Groundwater chemistry and water table variations in Bahrain...2.12 The Geomorphology of Howar Islands 2.13 The Geological Formations of Bahrain 2.14 East to North-West Geological and

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GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY AND WATER TABLE

VARIATIONS IN BAHRAIN

by

HOSAM RIFAAT MAHMOOD, BSc, MSc

A Doctoral Thesis

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of

Doctor of Philosophy of the Loughborough University of Technology

. . 1993

© HOSAM RIFAAT MAHMOOD 1993

.....

·" . . -. ,_ .. _-.-'

Loughborough University of Tec;'r,l,i.:v ,,, L;brary

-- . Date' -J'I\c:r '\ ~

"'-

Class --.' . .... -I "cc.

I No. lI't'~a 1,..(${r¥

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication

Certijicate of Originalny

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CHAPTER 1:

CHAPTER 2:

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

2.1

2.2

2.3.

INTRODUCTION . Scope Objectives Data Gathering Layout of the Research Valuable Sources for Background Literature

THE PHYSICAL LAYOUT Introduction 2.1.1 Geography 2.1.2 Topography Geornorphology 2.2.1 Primnive Landscapes

2.2.2

2.2.3 Geology 2.3.1

2.3.2

2.2.1.1 Cemented Debris 2.2.1.2 Stone Pavements 2.2.1.3 Duricrusts 2.2.1.4 Blue Askar Landforrns 2.2.2.1 Central Plateau Zone 2.2.2.2 Interior Basin and the

Muniple Escarpment Zones 2.2.2.3 The Main Backslope Zone 2.2.2.4 The Coastal Plain Zone Offshore Islands

Stratigraphy 2.3.1.1 Holocene 2.3.1.2 Pleistocene 2.3.1.3 Pliocene 2.3.1.4 Miocene 2.3.1.5 Oligocene 2.3.1.6 Eocene 2.3.1.7 Palaeocene Structure 2.3.2.1 2.3.2.2 2.3.2.3 2.3.2.4 2.3.2.5

Synclines Fauns Dipslopes Joints The Hamala Anticline

Page No

i i i

1 1 1 1 2 3

4 4

" 6 8 8 8 9 9 9

10 10

10 14 15 17 20 20 23 24 25 25 27 <'7 34 35 35 36 37 37 37

Page No

2.4 Pedology 39 2.4.1 Ancient Soils 39

2.4.1.1 Silt 39 2.4.1.2 Aeolian~e )9 2.4.1.3 Sand 39

2.4.2 Recent Soils 40 2.4.2.1 Burial Mounds 41 2.4.2.2 Vegetational Cover 41 2.4.2.3 Man-Made Lands 42

2.5 Hydrology 44 2.5.1 Climate 44

2.5.1.1 Temperature and Sunshine 44 2.5.1.2 Humid~ and Fog 45 2.5.1.3 Wind and Visibility 45 2.5.1.4 Precipitation 46

2.5.2 Evapotranspiration 46 2.5.3 Water Resources 47

2.5.3.1 Aquifers 47 2.5.3.2 Springs 51

CHAPTER 3: WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE 53 3.1 Water Supply 53

3.1.1 Introduction 53 3.1.2 Water Availability 53 3.1.3 Distribution Network 53 3.1.4 Water Supply Cycle 54

3.1.4.1 Recharging the Cycle 58 3.1.5 Water Loss 58

3.2 Drainage 58 3.2.1 Storm Water 58

3.2.1.1 Road Gulleys 59 3.2.1.2 Storm Water Channels 59

3.2.2 Agricultural Drainage 59 3.2.3 Wastewater 6u:

3.2.3.1 SeptiC Tanks 60 3.2.3.2 Sewerage bO

CHAPTER 4: STATISTICAL METHODOLOGY 62. 4.1 Introduction 62 4.2 Simple Regression 62

4.2.1 The t- and p-Values b3 4.2.2 The Correlation Analysis 64 4.2.3 The Coefficient of Determination b5 4.2.4 Sample Calculation 66

4.3 MuKiple Regression 77 4.3.1 The F-Ratio and the p-Value 77 4.3.2 The Coefficient of Determination 78 4.3.3 Sample Calculations 78

4.4 Forecasting 79 4.4.1 Sample Calculations 79

CHAPTER 5: DATA AND HYDROGEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS 80 5.1 Introduction 80 5.2 Field Procedures 81 5.3 Results 82

CHAPTER 6:

CHAPTER 7:

5.4

6.1 6.2

6.3

6.4

7.1

7.2

7.3

CHAPTER 8: 8.1

5.3.1 Ion Balance Variations 5.3.2 Result Grouping 5.3.3 Graphical Presentation Analysis of Results 5.4.1 Exposed Water Bodies

5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5

5.4.1.1 Land Springs 5.4.1.2 Offshore Springs Dammam Group of Formations The Rus LenslAquHer Umm-Er-Radhuma AquHer Conclusion

DATA AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Data Statistical Analyses 6.2.1 Simple Regression

6.2.1.1 Water Table Levels and

6.2.2 6.2.3 Discussion 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 Epilogue

Time 6.2.1.2 Water Table Levels

Evapotranspiration 6.2.1.3 Water Table Levels

Rainfall MuHiple Regression Forecasting

Sanad AquHer Alat AquHer Khobar AquHer The Rus LenslAquHer Umm-Er-Radhuma AquHer Aruma AquHer

