing flood water contact with underlying soil or gravel,

which may initiate or accelerate bank erosion.• As erosion increases, the watercourse becomes wider and shallower, resulting in loss of valuable agricultural

land and wildlife habitat, and increased sediment load in the river. • Increased direct and diffuse pollution from pesticides and nitrates. • Contamination from animal waste and sediment, particularly at watering points and around winter feeding

sites.• Direct sedimentation as soil is washed off cultivated fields into rivers.

What are the solutions?

Management should aim to regenerate and maintain strong, stable native vegetation on banksides and in theriparian zone. This can be achieved by:

• Creation of buffer strips.• Reversion of arable land to permanent grass - particularly beneficial in reducing erosion on steep fields, may

be eligible for grant aid.• Fencing off riverside areas to allow vegetation to regenerate naturally. • Controlled grazing i.e. allowing livestock access at certain times of year to graze off dominant vegetation

will encourage a broader range of plant species and control development of unsightly rank vegetation orscrub (although in some places both may be desirable). Take particular care to avoid grazing when soils andvegetation are most susceptible to damage, e.g. during winter or other prolonged periods of wet weather.

• Provision of specific watering points for livestock.

6.1 CROPPIN

G AND GRAZIN

G BESIDE RIVERS

SECTION 6 CROPPING ANDGRAZING BESIDE RIVERS


BUFFER STRIPS As their name implies, buffer strips provide an intermediate protection zone between cropped or grazed landand areas of conservation value. In an ideal world, all watercourses would be protected by buffer strips whichwere themselves of high conservation value.

Benefits of buffer strips• Put to good use the least productive and often most problematic areas of the farm.• Reduce risk of pollution by agrochemicals, including pesticides and nitrates.• Stabilise the banks of watercourses, helping prevent erosion and siltation from bank material.• Reduce frequency of ditch management through decreased rates of siltation and weed development.

Plan view of buffer strip (SAC, FWAG & SEPA)

• Enhance crop management operations by straightening irregular field edges.• Control or prevent erosion of valuable top soil from fields into watercourses, so reducing contamination

by silt and organic wastes.• Reduce effects of spray drift.• Trap and filter silt and associated pollutants (including contaminants bound to sediments).• Help reduce nitrate leaching by vegetation growing on the buffer strip absorbing nitrogen. • Provide access routes around the farm and machinery turning areas (not allowed under current agri-

environment schemes).• If sown with perennial grasses and wildflowers, help control pernicious arable weeds such as cleavers and

sterile brome, and support beneficial insects which can help control crop pests.• Provide nesting and feeding areas for many types of wildlife and game, including ground nesting birds

such as partridge and skylark, and small mammals such as field vole.• Provide corridors for wildlife to move between different areas of habitat.

6.2

CRO

PPIN

G AN

D GR

AZIN

G BE

SIDE

RIV

ERS

bufferstrip

use buffer strip to straighten irregular field edge

river bank

buffer strip


Drawbacks to buffer strips• Loss of productive land.• Fencing costs where stock exclusion or control is needed. • Extra care will be needed with spraying and fertilising operations on adjacent land if the full

environmental benefits of buffer strips are to be gained.

Key points• Buffer strips can be any width, but need to be a minimum of 2 metres wide to be effective, or more on

steeper land. Many agro-chemicals cannot be used within 6 metres of watercourses in any case; somepesticides carry recommendations for a wider strip to be left untreated.

• Suitably managed strips of permanent vegetation between a watercourse and crop edge may be eligiblefor set aside under the Arable Area Payments Scheme. Set-aside strips are particularly useful aroundvegetable crops which receive especially high and frequent inputs. A cereal buffer strip may help reducepollution in vegetable production if set-aside cannot be fitted into the rotation. The minimum eligiblewidth has been reduced to 10 metres, but at the time of writing, SERAD were still awaiting confirmationregarding precise definition of what constitutes a watercourse, so check for up to date details.

• Wide grass margins and conservation headlands may attract compensatory payments under someconservation incentives (e.g. CPS). In areas which are particularly nitrate or pollution sensitive, bufferstrips may also attract additional incentive payments, and indeed may become compulsory.

• Avoid gaps in buffer strips, which reduce the effectiveness of pollution protection. • Buffer strips can help reduce adverse effects of farming operations on watercourses, but are not an overall

panacea - good farm husbandry is still equally important. Herbicide, fertiliser or spray drift into bufferstrips favours aggressive weeds and reduces value for wildlife and beneficial predators.

Grass strips• Grass buffer strips can be left to regenerate naturally, or can be created by direct drilling into stubbles,

undersowing cereals (especially if the field is to be set-aside with grass cover) or sown with a suitablegrass mix.

• A mixture of creeping grasses such as red fescue and tussocky species such as cocksfoot provides idealhabitat for beetles and other crop pest predators, and increases nesting and feeding sites for wildpartridge.

• Sowing a grass-wildflower mix which includes species such as black knapweed, yarrow, ox-eye daisy, andtufted vetch may be more costly but has greatest environmental benefit - for example, adult hoverfliesfeed on nectar and their larvae feed on aphids.

• Rough cutting every few years prevents development of scrub. Avoid cutting consecutive strips in thesame year to ensure continuity of habitat for wildlife.

6.3 CROPPIN

G AND GRAZIN

G BESIDE RIVERS

permanent vegetation arable crop

20m


Trees and wooded buffer strips• Trees planted on buffer strips can be visually attractive, help stabilise banks, provide valuable wildlife

habitat and contribute leaf litter to the watercourse, but bear in mind that areas of wetland used bybreeding waders are better left unplanted.

• Where planting or encouragement of natural regeneration is appropriate, species such as willow and alderwhich grow naturally in wet conditions are ideal.

Further readingDavies DHK and Christal A Buffer Strips - A Review Crop Systems Department, SAC, Edinburgh

FENCINGKey points • Observe river flow patterns, including when in flood, to help decide where fences are best located.• Locate fences parallel to the flow of water as far back from the watercourse as possible so as not to cause

too great an obstruction at times of flooding - most damage occurs when fences form a barrier to debrisbeing washed down rivers that are in flood.

• Straight lines of fencing which do not attempt to follow each meander in the course of the river willminimise costs and create the most useful buffer area.

Locate fences as far back from the watercourse as possible, and above flood level

• The more stable the ground on which the fence is located, the longer it will last.• Remember to include provision to maintain drinking water supply for livestock - install troughs or limit

stock access to just one or two points within the riparian zone, preferably at locations with a solid riverbed and bank, to prevent excess puddling by livestock.

• Include occasional gates to enable easy removal of stock that have got into the fenced area.

6.4

CRO

PPIN

G AN

D GR

AZIN

G BE

SIDE

RIV

ERS

✖✔

✖flood water flows intoobstructing fence


Include sections of under-railing if the terrain is sharply undulating to stop sheep getting underneath

• Take account of wildlife needs and potential to improve the area for conservation benefit withoutdetriment to farming

• Watergates will prevent livestock straying along burns. Careful siting can provide watering points andaccess between fields on either side of a watercourse.

• Type of fencing will depend largely on livestock whose movement is to be controlled, but will also dependon risk of flooding. As many farmers know only too well, stock netting can be washed away on floodplainmeadows, or equally serious, becomes clogged with debris when the watercourse is in spate, subsequentlyrestricting drainage. Temporary fencing, possibly attached to permanent strainer posts, may be preferableon sites prone to flooding, or alternatively consider sections of breakaway fencing to reduce costs ofreplacing long lengths of strained netting or wire.