GEOTECHNICAL CONSEQUENCES Introduction 7.1.1 Sub-Surface Investigations Current Foundation Design Practice 7.2.1 General Notes on Construction Future Foundation State

and

and

7.3.1 Review of the Causes for the Water Table Movement

7.3.2 Geotechnical Effects Due to the Water Table Movement 7.3.2.1. Bearing Capacity and

Settlement 7.3.2.2 Chemical Attack and

Flooding 7.3.3 Suggestions for Protecting the

Foundations

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions 8.1.1 Simplified Hydrogeologicl Sequence 8.1.2 QualHy of the Groundwater 8.1.3 Present and Future PosHion of the

Water Table Level

Page No

85 88 88 91 91 91 97 98

104 111 117

123 123 125 125

125

137

141 145 149 154 154 155 156 157 158 158 159

160 160 160 161 161 162

162

166

166

167

167

169 169 169 169

170

8.2 8.1.4 Geotechnical Effects Recommendations 8.2.1 Recommendations for Upgrading of the

Groundwater System 8.2.2 Recommendations for Future Work

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

APPENDICES: Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix 0

Page No

172 172.

172 173

175

A.1 B.1 C.1 0.1

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No nle

2.1 Geological Map of the Region

2.2 An East to West Geological Cross-Section of the Regional Geological Map Appearing in Figure 2.1

2.3 Location of the Archipelago of Bahrain Islands

2.4 Topography of Bahrain

2.5(a) East to West Cross-Section of Bahrain 2.5(b) North to South Cross-Section of Bahrain

2.6 Schematic Diagram of the Cemented Debris

2.7 Location of the Catchments and Playas

2.8 The Transformation from Streams to Large Channels

2.9 Weathering of DiI'Rafah Carbonate Formation

2.10 The Formation of Alluvial Fans

2.11 Location of Nebkhas

2.12 The Geomorphology of Howar Islands

2.13 The Geological Formations of Bahrain

2.14 East to North-West Geological and Hydrogeological Cross-Section of Bahrain

2.15 Ra's AI' Aqr Formation

2.16 Stratigraphic Column for the Jabal Cap Formation

2.17 Stratigraphic Column for Neogene Formation

2.18 Stratigraphic Column for Jabal Hisai Carbonate

2.19 Stratigraphic Column for West Rifa Flint Formation

2.20 Stratigraphic Column for AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation

2.21 Stratigraphic Column for the Foraminneral Carbonate Formation

2.22 Stratigraphic Column for Dil'Rnah Carbonate Formation

2.23 Stratigraphic Column for Hafirah Carbonate Formation

2.24 Stratigraphic Column for Awali Carbonate Formation

Page No

5

5

6

7

, 7

8

11

12

13

14

16

19

"-1

22

24

:16

27

28

29

31

32

33

34

Figure No nle

2.25 Stratigraphic Column for Umm-Er-Radhuma Formation

2.26 Two Interpretations of the Hamala Anticline

2.27 Location of Man-Made Lands around the Archipelago of the State of Bahrain

2.28 Schematic Hydrogeological Column of Bahrain

2.29 The Outcrops of Bahrain's Aquifers

3.1 The Water Supply Cycle in Bahrain

3.2 The Present Status and the Future Planning of the Piped Sewerage Network System

4.1 Statgraphics Simple Regression Plot of Borehole (1185)

4.2 Statgraphics Simple Regression Plot of Standpipe (01 H)

4.3 Statgraphics Simple Regression Plot of Standpipe (3C2)






5.1 Frequency Histogram for all the Exposed Water Bodies

5.2 Frequency Histogram for the Dammam Group of Formations

5.3 Frequency Histogram for the Rus

5.4 Frequency Histogram for the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquner

5.5 Location of the Sampled Groundwater and their SubGrouping

5.6 The Interpretation of Piper's Central Diamond Using the Templates

5.7 The Analytical Results for the Exposed Water Bodies on Piper's Central Diamond

5.8 Regression Plots of Electrical Conductivity on the Exposed Water Bodies' Chemical Constijuents

5.9 The Distribution of the Total Dissolved Solids of Dammam Group of Formations

Page No

35

38

43

48

52

55

61

69

70

71

72

72

74

75

76

86

86

87

87

89

90

92

94

99

Figure No nle

5.10 The Analysed ResuHs of Dammam Group of Formations on Piper's Central Diamond

5.11 Regression Plot of Electrical Conductivijy on the Dammam Group of Formations' Chemical Constijuents

5.12 The Analysed Results for the Rus LenS/AquHer on Piper's Central Diamond

5.13 Regression Plots of Electrical Conductivity on the Rus Lens/Aquifer's Chemical Constijuents

5.14 The Analysed ResuHs for Umm-Er-Radhuma AquHer on Piper's Central Diamond

5.15 Regression Plots of Electrical Conductivity on the UmmEr-Radhuma AquHer's Chemical Const~uents

5.16 Summary of the Water Nature of all of Bahrain's Aquifers

5.17 Graphical Results for Miscellaneous Samples on Piper's Central Diamond

6.1 Location of the Observation Borehole and the Monitoring Standpipe

7.1 The Water Table Pos~ion in the Sanad Aquifer

7.2 Isometric Graphical Model Showing the Causes for Rising Water Levels in Bahrain

Page No

100

102

106

109

112

114

118

122

124

165

166

LIST OF TABLES

Table No Tijle

2.1 Part of the Statigraphy of Bahrain

2.2 Annual Rainfall Recharge and Potential Evapotranspiration

3.1 Abstraction Rates for Aquifers A. B. C. D and E and the Water Usages

4.1 Strength Determination for Correlation Coefficient

4.2 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression , Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1185)

with Respect to Time

4.3 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Standpipe (01 H) of Sanad Aqu ne r w~h Respect to Time