• Careful thought regarding siting is the key to reducing visual impact, but using the lowest possible gaugeof wire/ rylock can also help, provided there is no compromise on effectiveness at controlling livestockmovement and cost-effectiveness of the fence, particularly in the longer-term.

• Include and clearly mark stiles and/or bridle gates for anglers, walkers, cyclists and riders whereappropriate to prevent damage by people climbing over fences. Alternatively, explore option for realigningpaths.

• Sensitive planting of native tree and shrub species (e.g. willows and alders) in the fenced area canincrease habitat diversity and help to further stabilise river banks. Trees may provide shade and shelter tolivestock, firewood or even timber if well-managed. Aim to leave half the watercourse in open sunlight,the other half in dappled shade. Avoid planting large areas of trees on or around wetland habitats wherecurlew, oystercatcher, redshank and lapwing breed.

• Fencing off an area may lead to an invasion of aggressive species such as willow herb and ragwort.Control of undesirable species by cutting/hand removal will increase the diversity of other ground flora.

• Fencing off significant areas may affect livestock subsidy eligibility including forage hectare andextensification payments.

Benefits of fencing: • Prevention of further bankside erosion means no further loss of grazing area.

• Fencing is generally a much cheaper option than any engineering work.

• If regularly checked and maintained, fences can be expected to have a twenty year life-span.

• Prevention of further erosion means reduction of further unwanted sediment deposition in other areas.

• Creates buffer strips which can reduce risk of direct and diffuse pollution.

• Better control of stock movement.

• Reduced risk of loss of stock during floods.

• Better riverside vegetation creates nesting and cover for game species.

• Fencing even small lengths of watercourse can yield worthwhile returns by reducing farm costs such asstock injury and lameness and time wasted rounding up stock who have strayed onto neighbouring landwhen river levels are low.

6.5 CROPPIN

G AND GRAZIN

G BESIDE RIVERS

✔


• Stable banks reduce erosion and downstream deposition, so spawning and invertebrate habitats aresafeguarded.

• Bankside vegetation provides leaf-litter and insects for in-stream organisms, and stable habitat on thebank for many types of flora and fauna.

• Payments under one of a range of environmental schemes may be available.

6.6

CRO

PPIN

G AN

D GR

AZIN

G BE

SIDE

RIV

ERS

SECTION 7 BANK EROSION


Erosion is one of many natural river processes. The speed of erosion depends on river type. Not surprisingly,rivers with a bed of boulders or running over bedrock experience relatively little erosion, whereaswatercourses running over gravel or finer substrates are typically subject to greater erosion. Problems arisewhere the rate of erosion is considered too rapid to be acceptable, or where valuable land is at risk, mostcommonly in the lowlands.

What is the problem?Banks which are eroding can become steep and undercut, leading to further severe erosion losses. Confrontedwith a sudden dramatic section of eroded river bank or increased speed of erosion along a length ofwatercourse, many farmers are tempted to take immediate defensive action without first assessing the scale ofthe problem or setting it into a broader context. Inappropriate techniques and materials are unlikely to solvethe problem long-term and are, at best, a waste of money. At worst, they can exacerbate the original problem.Attempts to reshape the river or shore up eroding sections by use of heavy machinery often disturb the naturalregime of a watercourse, leading to further problems of erosion and deposition downstream. There may alsoeven be compensation issues to consider if erosion is caused elsewhere as a result of badly-designed work atone site. Use of heavy machinery is also very damaging to aquatic and riparian vegetation, while careless useof the wrong materials (including builders’ rubble and corrugated iron sheets) can cause serious pollution, andcould be considered illegal.

Benefits of erosion control• Stabilisation of river banks reduces loss of agricultural land.• Reduces unwanted deposition in other areas.• Reduces excessive sedimentation within watercourses, which silts up gravel beds and destroys spawning and

invertebrate habitat.• Reduces widening of the channel which results in shallow flows especially in summer, which can cause

increases in water temperature and reductions in oxygen levels, leading to fish mortality.• Development of stable banksides creates habitat for mammals and birds as well as river bank vegetation.

The more rapidly vegetation can be established on newly stabilised banks, the better.

CHECKLIST FOR ASSESSING EROSION PROBLEMSErosion can be a complex issue. Effective treatment depends on first understanding and identifying the relevantcause(s). A preliminary survey of the area, including upstream and downstream sections, will provide usefulinformation on the possible causes of the problem. Remember, if in doubt, and always before attempting anyintervention aimed at stabilising river and stream banks, seek specialist advice.

Where is the bank eroding?In many cases, erosion occurs at the toe of the riverbank on a bend - i.e. where the riverbed meets the bank, butit may also be eroding higher up the bank due to high velocity flows parallel to the bank. Any weakness - e.g. afallen bankside tree - can be a focus for erosion and become a ‘nick point’ acting as a fulcrum between stableand unstable parts of the channel, leading to unprecedented problems. Always compare land management andbankside vegetation on other sections of the river to determine whether erosion is isolated or widespread.

7.1 BANK ERO

SION


Why is the bank eroding i.e. what is the cause of erosion?• Natural bank instability e.g. due to composition or structure of the bank.• Lack of vegetation to bind and cover soil.• Recent upstream works (either temporary or permanent) - e.g. channel widening or deepening, gravel

extraction, culvert construction etc.• Changes in use and/or management of banks/catchment e.g. livestock pressure, cultivation.• Isolated incident - e.g. flash flood.

How long has the bank been eroding?• Is this a longstanding or relatively recent problem?• What else has happened in the area in the same period?

What is the solution? Once the causes, scale and seriousness of the problem have been determined, the choice is then whether toleave the bank to reach its own natural state, or to take some type of remedial action. The first question shouldalways be ‘is intervention really necessary’? Unless the erosion is causing a serious threat, it is generallyadvisable not to intervene with any type of engineering.

Key points

• If in doubt about cause(s) of erosion or the consequences of potential solutions, consult ageomorphologist or other suitable specialist with a sound understanding of river processes.

• Resist the temptation to rush in and try everything possible to solve the problem all at once. Trying onething at a time, starting with the minimum possible, will reveal what works and may save costs ofunnecessary extra intervention measures.

• Stabilising the river bank by encouraging natural vegetation and control of grazing (e.g. by creation offenced buffer strips) is often the most cost-effective way to deal with the problem, and will providemany opportunities for both aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals. Once banks have been stabilised,native vegetation including trees can be planted or encouraged to regenerate. Vertical (oftenunvegetated) banks provide nesting sites for birds such as the sandmartin and kingfisher.

• Where intervention is considered necessary, the aim should be long-term stabilisation of eroding banksusing the softest techniques possible to dissipate water flow around vulnerable areas, ensuring thatwork does not result in more problems downstream.

• The key is often stabilising the ‘toe’ of the bank - i.e. the base of the bank at which the water level is ataround its normal flow.

• Avoid removing material from the bed of the river to rebuild banks as this can lead to instability and israrely successful in protecting banks.

• Any erosion control work should be inspected regularly, not just at the control site but also upstreamand downstream.

• There is a risk of revetment work being washed out during periods of heavy flooding, particularly for‘softer’ options if flooding occurs soon after the work has been carried out.

• Re-routing footpaths and access routes away from river banks can help reduce erosion problems andmay also benefit the rich wildlife often associated with watercourses by reducing disturbance.

Choice of technique will depend on the physical characteristics of the river and surrounding land, and thenature and seriousness of the problem. Fuller details of the techniques most commonly used for erosion controlfollow. In some cases it may be possible to combine more than one technique.

7.2

BAN

K ER

OSI

ON


BUFFER STRIP/TREE PLANTING

Buffer strips (see Section 6 - cropping and grazing beside rivers) are without doubt the simplest means ofcontrolling erosion, and should always be considered before any other option. Tree planting (see section 3.3-3.4- trees and shrubs along rivers, ditches and burns) may also be an option, possibly within the buffer strip.

SOFT REVETMENT TECHNIQUESVegetative revetment is the ‘softest’, and therefore best, intervention option. It will often be sufficient to slownatural erosion to an acceptable rate if combined with development of a good strong cover of banksidevegetation and/or combined with a buffer strip behind the area of the bank which has been reveted. Fencing isusually required to restrict livestock access. Vegetation should be sourced locally if possible.

Benefits• ‘Soft’ techniques are much cheaper than hard engineering • Physical work is usually within most farmers’ capabilities, although specialist input may be required initially.• Stable banks reduce erosion and downstream deposition, so spawning and invertebrate habitats are

safeguarded• Bankside vegetation provides leaf-litter and insects for in-stream organisms, and stable habitat on the banks

for many types of flora and fauna

Techniques include:-

(a) Grasses, sedges and reeds planted along the eroding zone.

Rolls of native plants used for vegetative revetment

7.3 BANK ERO

SION

reed clumpssoilstones

300 - 400 mm

woodensupportingstake

geotextile roll

reed clumpssoil

stones300 - 400 mm

woodensupportingstake


(b) Live willow stakes are cut and driven into the toe of the eroding bank. Willow is particularly suitable becauseof its ability to root from cuttings and form a permanent source of protection. The willow needs to becoppiced from time-to-time, which yields further stakes and cuttings. Since the work is well within thecapabilities of most farmers and cuttings can usually be taken or obtained free of charge, costs are minimal.

Spiling (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

(c) ‘spiling’ - a more sophisticated technique suitable for protection of steep or vertical banks. Willow shoots(withies) are woven horizontally around winter-cut willow stakes to create a living wall along the bank,which both protects the bank directly and also helps stabilise it in the longer term. Greater skill but lessmaterial is required than for faggoting. Spiling may be within the capabilities of some farmers, whereasothers might prefer to buy in specialists. Contractors costs, including supply of materials, range up to£100/metre.

7.4

BAN

K ER

OSI

ON

grass sown abovewater level

eroded bank infilled withmaterial from local sources(other than watercourses)

geotextile

sedge plantedunder geotextile

stable vegetable bank

osiers woven aroundpoles will sprout andstrike roots to holdfill in the bank

water level

willow poles(50 - 75mmdiameter)

eroded bank infilled withmaterial from local sources(not excavated fromwatercourses)


(d ‘faggoting’, where branches of any tree species, but again preferably willow, are bundled together andthen held at the base of the eroding bank by stakes. The bank is initially protected; debris also is trappedin the bundles of branches, forming substrate for stabilising plants to naturally seed into.

(e) Log and Christmas tree technique - This adaptation of faggoting has been used successfully in theScottish Borders. Larch logs are laid horizontally along the eroding bank, with pins driven verticallythrough them into the river bed. Conifer tops are then attached to the logs, butt end upstream, with a50% overlap to trap debris and sediment. Ideally plant willow stakes and/or establish a buffer zone behindthe protected bank to further strengthen it. Estimated cost £22/metre including labour. Christmas treesmay need replacing until other vegetation has stabilised the bank.

7.5 BANK ERO

SION

Faggoting (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

Log and Christmas tree technique (Tweed Foundation 1998)


HARD REVETMENT TECHNIQUES In some circumstances, for example where necessary to protect roads, bridges and buildings, more substantialrevetment may be required to control bankside erosion. Hard revetment can be softened by combining withre-vegetation and development of buffer zones, but any hard revetment work has the potential to causesignificant problems, both on the site in question and elsewhere within the river system. The following notesare included as a summary of relevant techniques, but specialist advice should always be sought beforeconsidering any hard revetment work.

(a) Geotextiles - a range of synthetic or natural textiles are available to help stabilise banks while vegetationestablishes. Regrade the eroding bank, sow with required vegetation and then secure geotextile usingmesh size to allow plant penetration. If combined with vegetative revetment, this is a relatively soft,medium cost option, but if combined with harder engineering techniques (e.g. gabion baskets or rip rap),the downstream impact can be unpredictable. Some skill is required in design and installation to preventsubsequent destruction by floods.

(b) Gabions and gabion baskets (wire baskets filled with stone) can be used to protect badly eroding banks,but can look extremely unnatural unless vegetated, and the downstream impacts can be veryunpredictable. Regular maintenance is required to avoid problems of undercutting, which adds to highinitial costs. Not suitable for implementation by most farmers. A more effective alternative is short willowlogs mixed with stones in the gabion.

(c) Stone strengthening/rip rap - angular stone can be used to armour eroding banks. The bank may need tobe regraded first. Use of local stone reduces visual impact, and addition of vegetation will help. This is amedium/high cost option, unsuitable for implementation by most farmers as careful placing of stone isessential, but in comparison to gabions, it is relatively easy to make adjustments if positioning does notprove exactly right first time.

7.6

BAN

K ER

OSI

ON

reed clumps plantedunder geotextile

geotextile top layer,soil underneaththen stones wire mesh basket

carefully placed angular rockarmours bank

high velocity flows at toe of bankabsorbed by rocks anddeflected downstream

reed clumps planted in gabion

wire mesh basketfilled with stone

high velocity flows at toe ofbank dissipated by rocks


BANK RESHAPING AND REPROFILINGReprofiling to lessen the slope of eroding banks may encourage stabilisation. Suitability will depend on type ofriver bank, but this type of erosion control is usually most suited to slow-flowing lowland rivers. The need tobring in experienced machinery operator(s) means that this is a medium-high cost option, and some habitatdisturbance/destruction is inevitable as a result of heavy machinery, but if done well, it can provide a goodenvironmentally friendly long-term solution.

However, simply reprofiling a steep bank or misjudging the profile of a new bank can increase erosion. Ideally,pressure will be taken off the eroding bank by widening the river channel on the opposite side, therebyspreading the river’s energy over a wider area. Of course, the ‘other side’ may be a neighbour’s land, whichemphasises the importance of talking to neighbours at an early stage in the proceedings.

Widening opposite bank to take pressure off the eroding bank

If this is not possible, then the height and slope of the eroding bank can be reshaped by a digger to lessen thespeed of erosion.

Reprofiling the eroding bank to a shallower, more stable angle

7.7 BANK ERO

SION

eroding bank widen channel byremoving inside bank

river energydisipated

marginal vegetationexpands

eroding bank

reseed new bank to stabilise


Benefits• Flood-risk may be slightly reduced by well-designed reshaped banks.• Banks designed to have a very shallow gradient may provide cover for game birds.• Bankside vegetation provides leaf-litter and insects for in-stream organisms, and stable habitat on the bank

for many types of flora and fauna. • A reshaped bank can create new habitats, including aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats.

Key points

• Re-shape upstream and downstream, to achieve gentle entry and exit but do no more than is necessary. • Work should only ever be undertaken on one bank at a time. • Gradient of the reshaped bank will depend on the angle of repose of the soil, but should be reduced to ideally

around 35 degrees, and certainly no more than 45 degrees. • Aim for an asymmetric profile, with shelves and berms (shallow shelves created by excavating the toe of the

bank) to create two-stage channels which will increase stability by slowing erosion at the toe of erodingbanks, and increase habitat potential.

• If not rapidly revegetated, soil run-off from the new bank will cause sedimentation in the watercourse.Scarify the cut surface before seeding/planting, using geotextiles if necessary to help stabilise banks. Fencingwill be required if livestock graze the adjacent area.

• Professional advice should be sought before any in-stream works of this nature are undertaken. The localDistrict Salmon Fishery Board should also be contacted.