4.4 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Standpipe (3C2) of Sanad Aquner w~h Respect to Time

4.5 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1170) of Alat Aquner w~h Respect to Time

4.6 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1007) of Khobar Aquifer with Respect to Time

4.7 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1002) of Rus LenslAquner w~h Respect to Time

4.8 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1014) of Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquner w~h Respect to Time

4.9 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1127) of Aruma Aquner w~h Respect to Time

4.10 Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Mu~iple Regression Results for Borehole (1185)

5.1 Summary of the Bottles Used in the Analyses

5.2(a) Application for Water Test: Water-Ghemical and -Physical Analyses

Page No

23

47

57

65

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

78

82.

83

Table No

5.2(b)

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

5.9

5.10

5.11

5.12

5.13

6.1

6.2(a)

6.2(b)

6.3

6.4

A Sample Computer Print-out for the Water-Chemical and -Physical ResuUs of Umm-Er-Radhuma Aqu~er

Results of the Correlation Coefficients between Electrical Conductiv~y and the Chemical Constituents for the Land and Offshore Springs

Summary of Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) for the Exposed Water Bodies

Results of the Correlation Coefficients between Electrical Conductiv~y and the Chemical Constituents for Dammam Group of Formations

Total Dissolved Solids and Sodium Absorption Ratio for the Samples of Dammam Group of Formations

Results of the Correlation CoeffiCients between Electrical Conductiv~y and the Chemical Constituents for the Rus

The Correlation Coefficients amongst the Rus's Chemical Consmuents

Results of the Correlation Coefficients between Electrical Conductiv~y and the Chemical Constituents for Umrn-Er-Radhuma Aqu~er

The Correlation Coefficients amongst the Umm-ErRadhuma's Chemical Constituents

Correlation Matrix Results between Hydrogen Sulphide and the BOO. for Umm-Er-Radhuma Aqu~er

The Minimum and Maximum Results for all Analyses from all the Water Bearing Formations

A Comparison between (WHO, 1993) Drinking Water Standards as well as (FAO, 1985) Irrigation Water Standards w~h Respect to Bahrain's Standards

Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Sanad Aqu~er Standpipes and Time

Correlation Matrix for Some of Sanad Aqu~er's

Standpipes near the Coast

Correlation Matrix for Some of Sanad Aqu~er's Standpipes away from the Coast

Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Alat Aqu~er Boreholes and Time

Correlation Matrix among the Boreholes of the Ala! Aquifer

Page No

84

95

96

101

105

107

110

113

115

116

119

120

126

127

128

129

130

Table No THle Page No

6.5 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Khobar Aquifer Boreholes and Time 132

6.6 Correlation Matrix among the Boreholes of the Khobar Aquifer 133

6.7 Simple Regression Resu~s between Water Table Levels of Umm-Er-Radhuma AquHer Boreholes and Time 135

6.8 Correlation Matrix among the Boreholes of the Rus Lens/Aquifer, the Umm-Er-Radhuma AquHer, and the

136 Aruma AquHer

6.9 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Sanad Aquifer Standpipes and the Rate of Evapo-

138 transpiration

6.10 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Alat AquHer Boreholes and the Rate of Evapo-

139 transpiration

6.11 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Khobar AquHer Boreholes and the Rate of Evapo-

140 transpiration

6.12 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Umm-Er-Radhuma AquHer Boreholes and the Rate

141 of Evapotranspiration

6.13 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels 142 of Sanad AquHer Standpipes and the Rate of Rainfall

6.14 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels 143 of Alat AquHer Boreholes and the Rate of Rainfall

6.15 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Khobar Aquifer Boreholes and the Rate of Rainfall 144

6.16 Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Umm-Er-Radhuma AquHer Boreholes and the Rate