• Estimated costs will depend on level of work required. A digger and driver would cost approximately £175-200 per day. Further labour and machinery may also be required to dispose of topsoil. Additional costs mayinclude seed and/or plants for revegetation, geotextiles and fencing if the area is to be grazed by livestock.

DEFLECTING WATER AWAY FROM THE ERODING BANKTwo techniques are occasionally used for deflecting the flow of water away from eroding banks:-

(a) Submerged ‘vanes’ and ‘hydrofoils’ - vertical structures (wood, rock or gabion baskets) placed on the riverbed usually to a height of 20-50% of normal water depth . Although unobtrusive, vanes are only suitablein a limited range of situations and siting is critical, hence professional help is required. High cost optionwhich can cause problems on opposite banks.

7.8

BAN

K ER

OSI

ON

vertical structures placed at 100 - 200 to main flow


(b) Deflectors and spurs (sometimes called ‘croys’ or ‘groynes’) are widely used and are suitable in manysituations. Hazel or heather hurdles are often as effective as stone, boulder or log extensions. The zonesof slack water created behind them produce resting pools for migratory salmon. Location, size, angle andheight are critical, as is direction - those pointing downstream as shown in the diagram below deflect flowaway from the eroding bank. Elsewhere deflectors facing upstream have been used to reinforce theeroding bank by trapping sediment. Use of deflectors can result in serious erosion problems on theopposite bank or on the same bank further downstream. Professional advice is therefore essential.

FURTHER READINGCranfield University (1999) Waterway bank protection: a guide to erosion assessment and management.Environment Agency, Bristol.

Environment Agency (1998) Understanding Riverbank Erosion - an information booklet. Environment Agency,Bristol.

River Restoration Centre (1998). Revetment Techniques Used on the River Skerne Restoration Project. R&DTechnical Report W83. WRc Information Resources, Swindon.

Thorne, C., Amarasinghe, I., Gardiner, J., Perala-Gardiner, C. and Sellin, R. (1998) Riverbank protection usingwillows. Environment Agency, Bristol.

University of Nottingham R & D Report 28 (1998) A Procedure for Assessing River Bank Erosion Problems andSolutions.

7.9 BANK ERO

SION

erosion

deflectors


SECTION 8 FIELD DRAINAGE ANDDITCH MANAGEMENT


What is the problem? Efficient drainage is essential to productive farming. Field drains must operate throughout the year, and whenwater levels are high in the receiving watercourse. To operate efficiently, drainage water must flow freely downa gradient to carry the water away from fields.

Natural watercourses do not need regular management, whereas artificial ditches usually require regularintervention to enable them to function efficiently and to maintain their wildlife interest. Provided care is takenin the way in which maintenance is carried out, periodic cutting or clearing of such artificial ditches is no badthing. It can help avoid need for drastic work in future years, and help maintain a diverse range of conditionsfor wildlife by interrupting the process of natural succession to uniform reedbed. Problems arise when work iscarried out without paying due regard to the implications for the river system or the many plants and animalswhich it supports, and when natural burns are subjected to unsympathetic often unnecessary management.

When drains start backing up or otherwise failing, the immediate reaction of the majority of farmers is to cleanout or reprofile watercourses in the hope that the efficiency of their field drains will increase. Insensitivedeepening and widening of watercourses to lower the water level or increase the gradient of flow and thusincrease the efficiency of outflow from arterial and field drains can be highly damaging to wildlife. Equallyimportant, dredging long reaches of watercourse or straightening rivers in an attempt to improve field drainageall too often eliminates the pools, riffles and other natural features essential to the conservation interest andefficient functioning of watercourses. Use of heavy machinery inevitably damages and destroys banksidevegetation, destabilises banks and disturbs the natural profile of the river bank. Severe erosion and depositionproblems may occur at the dredging site, further downstream and even upstream. Habitat damage anddestruction due to drainage is most commonly associated with lowland or improved land, where undergroundfield drainage exists or is being installed.

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER IN RELATION TO DRAINAGEAND DITCH MANAGEMENT

• Ideally, underground field drains should stop short of watercourses allowing water to percolate througha floodplain, wetland or other natural vegetation which will provide a buffer zone before the watercarried by the drains reaches the main river channel. The buffer zone will filter soil, silt and othermaterial carried by the drainage water and so prevent siltation, and can also significantly reduce theconcentrations of field nutrients and other pollutants running into burns and rivers. A vegetation bufferbetween drain outlet and watercourse should not impede drainage provided there is no directobstruction at peak or low flow.

• New grassed ditches can be useful to channel away intermittent run-off from vulnerable soils, canprovide valuable wildlife habitat and may support beneficial predators of crop pests.

• Exclude livestock from drainage out-falls and boggy areas.• Maintain land drain outfalls regularly. • Carry out dredging only as required rather than as an annual (often unnecessary) maintenance

operation. An infrequent job well done (i.e. in line with these guidelines rather than to excess!) will bejust as effective as annual dredging, and save considerable money.

• Maintain ditches on a rotational basis leaving 30-50% of vegetation undisturbed, working short sectionson alternate banks to minimise damage, maintain continuity and leave undisturbed areas as a source forrecolonisation. Rotational clearing of only part of ditches on a less regular basis will also encouragesettling out of sediments and recycling of nutrients through uptake by stream vegetation such as reedsand rushes.

8.1 FIELD DRAINAGE AN

D DITCH M

ANAGEM

ENT


DREDGING AND CHANNEL WIDENING The principles for dredging and channel widening are exactly the same for drainage ditches as for rivers andother large watercourses. There is no point in interfering without first establishing need for, or specific causeof, poor outflow - before bringing in machinery, consider the following:

• Is poor field drainage definitely an outflow problem? • Are the drains themselves in need of repair?• Will the problem definitely be solved by lowering the level of watercourses into which the drains feed? • How will improving drainage affect wetlands, floodplains and other areas of high nature conservation

value?• Will improved drainage cause problems in dry periods?

Only if the level of the adjoining watercourse into which the drains discharge is too high is there any case forconsidering channel modification.

Key points

• Channel deepening and widening should only ever be considered as a last resort .• Digging and disturbance should be limited to the minimum possible both within the watercourse and on

its banks. • Dredging should be only ever be ‘partial’ - i.e. maximum two-thirds of channel width to minimise

disturbance and maintain the variety of conditions necessary for a wide range of aquatic plant and animallife.

8.2

FIEL

D DR

AIN

AGE

AND

DITC

H M

ANAG

EMEN

T

clear vegetation fromone side of channel only

dredge short stretchesfrom alternate banks


• Deepening a narrow part of the river bed to create a two-stage or compound channel can be just as effectivein increasing the gradient, creating a faster run of water and providing necessary capacity for storms flowsas dredging the full width of the channel, whilst maintaining sufficient depth in low flow periods to supportwildlife dependent on deeper water. This type of design also avoids major changes in channel behaviour, forexample it allows retention of valuable meanders.

Compound ditch design (Alan Scott)

• Creation of silt traps downstream of the main rechannelling work may help reduce the impact on theremainder of the watercourse.

• Seek professional advice before undertaking any in-stream works. The local District Salmon Fishery Boardmust also be contacted.

Benefits of partial dredging

• Lowering the water table may improve productivity of affected farm land.• Successful partial dredging may increase river conveyance and reduce the risk of local flooding, although

the impact of operations on land further downstream should never be ignored.• A well-planned partial dredging scheme can lead eventually to increased habitat diversity by creating deeper

areas of water which provide habitat for bigger fish and mammals. • Dredging provides opportunity to reprofile bank slope on the area being worked. A carefully reshaped bank,

once revegetated, will provide future habitat diversity.• Quicker and therefore cheaper than full-scale dredging. • Less spoil to be disposed of than full-scale dredging

Practical guidelines

• The angle to which the banks are cut will affect the speed of revegetation: less steep banks are more easilyrecolonised and less prone to erosion. Bank angle should rarely exceed 45 degrees from the horizontal.