145 of Rainfall

6.17 Multiple Regression Resu~s between the Water Table Levels of Sanad AquHer Standpipes and all the Other

146 Independent Variables

6.18 Multiple Regression Results between the' Water Table Levels of Alat Aquifer Boreholes and all the Other

147 Independent Variables

6.19 Multiple Regression Results between the Water Table Levels of Khobar AquHer and all the Other Independent

148 Variables

Table No THle Page No

6.20 Predicted Forecasts between Water Table Levels of Sanad AquHer Standpipes with Respect to Time Based

150 on Simple Regression Analysis

6.21 Predicted Forecasts for Water Table Levels of Alat Aquifer Boreholes wijh Respect to TIme Based on

151 Simple Regression Analysis

6.22 Predicted Forecasts for Water Table Levels of Khobar Aquifer Boreholes wijh Respect to Time Based on

152 Simple Regression Analysis

6.23 Predicted Forecasts for Water Table Levels of the Rus. Umm-Er-Radhuma. and Aruma Aquifer Boreholes wijh

153 Respect to Time Based on Simple Regression Analysis

7.1 List of Cijies which Experience the Rise of Water Table 163 Levels

7.2 Conceptual Chart Presenting the Causes and Effects of 164 Rising Water Table Levels in Bahrain

ABSTRACT

An evaluation has been carried out of the groundwater system in Bahrain. It

has involved the collection of water samples from all the water bearing

formations to study the quality of the groundwater. Each water sample was

tested physically, chemically, and bacteriologically. Additionally, the five day

biochemical oxygen demand test and hydrogen sulphide were detected. The

period of the actual sampling and testing extended from mid-1990 to the

beginning of 1992. The results obtained have been compared to the results of

an earlier study conducted between 1978 and 1979. The investigation has also

involved a statistical analysis of the variations in the sub-surface water table

level in each hydrogeologic formation. The piezometric levels have been

collected from monitoring boreholes/ standpipes. The levels obtained extended

from the beginning of 1980 when the earliest recording started up to the end

of 1991.

Bahrain abstracts its fresh water from five aquifers which in descending order

are the Sanad, the Alat, the Khobar, the Rus, and the Umm-Er-Radhuma

Aquifers. The quality of the groundwater appears to be deteriorating. The

excessive groundwater abstraction has caused the encroachment of the sea

into all the sub-surface waters. As the waters become saline, they are

expected to become unsuitable for human consumption and for irrigation. The

deeper aquifers are believed to consist of high values of the hydrogen sulphide

because the deeper geological formations contain oil rich in sulphur. land

spring water is expected not to be safe bacteriologically because it is exposed

to the atmosphere unlike the other boreholes in the various aquifers.

The water table levels have been changing in each aquifer. The groundwater

levels in the Sanad Aquifer, which is the shallowest geological formation, are

expected to rise in the future in areas where the natural drainage is obstructed.

This is related to the sea coast reclamation area. The rise is expected to

reduce inland depending on the application of surface irrigation as well as the

possible leakages from the services systems. About two kilometres south from

the original shore, around Buddayya Road, the Sanad Aquifer's water table has

been shown to be falling. This fall is expected to be due to overpumping from

the groundwater system.

Apart from the Sanad Aquifer, the piezometric levels of the underlying aquifers

are expected to fall with time. Once again the fall is due to excessive

groundwater abstraction.

The study concludes by re-presenting the causes for the water table rise in the

near-surface Sanad Aquifer and discusses the possible geotechnical

consequences. It further produces some possible solutions to control the rise

of the water table level.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation to my supervisors, Mr William S Moffat

and Dr David R Twigg, for their valuable support and help during the analysis

and the write-up period.

My special thanks are due to Mr Len G Hutton for giving me insight on the

analyses of hydrogeochemistry and Dr Nancy M Spencer for her contributions

in the computer and statistical works.

I wish to thank Mr Mubarak AI-Noaimi and Mr Marcial MOjica, both from the

Water Resources Directorate, who kindly supplied me with most of the water

table levels and enriched me with precious hydrogeological information. I would

like to express my sincere gratitude to Mr Mario N Pishiri who, under the

influence of Watson-Khonji (Consulting Engineers) formerly known as Watson

Hawksley, allowed me to utilise their reports and supplied me with invaluable

data.

I would like to acknowledge the assistance of the following persons without

whose help I would not have been able to complete the research:

1. Dr Badr AI-Hassan Baig, Head of the Public Health Laboratory, and his

team of chemists and bacteriologists.

2. Mr Michael Hall, Head of the Wastewater Treatment Plant at Tubli, and

his team of chemists led by Mrs Amal AI-Aradi.

3. Mr Khalifa AI-Mansoor, Head of Ras Abu Jarjur Reverse Osmosis Plant,

and his team led by Mrs Latifa AI-Seessee.

4. Mr Khaled Sal man AI-Mosallam, Deputy Director General of the Horse

Racing Club at Sakhir, and his personnel.

5. Mr Dawoud AI-Sayyid, Acting Head of Field Survey, and his team of

surveyors.

6. Mrs Seema Ahmad, Head of Mapping, and her team as well as private

landowners for allowing me to sample their groundwater.

iii

I would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the following organisations:

1. The Groundwater Development Consultants International (GDC).

2. The Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO).

I am grateful for the contributions of the laboratory staff and the lecturers at

Loughborough University of Technology. I am obliged to the University's

Finance Office for permitting me to utilise their microfilming facilities, to Miss

Kathy Brown for her kind assistance, to Mrs Dorothy Boyd for typing Table 6.4,

Table 6.6 as well as Table 6.8 and to Mrs Janet Smith for her patience in typing·

my thesis.

iv

1.1 SCOPE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The aim of the research is to determine the reasons for the groundwater quality

as well as the fluctuations in the water table levels and to present their

geotechnical implications in Bahrain.

The water table, in this research, is defined as the actual static water level in

the borehole or standpipe of each aquifer.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

a) To introduce a more simplified hydrological layout;

b) To examine the chemical nature of the groundwater;

c) To determine the status of the water table;

d) To forecast the future movement of the water table; and

e) To examine the possible effects on geotechnology due to the

groundwater quality and the water table variation.