• Create or maintain a variety of bankside profiles to encourage as wide a range of species as possible.


D DITCH M

ANAGEM

ENT

before

after

shallow slope

storm flow

extra shallow slope

normal flow


Wide profile ditch (Alan Scott)

A suitable profile if space is limited (Alan Scott)

Alternative profile (Alan Scott)

• Leave as much marginal vegetation as possible to provide and retain a stable base to the bank withoutrisking toe erosion and bank slumping.

• Leave stable vertical faces in banks for kingfishers and sand martins to nest, but leave some banks with agentle slope on the sunnier side to encourage flowering plants.

• Retain existing trees, if at all possible.• Work against the direction of water flow to increase opportunity for colonisation of bare stretches by plants

further upstream.• Ideally vegetation from in-stream dredging operations should be left temporarily close to the watercourse

so that aquatic invertebrates can return to the stream or river. Spoil should never be dumped on banksides,in other parts of the watercourse, or in wet hollows which might be used by breeding waders and wildfowlor around trees. Wherever possible, spread on fields well away from areas of wildlife interest - weed seedswhich germinate can easily be controlled during normal cultivation.

• Time dredging to minimise impact on local plants, animals and aquatic species (see section 2). If possible,have a survey of the reach carried out to identify the species likely to be affected.

• Revegetate banks as soon as possible once dredging is complete to reduce risk of erosion and speed uprehabilitation.

8.4

FIEL

D DR

AIN

AGE

AND

DITC

H M

ANAG

EMEN

T

Offers two banks forvegetation and wildlife cover

slopes as shallow as possible

the shallow slope should receivemost sunlight (where possible)

slope as shallow as possible(south facing)

steep bank

shelf beneath drain outlet will remainwaterlogged creating a valuablemarshy area

drain outlet

shallow bank


CHEMICAL CONTROL OF VEGETATIONAquatic herbicides are relatively quick, easy and cheap to use, and are therefore an attractive option to manyfarmers as a means of controlling vegetation. Spot treatment with specific herbicides may be preferable froma conservation viewpoint to some mechanical means of vegetation control. However, chemicals of anydescription can have a very significant effect on the biology of watercourses, even in minute quantities. Beforeusing herbicides or any other chemicals in or near watercourses, carefully weigh up the drawbacks against thepotential merits and economic savings.

Potential disadvantages• Algal blooms often result from nutrients released by decaying plant material. Once algae are established, a

continuing and expensive herbicide programme may be necessary for control.• Broad-spectrum herbicides often kill off sensitive plants and open the ground for colonisation by

competitive and aggressive species including noxious agricultural weeds, which in turn require furthertreatment.

• Improper dosage may increase weed problems: some species regrow and spread rapidly after top kill.• Some aquatic herbicides are only effective in certain seasons and weather conditions.• Herbicides can be hazardous to humans and livestock as well as wildlife. Poisonous plants may become

palatable but remain toxic so livestock must be excluded.• Aquatic fauna may be killed directly (e.g. snails by diquat) or indirectly through loss of food and shelter,

deoxygenation or temporary changes in pH. The effect is worst in spring.• Habitat destruction is large-scale and rapid, but recovery slow as adjacent sources for recolonisation are

often destroyed.• Herbicides and/or polluted water are readily washed downstream where it can adversely affect other users.

Checklist for use of herbicides• Use only selective herbicides rather than broad-spectrum, and choose whichever affects the least number

of other species.• To lessen short-term deoxygenation effects, treat one-quarter to one third at a time, leaving two to three

weeks before next treatment.• Read the label and follow manufacturers’ recommendations precisely.• Do not exceed recommended rate and note safe interval before use for irrigation, stock watering, grazing

etc.• Spray in late July for most effective control of reeds and to protect nesting birds, unless directed otherwise

by product recommendations.• Do not use herbicide on an SSSI or water flowing into one without approval of Scottish Natural Heritage.• Use of all chemicals in or near watercourses is strictly controlled by legislation. In line with the statutory

MAFF code “Guidelines for the use of herbicides on weeds in or near watercourses and lakes”, SEPA expectsto be consulted on, and its approval sought for, all direct non-aerial applications of herbicides into controlledwaters. SEPA would also expect such consultation over all other non-aerial herbicide applications whichpose a significant risk of contaminating ground and surface waters. Application forms are available from allSEPA regional offices.

• Use only herbicides cleared for aquatic use. The following list of active ingredients is correct at the time ofwriting (January 2000) but the list of approved products for control of vegetation in or near watercoursesis reviewed regularly. Product names also change. This list should not therefore be considered definitive -consult SEPA for advice and/or check with the current edition of the MAFF/HSE reference book 500,Pesticides.


D DITCH M

ANAGEM

ENT


ACTIVE INGREDIENT EXAMPLES OF PRODUCT NAME(S)2,4 D Amine Atlas 2,4-D; Dormone; MSS 2,4-D AmineDalapon/dichlobenil mix FydulanDichlobenil Casoron G; Casoron GSRDiquat RegloneDiquat alginate MidstreamFosamine ammonium KreniteGlyphosate Barclay Gallup Amenity; Clayton Swath; Glyfonex; Glyphogan;

Helosate; Roundup; Roundup A; Roundup Biactive; RoundupBiactive Dry; Roundup Pro; Roundup Pro Biactive; Spasor;Stetson

Maleic hydrazide Regulox K; Royal MH 180Terbutryn Clarosan 1FG; Algae kit; Blanc-kit

FURTHER READINGNature Conservancy Council (1989) Nature Conservation and the Management of Drainage Channels.English Nature, Peterborough.

8.6

FIEL

D DR

AIN

AGE

AND

DITC

H M

ANAG

EMEN

T

SECTION 9 REDUCING FLOOD DAMAGE


What is the problem? Deposition of fine sediments during past floods means that floodplains provide potentially rich agricultural land.Together with increasing pressures for agricultural intensification, this has resulted in many floodplains comingunder intensive management. Rivers and burns allowed to flow naturally with scope to spill over in spate ontofloodplains rarely cause catastrophic damage, but once high value crops and livestock are threatened, theintermittent flooding which was previously accepted as a fact of life - and is by definition a feature offloodplains - represents a problem. The most common reaction is to try to prevent or control flooding bymeasures such as river dredging, straightening or realignment to increase flow, or construction ofembankments, often with unsuitable material. All these can lead to downstream problems of erosion anddeposition, and can increase peak flows because floodplain storage is lost. Rich wildlife habitat is also lost,which is particularly serious for those plant and animal species which depend on periodic inundation,waterlogging and slow drying of floodplains.

What is the solution? Choice of technique will be determined by the river gradient and existing channel pattern together with theavailability of land in the riverside zone. Management options include:

1. MANAGED FLOODINGThe best approach from all points of view, and the only option which provides potential downstreambenefits, is to accept occasional flooding and to adapt management of floodplain land to allow for this,which allows the river to maintain more gradual changes in levels and flow speed. Allowing the river toleave its channel at times of high flow reduces the river’s possible erosive power, and sediment is depositedrather than erosion being caused within the river channel. As restrictions on chemical use close towatercourses are tightened and financial incentives become more focused on conservation-oriented landmanagement, less intensive agricultural management of floodplains becomes more attractive. Reversionto grass, which can be seasonally cut and/or grazed, spring cereal cropping (on land which floods mainlyin winter) and planting up with woodland are all viable options. However, for most farmers, extensificationrequires a shift in attitudes away from maximising output towards rationalising costs per hectare.