1.3 DATA GATHERING

The procedure for data gathering involved contacting various bodies.

Groundwater samples were collected for chemical and bacteriological analyses.

The Director of the Laboratory of Public Health Directorate and the Director of

the Laboratory of the Wastewater Treatment Plant permitted undertaking the

analysis of the samples. Copies of the water table levels were obtained from

Mr AI-Noaimi, Senior Hydrologist at the Water Resources Directorate, and

Watson-Khonji Consultants, formerly known as Watson Hawksley Consultants,

gave permission to utilise the water table levels of the shallow groundwater they

had collected.

1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Difficulty was found in obtaining specific details such as the abstraction of

groundwater quantities per aquifer per month. The problem is the result of

having four water departments in three different ministries. Some ministries

welcomed researchers, whereas others caused bureaucratic problems.

1.4 LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH

Details of the physical layout of Bahrain are presented in Chapter Two. A new

title is introduced for the inland shallow groundwater based on a town

appearing on the eastern coast of Bahrain where this formation is seen clearly.

A more simplified hydrogeologic sequence is also introduced. Chapter Three

reviews the water supply and drainage conditions and includes a brief section

on the pipe materials and standard methods of installation which can cause

future leakages. An interpretation of the water supply cycle in Bahrain is also

presented.

Chapter Four presents the statistical methodology that has been undertaken in

the analyses. In Chapter Five, the chemical constituents of the water samples

are analysed to determine the water quality. It is followed by Chapter Six in

which the water levels are analysed to determine their history and to foresee

their trend. In Chapter Seven, a model is illustrated presenting the causes of

the the rise in the water table and its geotechnical implications in Bahrain.

The final chapter sums up the interactions between the hydrogeological as well

as the hydrogeochemical results with their effects on concrete structures.

Four appendices are included in this research. The first appendix presents the

procedures which were undertaken by the chemists and bacteriologists in

determining the nature of the water samples. In Appendix B, the grid

coordinates are presented for the analysed water samples as well as for the

2

Chapter 1: Introduction

monitored bore holes or standpipes. The results of the water chemical analyses

are displayed on microfiche jackets along with the original water table levels.

In the following appendix, the hydrographs of all the water table levels of all the

boreholes and standpipes are introduced. In Appendix D, a summary of work

is reviewed carried out by geologists and/or hydrogeologists in Bahrain.

1.5 VALUABLE SOURCES FOR BACKGROUND LITERATURE

The study that Dr Doornkamp and others undertook in the mid-1970s has been

relied upon. They published their report in 1980 under the title "Geology,

Geomorphology and Pedology of Bahrain". Their study is the most recent and

detailed investigation which contains titles of formations relating to Bahrain

itself. The GDC study between 1978 to 1979 has been depended on regarding

information on hydrogeology. Their report is not published but has been

available since 1980. Although the Government of Bahrain utilises the

information that Dr Doornkamp and others have gathered, it still refers

hydrogeologically to the old aquifers extending from Saudi Arabia carrying

Saudi titles. As will be discussed, for example, the GDC refer to Alat Aquifer

whereas Doornkamp et aI name it AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation.

Additionally, other literature is reviewed dating as early as 1904 on Bahrain.

The literature involves experts such as G.E. Pilgrim, P. Hurry, R.E. de Mestre

and PAT Haines, R.P. Willis, and E.P. Wright. A summary of the most

important studies is presented in Appendix D.

3

CHAPTER TWO

THE PHYSICAL LAYOUT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Bahrain lies on the Arabian Tectonic Plate which. has undergone little

movement since the Precambrian Era. The plate, which consists of successive

layers of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks, is tilted smoothly to the

east as shown in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2. Its western side exposes AI-Hijaz

Mountains and the eastern side forms.the base of the Arabian Gulf.

2.1.1 Geography

The State of Bahrain is located in the centre of the Arabian Gulf between the

eastern coast of Saudi Arabia and the north-western coast of the peninsula of

Oatar as shown in Figure 2.3. It comprises thirteen Iow-lying islands and

several islets in two main sets. The northern set, some of which is populated,

includes the largest island, Bahrain itself, Muharraq, Sitrah, Nabih Salih and

Umm-An-Na'ssan. The southern set is located towards the south-east of

Bahrain facing the coast of Oatar. It forms the Howar Islands. The

archipelago's total. area is approximately 695 km2• It is located latitudinally

between 25°47'N to 26°18'N and longitudinally between so022'E to 50°41 'E. It

is equivalent to between 2850000N to 2909000N and between 437000E to

. 468000E following the UTMm-grid coordinates.

4

L.EGEND:

WCENOZOIC

mMESOZOIC ., .......

.' I MIIII MESOZOIC .,

(YEMEN VOLCAN OE8»

CD PAL.EOZOIC

fTI BASAL.T

[]] PRE·CAMBRIAN 'BASEMENT COMPLEX'

C

B

C

Chapter 2: The Physical Layout

C

. .

BAHRAIN ISLANDS

, " t I

o 500 km ARABIAN SEA

FIGURE 2.1: Geological Map of the Region; Modified from (Jado and ZOtl, 1984)

w RED SEA

JKDDAH AL- HI oIAZ IfIYADH I

I

B P M

IT] W [iJ PRE'CAMBRIAN PAL.EOZOIC MESOZOIC (BASEMENT COMPL.EX)

o

ARABIAN GULP'

AL- BAM-

DHAHAAj r c

m CENOZOIC

500 km

E

FIGURE 2.2: An East to West Geological Cross-Section of the Regional Geological Map Appearing In Figure 2.1; MOdified from (Jado and ZOtl, 1984)

5


IRAN

1 N

SAUDI ARABIA

FIGURE 2.3: Location of the Archipelago of Bahrain Islands

2.1 .. 2 Topography

The core of Bahrain Island trends north to south and is composed of folded

elliptical domes of Eocene carbonate rocks. Generally they form the Bahrain

Dome which is known to be on the Central Plateau, as shown in Figure 2.4.

The dome's gradient falls gently outwards. It is eroded forming escarpments

facing the Central Plateau, as shown in Figure 2.5. These escarpments lie

within the Multiple Escarpment Zone following the Interior Basin. The

continuous erosion has led to the formation of a central hill known as Jabal-Ad

Dukhan. It is about 120 metres high. Beyond the Multiple Escarpment Zone

lies the Main Backslope area which is somewhat elevated. The slope

afterwards falls forming the Coastal Zone which covers the rest of the island.

The other offshore islands are practically flat.

6

FIGURE 2.4:

. . 0 10 km

~ CENTRAL PLATEAU

111111111111 INTERIOR BASIN

~ MAIN BN::KSLOP£S

I . <.,:::.j CQASlllL l<H

Topography of Bahrain; Modified from (Doornkamp et al., 1980; and GDC, 1980)

• -• " -•

C.,,,"', Sobkho I Plain I

FIGURE 2.5 (a):

4

MultlPl·

Central pto'eau

Multiple Coast Escorpmenl Ra'. Hayran Zone

Main I I 8ockslo~

,2 14 txlOJOj,n.

East to West Cross-Section of Bahrain; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

1-,-, .. I CooaUI Intu .. , PI.,n I ....

"'. , .. •• ,.

FIGURE 2.5 (b):

110001 ...

North to South Cross-5ection of Bahrain

i lii ., I\) ..


2.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY

2.2.1 Primitive Landscapes

These are the landforms. which have adapted to a new environment while

managing to remain in their original natural state.

2.2.1.1 Cemented Debris

These are in the form of cemented envelopes of 0.5 metre thick covering the

exposed bedrock and forming a downhill drape. They are not present on the

Main Backslope Zone nor the Coastal ZQne. They consist of sharp edge gravel

particles mixed with sand and bonded by gypsum minerals. They appear

sometimes between ancient alluvial fans which formed at the same time as

shown in Figure 2.6. These ancient fans have similar composition to the above

drapes, but they sometimes overlie aeolianite sediments forming layers of

greater than 0.5 metres thick. The infiltration rate is extremely slow. If a heavy

rainstorm occurs, the rain can break the cementation forming streams which

can wear away the surfacial bond.

FIGURE 2.6:

~ ~ tZE],;.y,., !·:.r~ :. !"",

o

FANS o 1 00 m

CEMENTED DEBRIS

OURICRUSTS OR ESCARPMENT

THE GROUND SOIL

Schematic Diagram of the Cemented Debris; Traced from a Photograph (Doornkamp et al., Plate 11.1, p 244,1980)

8


2.2.1.2 Stone Pavements

These are rock pieces that overlie Recent Soils; refer to Section 2.4.2. They

appear less on the Central Plateau, but more on the Interior Basin and the Main

Backslope Zones. The edged rock pieces are composed of limestone or

dolomite although flint and chert are seen in other localities (Doornkamp et aI.,

1980). These rocks always correspond to the bedrock material. The sizes of the

rock fragments vary from less than 5 centimetres to not more than 20

centimetres in diameter. The thickness of the pavement along with the

underlying soil hardly reaches one metre thick.

2.2.1.3 Duricrusts

These are a result of weathering processes, where Bahrain's earth's minerals

develop along with the original soil, forming a hard surface (Goudie, 1973

quoted in Doornkamp et aI., 1980). Since gypsum is the most abundant mineral

in Bahrain, gypsum crusts or 9ypcretes are present more frequently than any

other mineral crusts. They appear in different forms. They can form a 'skin'

over the bare bedrock as seen on the Central Plateau. Duricrusts can be

present in a thicker layer if they are underlain by silt-size particles forming a

blanket of not more than half a metre thick as on the Multiple Escarpment and

the Main Backslope Zones. They also can develop into heaps covering the

banks of the hills.

Calcium carbonate crusts or calcretes are less frequent. They are found in very

minute thicknesses over some of AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation (Brunsden

et aI., 1976).

2.2.1.4 Blue Askar

This consists totally of dolomite with less than 5% of attapulgite clays. It

appears in greyish blue in thicknesses of not greater than 0.50 metres on the

Main Backslope Zone (Doornkamp et aI., 1980). "It possesses no

concretionary or modular structures, no well developed laminations, and no

association with soil horizon development" (Brunsden et aI., p.223, 1976).