Financial incentives for change in land-use intensity are controlled under IACS. At present these includenon-rotational set-aside, and agri-environment scheme options for floodplain management, creation ofwetlands and creation of species-rich grassland. Similar options are likely to be available within the ruralstewardship scheme which will replace existing ESA and CPS schemes. In most cases, the approach to landmanagement will be determined by the conditions of the subsidy and/or incentive regime being followed.For example, current CPS requirements for wetland creation include the need not just to allow floodingbut to raise water levels so that the site is saturated for a significant part of the year. Conservation ideals- for example the use of native, species-rich grass and wildflower seed mixes - will have to be combinedwith agricultural realities such as the need for sufficient productive grassland on which to finish cattle.Guidelines on the management of land to meet SERAD requirements, to maintain some agriculturaloutput, and benefit specific grassland and wetland species are available from SAC and FWAG advisers.

Additional flood storage can be created by the excavation of derelict (infilled) oxbows creating excellentwildlife and game habitat on a flood plain. Excavated material could be used to build set back floodbanks(see below). Any excavation carried out must be done sensitively to ensure that existing good habitats arenot lost.

9.1 REDUCING FLO

OD DAM

AGE


Benefits

• Greatly reduced risk of expensive losses caused by floods.• Land continues to be reasonably productive, although careful study of the IACS small print will be essential

if whole-farm income is to be optimised.• Reduced inputs on land which is less intensively managed, including management input and variable costs.• May allow for a reduction in fixed costs if large enough areas are farmed less intensively.• Creation of habitats for sporting wildfowl.• Provision/protection of habitats for a wide range of species - plant and animal.• Stabilisation of banks by reduced intensity of land use reduces erosion. • A range of secondary habitats can be developed - e.g. trees and shrubs, depending on the farmer’s objectives.

Drawbacks• Loss of farm income without sufficient adjustment to overall farm costs, particularly fixed costs.• Stocking density, duration and timing needs to be carefully monitored. Over-grazing all too easily destroys

wildlife habitats and causes bankside erosion, but undergrazing can also lead to loss of species diversity byallowing rank vegetation to grow unchecked.

• Wetter areas are prone to poaching by cattle when ground is waterlogged. • Foot-rot can be a problem in sheep unable to withstand wet ground conditions.• Invasion of recently established grass swards on fertile land with aggressive arable weeds - limited options

for herbicide control.• Reduced cropping options.• Although there are potentially very significant catchment scale benefits, these will not necessarily relate

back to owners/managers of land on which flooding will be managed.

2. EMBANKMENTS AND FLOODBANKSThe traditional method of preventing flooding has long been to construct embankments adjacent to the river.If well-constructed, riverside embankments can be relatively effective in stopping water spilling over ontoadjacent land, but in so doing, the natural floodplain is isolated from the river, flood storage capacity for thecatchment is reduced, and valuable wildlife habitat is lost. More often than not, embankments are crudely madefrom spoil excavated from the river and its banks. Such spoil is often unstable and washed away at the firstmajor flood. Any break in the embankments can lead to severe flash floods. Embankments immediately adjacentto watercourses should therefore be avoided if at all possible.

Conventional embankments (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

9.2

REDU

CIN

G FL

OO

D DA

MAG

E

x y

x

y

Floodbanks set back from the watercourse are far more efficient in reducing risk of flood damage. They allowthe development of a semi-natural floodplain, which can be used for grazing or forage conservation, and whichhas the potential to be extremely valuable in environmental terms.

Set-back floodbanks (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

Benefits of set-back embankments• Limitation of flooding to a known area of land.• Reduced risk of flooding elsewhere.• Relatively low cost of construction and maintenance.• Durability of floodbanks compared to frequent in-stream engineering work.• Floodplain area can be used for much of the year, and may provide a useful buffer zone, helping prevent

pollution of watercourses by agro-chemicals or farm wastes used in nearby arable operations. Nutrientdeposition in the form of river-borne sediments will help keep the area which floods fertile.

• Opportunity to create valuable additional wildlife habitat, e.g. species-rich grassland or riparian woodland.• Potential financial support/encouragement from agri-environment schemes.

Drawbacks of set-back embankments• Reduction in productivity of land within the floodbanks.• Restriction on intensity and type of farming activity that can be undertaken within floodbanks. • Set-back floodbanks may be difficult for individual landowners to adopt effectively, as it is best applied over

long stretches of riverside land on both sides of the river.

3. PARTIAL DREDGING (see 8 - Drainage and ditches)Deepening of channels to speed water flow is generally a short-term solution to a flooding problem. Dredgingmust be carried out with extreme care, and limited to the sections where it will have most effect. Whereintervention is unavoidable, partial dredging is the preferred option.


9.3 REDUCING FLO

OD DAM

AGE


4. CONSTRUCTION OF RELIEF CHANNELSRelief channels allow flood water to by-pass land which needs to be protected in times of flood. They areenvironmentally favoured because the original watercourse is left relatively intact, while the relief channelcreates new habitats. The result may be the loss of a large area of floodplain since land is needed for both thenew channel and the existing watercourse. Whether dry, wet or permanent water, or a combination of all thesealong their length, relief channels should not be constructed without expert advice from an individual ororganisation with a sound understanding and practical experience of channel management (see furtherinformation and advice).

Relief channel (RSPB, NRA & RSNC 1994)

5. CHANNEL REALIGNMENTStraightening of channels, for example by cutting off meanders, increases the local gradient and flow speed ofthe watercourse, and may alleviate local flooding. However, increasing the speed of flow will provoke greatererosion, with potentially serious impacts downstream. Channel realignment can also destroy in-stream andbankside vegetation. Channel realignment should therefore only ever be considered in exceptionalcircumstances, and only then after seeking specialist advice.

Further readingEnvironment Agency (1996) Policy and practice for the protection of Floodplains, Environment Agency, Bristol

9.4

REDU

CIN

G FL

OO

D DA

MAG

E

SECTION 10 USING WATER WISELY


In much of Scotland, and in most years, rainfall supplies more than sufficient to meet the water needsof even the most thirsty land or crops. However, even a short period of water stress can have asignificant impact on yield and quantity of high value vegetable crops (including potatoes) and softfruit. These crops are typically grown in the east of Scotland on light, sandy free-draining soils withrelatively low water-holding capacity, which are also subject to rapid run-off. On these farms,irrigation equipment is a worthwhile, if not essential, investment.

Abstraction by landowners with access to a watercourse is unregulated and unlimited for allwatercourses in Scotland except for the West Peffer Burn in East Lothian, and the Ordie Burn inPerthshire, where control orders have been introduced to restrict abstraction.

Environmental problems arise if water abstraction occurs when river levels are already low - forexample during hot, dry spells, when crop requirements are high. Upstream farmers are in apreferential position when overall supplies are limited, and burns may be very low or even sucked dryby the time they reach lower areas. As water is abstracted and river levels fall, aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and animals lose their habitat. Temperatures within the burns increase and dissolvedoxygen levels are reduced, causing mortality to aquatic species. Furthermore, the run-off from thefield crops may well contain both fertilisers and pesticides; these combined with other pollutantsentering the watercourse (e.g. outflow from human water treatment plants) will be concentrated athigh levels as less water is available in the watercourse for dilution.

GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING THE ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT OF WATER ABSTRACTIONFarmers using river water for irrigation can take a number of measures to reduce water use at times when riversare already low, and hence limit environmental damage. A little forethought and careful planning will also helpcut costs.

• Use stored water e.g. field reservoirs wherever possible. • Irrigate in the evenings or early morning to minimise evaporation losses and maximise uptake by plants.• Locate rain-guns so as to minimise wastage of water which misses target crops.• Match application rate and droplet size to soil and crop type.• Use soil moisture monitoring equipment and follow specific crop guidelines to avoid over-irrigating, capping

of the soil surface and consequent wasted water, risk of run-off and soil erosion.• Co-operate with other farmers in same catchment - try to ensure that burns are not sucked completely dry,

perhaps by drawing up a rota of irrigation times with neighbours.• Respect the needs of wildlife which depend on the river and associated habitat. If you are not sure what

species exist in your local burn or river, and what their requirements are, seek advice from specialists.Consider having a survey carried out if information is not already available.

10.1 USING W

ATER WISELY

SECTION 11 GRAVEL EXTRACTION


Gravel is usually extracted from rivers and burns in an attempt to increase the flow of the river bydeepening or widening the channel, to deepen shallow zones for fish movement, or simply to providegravel for road or other building work. Movement of gravel within a river system is a vital naturalprocess. Gravel extraction will therefore inevitably have knock-on effects and can be extremelydamaging, resulting in increased erosion in other parts of the river and causing direct disturbance anddamage to aquatic environments.

Upsetting the width:depth ratio of the watercourse will result in increased erosion elsewhere, bothupstream and downstream. Areas from which gravel has been extracted rapidly refill as the river triesto restore its balance. Gravel also often constitutes the coarse ‘armouring’ layer of the river bed. Onceremoved, the fine sediments underneath may erode very rapidly, and then be deposited elsewheredownstream. Release of fine sediment into watercourses can cause serious pollution. Fish areparticularly affected, as their gills become clogged up with the sediment. The sediment can alsodamage invertebrate habitats and spawning beds.

Removal of gravel at any time may destroy spawning beds, and could wipe out a whole season’spotential young fish supply. Also, any emergent vegetation developing on the river bed will be lost, andrecolonisation will be slowed by river deepening and loss of bed material.

GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING THE IMPACTOF GRAVEL EXTRACTION

• Always consult SEPA for pollution prevention advice and the local District Salmon Fishery Board for adviceon protecting areas important for fish before extracting gravel.

• Consult local planning authority to determine any requirement for planning permission.

• Limit the quantity of gravel extracted to the absolute minimum required to achieve your desired objective.

• Extraction undertaken little and often is preferable to one major extraction event.

• Dry surface gravel (i.e. above the water-line) is preferable for extraction to layers of gravel laid down overtime, disturbance of which can result in significant river-bed erosion problems.

• Carefully dug, shallow extraction areas with graded edges are preferable to deep pits with abrupt edgeswhich are likely to increase risk of erosion.

• Think carefully before extracting gravel from rivers where salmon are present - removal of in-river gravel tosurface farm roads and gateways can destroy fish eggs and deprive fish of spawning grounds. Take particularcare to avoid extraction during salmonid spawning, egg incubation and hatching (late autumn to spring) andduring fish activity.

11.1

GRA

VEL

EXTR

ACTI

ON

GLOSSARY OF TERMS


Abstraction removal of water from a watercourse, usually for irrigation

Armour a coarse, stable surface layer of bed sediment

Berm shallow marginal zone of a two-stage river channel above low-flow water level, created by bank excavation

Biodiversity biological richness, including species, genetic and ecosystem variety

Braided (watercourse) a watercourse where channels divide and recombine irregularly

Buffer strip/zone area adjacent to the watercourse, left uncultivated - ideally fenced off

Catchment the total area of land that drains into a river

Channel the course of a river or burn, including the bed and banks

CPS the Countryside Premium Scheme

Corridor (river) the river bank and land immediately adjacent to it, including the floodplain

Culvert artificial structure, often concrete, for carrying water underground or under bridges

Debris dam coarse woody debris blocking the channel and causing water to pond back

Deflector a structure projecting out into the channel to deflect the current.

Emergent vegetation plants rooted below water or along the water’s edge

Embankment artificial flood bank built for flood defence purposes, which can be flush with the channel or set back on the floodplain

ESA Environmentally Sensitive Area

Faggoting method of vegetative revetment using bundles of branches secured to eroding banks

Flash flood sudden incident, with very rapid rise of water levels

Floodplain area of land over which a watercourse will spill in spate, i.e. periodically inundated part of a river valley floor

Gabion (basket) wire baskets filled with rocks, used to form bank protection structures

Geotextile fabric membrane use for bank stabilisation

Glide a narrow section of smooth flowing water

Gravel bar deposit of coarse sediment

‘Hard’ engineering/ techniques involving heavy engineering and use of non-vegetative materialsrevetment

Hydrofoil submerged structure used to deflect the current

In-stream that part of the channel covered by water in normal flow conditions

Marginal bed river bed at the edge of the watercourse, submerged in shallow water, may emerge at times of low flow

Meander a bend in the river formed by natural river processes e.g erosion and deposition

Metastable dynamic but stable, or always in a state of temporary equilibrium

Mid-channel bars gravel or other shallow deposits in the middle of straight sections of watercourse

Partial dredging dredging from one bank only, along only short sections of river reach.

Poaching trampling by livestock

Point bar gravel or other shallow sediment deposition on the inside of bends

GLOSSARY O

F TERMS


Pool discrete areas of deep water, typically formed on the outside of meanders

Oxbow lake a depression in the land left when a meander is cut off by natural river processes. May be wet or dry, and may hold flood water

Reach a length of an individual river which shows broadly similar physical characteristics

Realignment reshaping a channel (often by straightening) to speed up flows and reduce flood risk

Regime the natural condition of a river

Relief channel adjoining the main channel, and linked to it at both ends, creating an extra route for flood water

Reprofiling reshaping a bank to improve its stability and potential habitat value (usually by reducing the slope and making the shape asymmetric)

Revetment bank strengthening

Riffle a shallow, fast flowing section of water with a distinctly disturbed surface forming upstream-facing unbroken standing waves, usually over a gravel substrate

Riparian or, or on, the banks of a river

Rip rap angular stone placed to protect eroding banks

River corridor land to either side of the main river channel, including associated floodplain(s)

Salmonid the family of fish species that includes the salmon, trout and char

Set back (distant) embankment which allows flooding over a limited area (e.g. three to six times the embankment width if the watercourse channel)

Side bars gravel or other shallow deposits along the edges of straight sections of river channels

‘Soft’ (engineering/ environmentally friendly, often using vegetative materialrevetment)

SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest

Spiling method of vegetative revetment using willow branches woven horizontally around vertical willow stakes

Spur a structure projecting out into the river channel to deflect the current.

Toe (of the riverbank) where the riverbed meets the bank

Vane a submerged structure used to deflect the current

Vegetative revetment use of plant material (can be live or dead) for bank strengthening and protection

GLO

SSAR

Y O

F TE

RMS

There are various voluntary schemes which offer financial encouragement to farmers to restore, improve andsympathetically manage river-related habitat. Levels of payment, and indeed availability of the schemes, aresubject to ongoing review - at the time of writing, the main environmental subsidy schemes (ESAs and CPS) aredue to be replaced by the new rural stewardship scheme. Although details have yet to be confirmed, it is highlylikely that incentives will continue to be increasingly geared towards low-intensity land management,especially in areas where potential wildlife benefits are high. This invariably includes river corridor land. SAC,FWAG and SERAD can provide up to date details of all schemes on offer. Comprehensive details of IACS andimplications of scheme entry for agricultural subsidies are available from SERAD.