9

2.2.2

2.2.2.1

Landforms

Central Plateau Zone


This is characterised by the presence of loose aeolian yardangs which vary in

size. The yardangs do not exceed 170 metres long by 40 metres wide by 15

metres high (Ooomkamp et aI., 1980) .. Fluvial erosion has caused the plateau

to incise forming narrow stream lines whose sides experienced wind erosion

causing the formation of these yardangs. Small pieces of sharp edged rocks

known as ventifacts appear along with the yardangs. Jabal-Ad-Oukhan, which

appears on the centre, is not a yardang although it is surrounded by them. The

Jabal has experienced the north-westerly wind causing the exposure of its cap

(Mittwalee, 1981). The formations of fluvial landforms are due to the Jabal

being the highest pOint on the island.

2.2.2.2 Interior Basin and the Multiple Escarpment Zones

The former has an elliptical shape with its eroded semi-flat based surface

surrounding the Central Plateau. The latter zone is a chain of scarps greater

than 10 metres high but not exceeding 1250 metres wide overlooking the

former.

-The Interior Basin is characterised by yardangs which are smaller than the

Central Plateau's. Ventifacts are also present, more towards the edges of the

Central Plateau, but less outwards. Wind erosion has caused the scarp surface

of the Multiple Escarpment to become irregular creating 'sand-blasted

escarpment" as reported by Doornkamp et al. (p 225, 1980).

10

"

.t.l·WUH ..... OI' ... H n ~ IS \j

JttlO.t.H d.

UMM AN NA'SAN

BAHRAIN IS.

o Solid Geology

• Fluvial deposils

I:.·~J CoasloIlowlond sediment! (undilferenlioled)

){ DroinoQt'chonnels

../'" Watersheds of internal drainoge bosins

./" WOlersheds subdiving Southern Ploya Bosin inlo Ash Shobok and AI Ghoynoh catchments

/' Crest of major e!;corpmenl

/ Watershed coinciding wllh escarpment crest

INTERNAL DRAINAGE BASINS:. A-North-west enclosed

8-Soliroh

C· )lyn oll;lunayni

D-Ar Rifo'ash Shorql

E' Golf Course

, o

F .. Airfield

G" l1rTm Jidr

H .. AI 'Amor

r - Ash Shobok } Soulh.rn Ployo

'" • AI Ghoynoh

5 km

39 <13 44 47 48 49 50

\~ \

55 56 57 58

FIGURE 2.7: Location of the Catchments and Playas; from . (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

11

62 63 64 65 66

Modified


The Interior Basin is featured by the presence of small depositional areas in the

bedrock known as catchments. These catchments appear less in the basin, but

mostly at the bottom edges of the Multiple Escarpment Zone indicating that the

Interior Basin has an internal drainage system. Few gaps appear between the

Multiple Escarpment and the Main Backslopes rocks allowing the water to drain

to the sea. Most of these catchments exist on the north-east south-west axis

as shown in Figure 2.7. Two more catchments exist on the other side of the

axis which Brunsden et al. (1976) name as playas. They also appear in Figure

2.7. The function of the playa is the same as the catchment, except that the

former's basal surface is the lowest solid surface on land, that is a depression.

Therefore, it receives most of the run-off water. The length of the catchment on

the Interior Basin is greater than the Multiple Escarpment's catchment.

Manoeuvring between the aeolian landforms, small streams follow the slope of

the Central Plateau. They continue to appear in the basin where they

interweave forming larger channels as shown in Figure 2.8. The slope of these

channels is shallow; it is not more than 0.176 (Doomkamp et aI., 1980).

Another set of channels feed the southern playas. They incise the adjacent

bedrock as they flow creating a clear braided channel system.

FIGURE 2.8:

About 0.5 km

The Transformation from Streams to Large Channels; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

12


The small streams also appear on top of the escarpment. Their slope does not

exceed 0.58 (Doornkamp et aI., 1980). These streams are rich in medium

gravel and little fine sand contrary to the Interior Basin Zone's particles. The

run-off water falls down and over the irregular scarp surface to the Dil'Rafah

Carbonate Formation causing the scarp to weather and forming overhangs as

shown in Figure 2.9. It deposits the sediments on the sides of the catchments,

appearing on the outward peripheral of the Interior Basin, as alluvial fans shown

in Figure 2.10. The size of these fans does not exceed 800 metres long by 400

metres wide by 2 metres deep (Doornkamp et aI., 1980).

rock splitting

.pall~ / ~6 ... 1046 .... zm ....

;</~ rock meal produced by H'gh ._\ ...

lifting c:I rock ledges Block humidity granular diSintegration

1 Collapse cavern

crystal growth r ~.. . .. . -llt' -~fl.[ -----~'-_

...... .,· .. ··~-~1=---=----=--- --_ 7 lissure weathering - - ----=-=-weathering ~antle Note: Vertical- scale varies from 10 to I,ne pully sa,l. and gravel "0 usually salt rich .... metres.

FIGURE 2.9: Weathering of DiI'Rafah Carbonate Formation; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

The infiltration rate through the catchments or the playas is slow due to the

nature of the underlying sediments or rocks. The eastern side of the Airfield

Catchment on the Interior Basin, shown in Figure 2.7, consists of sediments

finer than sand and rich in gypsum. They are overlain by well-graded medium

gravel to fine sand. The playas' basal surface has either exposed bedrock as

in the AI-Ghaynah Playa or sand and calcareous deposits with gypsum as in

the Ash-Shabak Playa. The Interior Basin's deposits are underlain by siltstone,

mudstone, and some dolomite beds. The other catchments existing at the foot

of the Multiple Escarpment are similarly the same. Fine sand, some silt, and

13


gypsum are the main deposits. They are underlain by limestone, shale, and

siltstone rich in calcium carbonate sediments .