Scheme and Area available Details RequirementsAdministering Body

Countryside All Scotland except Discretionary capital and Whole farm scheme, 5-year Premium Scheme ESAs annual payments for creation minimum commitment. Keen(CPS) - due to and sympathetic management competition for very limited finish 2000 of wetlands, water margins funding means applications

and flood plains. usually need to include work to satisfy all 5 local priorities

Environmentally Designated areas Tier 1 hectarage payments 10-year commitmentSensitive Areas reward farmers for complying (ESAs) - due to with basic environmentalfinish 2000 conditions. Optional Tier 2

capital and hectaragepayments offer additionalreward to help offset costs ofhabitat creation andenhancement.

Farm Woodland Forestry Authority Grants to encourage planting Applicants must be running an Premium Scheme of new woodland on arable agricultural business, planting

or improved agricultural land, must be to Woodland Grant or unimproved land within Scheme standards. Land to beLFAs planted must have been in

agricultural use for 3 years prior to application. Min. 1ha

Landscape and All Scotland Discretionary capital Projects must fall into one ofnature payments rarely exceeding SNH’s priority categories, whichconservation grant 50% of total costs for habitat vary between time and regions(SNH local offices, enhancement work, includingoften in production of conservationconjunction with mgt. Planslocal authorities)

Local area Specific river Financial assistance towards Schemes must meet objectivesinitiatives e.g. catchments/ specified eligible works e.g. of funding bodyTweed Foundation, project areas fencing and habitatGrampian Rivers improvementProject, Wild RiversDemonstration andAdvisory Project

Rural Stewardship All Scotland Successor to CPS and ESAs Applicants must comply with basic(SERAD) - due for offering discretionary capital environmental conditions. 5-yearintroduction payments for range of habitat minimum commitment.summer 2000 creation and sympathetic

management includingwetlands, water margins andflood plains

Woodland Grant Scotland wide Capital grants and annual Min. size 0.25 ha, must complyScheme (Forestry payments for tree planting with Forestry Authority standardsAuthority) and woodland management

SOURCES OF FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE


SOURCES O

F FINAN

CIAL ASSISTANCE


FURTHER INFORMATION AND ADVICE


FURTHER IN

FORM

ATION

AND ADVICE

The main organisations offering information and advice on different aspects of farm and watercoursemanagement are listed below. Independent consultants may be listed under ‘Environmental Consultants’ inYellow Pages.

Organisation Services/skills Contact details - note local offices listed in phone book

Association of Salmon Local DSFBs for each salmon/sea Association of Salmon FisheryFishery Boards trout river in Scotland provide free Boards

advice and sites visits on protection Tel: 0131 343 2433of fishing interests in watercourses

Farming and Wildlife Advisory Specialist and general advice on FWAG Scotland,Group (FWAG) conservation, riparian habitats and The Rural Centre,

agri-environmental issues. First visit West Mains, Ingliston, free, thereafter fees charged. Newbridge, Midlothian EH28 8NZ

Tel: 0131 472 4080

Forestry Authority Offer grants for woodland Forestry Commission,planting and management Edinburgh EH12 7AT

Tel: 0131 334 0303

Grampian FWAG Rivers Project Promotes pollution control and Alison Espie,offers advice on conservation work Grampian FWAG,directly linked to habitat protection Thainstone Business Centre,and enhancement alongside Inverurie AB51 5TBRivers Dee, Deverson and Don and Tel: 01467 629338their tributaries

North East of Scotland Rivers Embryonic project working towards Julie Tuck, Project OfficerProject offering advice on sustainable river Planning and Development,

management, possibly with funding Aberdeenshire Council,Woodhill House,Westburn Road,Aberdeen AB16 5GBTel: 01224 664722

River Restoration Centre Promotes and offers specialist Silsoe Campus,advice on benefits, concepts and Silsoe,practical aspects of river restoration Beds MK45 4DTas an integral part of sustainable Tel: 01525 863341water management, both tosubscribers and on fee basis.

Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) Agricultural advice, including 23 advisory offices co-ordinated by: fertiliser management and soilerosion. Conservation and ecology SAC North Region,department specialise in surveys Drummondhill,and monitoring. Specialist Stratherrick Road,commercial advice on soil erosion, Inverness IV2 4JZpollution control etc. available Tel: 01463 233266from SAC Environmental. SAC South Region,

57 High Street,Lanark ML11 7LFTel: 01555 662562

SAC Conservation and Ecology Department,Auchincruive, Ayr KA6 5HWTel: 01292 525294

SAC EnvironmentalTel: 0131 535 4000 or01292 520331

SAC Conservation Services Specialist advice on conservation Manager: Gillian McKnightand agri-environment schemes. Tel: 01463 233266


Scottish Environment Protection Statutory pollution control authority National pollution hotline Agency (SEPA) in Scotland, undertakes surveys and 0800 807060

offers advice re. watercoursemanagement, especially re. water Head Office:quality. Erskine Court,

Castle Business Park,Stirling FK9 4TRTel: 01786 457700North Region HQ,Graesser House,Fodderty Way,Dingwall Business ParkDingwall IV15 9XBTel: 01349 862021East Region HQ,Clearwater House,Heriot Watt Research Park,Avenue North,Riccarton,Edinburgh EH14 4APTel: 0131 449 7296West Region HQ,5 Redwood Crescent,Peel Park, East Kilbride, G74 5PPTel: 01535 574200

Scottish Executive Rural Affairs Responsibility for legal and technical Pentland House,Department (SERAD) matters relating to fisheries 47 Robb’s Loan,

management, pollution control, Edinburgh EH14 1TYflood defence, water supply and Tel: 0131 224 6227sewarage.

Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) Government’s statutory conservation 12 Hope Terrace,advisers in Scotland. Specialist free Edinburgh EH9 2ASadvice on environmental aspects of Tel: 0131 447 4784river engineering, main input usuallylimited to statutory role relating todesignation and protection of SSSIs,SACs, NNRs and GCR sites

Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) Scottish Wildlife Sites Action Cramond House,Programme has identified over 2000 Kirk Cramond,sites of conservation value, for which Cramond Glebe Road,advice is available free of charge with Edinburgh EH4 2NSthe aim of improving conservation Tel: 0131 312 7765status and management. River ValleysOfficer advises on management River Valleys Officer - issues relating to major river systems. Peter Pollard Tel: 01224 488550

Tweed Foundation Charitable trust undertaking Duncan Glen,scientific research and management Tweed Foundation,of all freshwater fish within the Drygrange Steading, MelroseTweed catchment. Tel: 01896 848271

Tweed Rivers Heritage Project Partnership of statutory and Tweed Forum,non-statutory bodies promoting wise Drygrange Steading,and sustainable use of natural, built Melrose TD6 9DJand cultural heritage of River Tweed Tel: 01896 848271and its tributaries through freeadvice on integrated managementand planning.

Wild Rivers Demonstration and Demonstration sites, events and Steven Bell,Advisory Project (WRDAP) free advice on natural river Rosewall Cottage,

management in rural Stirling and Aberuthven,Tayside (note: current project Auchterarder PH3 1HBfunding expires November 2000) Tel: 01764 664671

Worldwide Fund for Nature Encourages and facilitates 8 The Square,(WWF) Scotland development of environmentally Aberfeldy,

friendly river management policy Perthshire PH15 2DDand practice in Scotland. Tel: 01887 820449

FURT

HER

INFO

RMAT

ION

AN

D AD

VICE

Documents

Guidance : Habitat Enhancement Initiative (HEI) : Farming ...adlib.everysite.co.uk/resources/000/015/775/... · RSPB, NRA and RSNC (1994) The New Rivers and Wildlife HandbookRSPB,