FIGURE 2.10:

. _ ........ I.

2. A !luPJlly ar.OII

'-.::::::

The Formation of Alluvial Fansj After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

2.2.2.3 The Main Backslope Zone

In this zone, yardangs are the main aeolian landform. They are not as large

as the yardangs of the Central Plateau nor the Interior Basin Zones.

Small streams originating from the top of the zone slope down carrying run-off

water and scraping the sediments of AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation and West

Rifa Flint Formation. They quickly connect to long channels that can reach a

length of 4 metres. The flow in the channels is slow because the channel's

slope is less than 0.176 like the Interior Basin Zone. The discharge is either

deposited into catchments or settled downhill to the Coastal Zone. The

14


presence of alluvial fans is unclear because sand dunes and nebkhas, which

are vegetated sand dunes, appear at the base of the zone which is also

intermingled with the Coastal Zone deposits. The zone is also featured by

playas which are almost totally enclosed by the zone's scarp as shown in

Figure 2.7.

The infiltration rate of both the catchments and the playas is slow due to the

underlying rocks being impermeable dolomite. Gypsum, along with other

Quaternary deposits, covers these depositional areas.

Cave cavities and dayas are clearly present in this zone. They originated as

a result of karstic processes to the weaker outcropping rocks from AI-Buhayr

Carbonate Formation. Although the entrance to the cave cavity is small, its

internal dimensions are big. They can reach up to 6 metres in diameter. The

cave entrances are always covered by layers of recent deposits. Oayas are

fairly deep depressions in the bedrock. They are similar to playas but have

larger dimensions. They extend to more than 100 metres in length. Oayas on

this zone are filled with quartz, calcite and dolomite sediments. Run-off water,

if any, drains to the dayas creating a damp environment suitable for weathering

weak underlying rocks.

Although the outcropping rocks in Bahrain are of carbonate nature, karst

weathering is not experienced widely as salt weathering. Brunsden et al.

(1976) justify the slow down of karst weathering due to the nature of dolomite

being a hard rock which is not easily affected by karstic processes. They also

add that karstification will not occur even if this rain penetrates the soil to the

deep limestones where the groundwater is.

2.2.2.4 The Coastal Plain Zone

It covers 40% of the total area of Bahrain Island. It extends from the base of

the Main Backslope Zone until it meets the sea level. Its approximate elevation

15


does not exceed 5 metres above sea level. It is clearly present to the north and

west, less present to the north-east, but almost disappears to the east and

southwest The plain is covered by featureless aeolian landforms, especially

behind the Main Backslope Zone. Nebkhas comprising of shrubby gypseous

sand dunes overlying the remnants of old tree roots appear towards the coasts

which generally consist of flat plains rich in unconsolidated sediments as well

as small gypsum particles not less than 0.0001 mm in diameter.

Any run-off water, which did not drain to the Main Backslope catchments or

playas, will continue its journey onto the Coastal Plain Zone. Most of this water

infiltrates through the soil leaving alluvial fans. Any other water will flow to the

nearest irrigation channel, known locally as As-Saab (singular) or As-Seebban

(plural). These channels are small. They always have flowing water originating

from the spring water table. As-Seebban do not exceed 2 metres wide by 1

metre deep. Most of them discharge to the sea as shown in Figure 2.7. The

Coastal Plain Zone is featured by the presence of large irrigated gardens where

the soil is suitable for agriculture; refer to Section 2.4.2.2.

The southern and south western coasts extend south of AI-Zallaq to the most

southern tip of Bahrain. They are featured by bare aeolian sand flat plains

consisting of gypseous sand on the top but finer gypseous particles to the

bottom. Some nebkhas appear on the basal edges of the Main Backslope and

by the coastal shoreline as shown in Figure 2.11.

I ,

MAIN 0 8ACKSLOPE

COASTAL PLAIN

~ CGICor.o~ onC! 9YPseou.l ~ GUM ,anCl,

~ CoIc:or.~u. Iftucl.s .ith variable ~ Pf'09OfllordClf III'gDnIC mOll.,

ond land

500m TIDA l SITRAH CHANNEL ISLAND

(",:,:,:3 S"eUy colcor.ou •• 1UId wita ,cri .... .. , , cunoun,. of C olear.... muo

I.;."s'?t S".n, CGICC!reOU' •• cI

F.':"1

""'"" S "n d

FIGURE 2.11: Location of Nebkhasj After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

16


Both of these two coasts are characterised by the presence of salt pans, known

also as sabkhas. The south west sabkha, known locally as Mamlahat AI

Mumattalah, is the largest. It is bounded on the east and the west by nebkhas

which become shrubless dunes near the pan. Its basal surface is about 1.5

metres below mean sea level. Mamlahat AI-Mumattalah has an encrusted white

flat surface due to the presence of sodium chloride salt. Its deposits consist of

large quantities of silt, and gypseous sand with fine gravel particles. These

deposits are underlain by dolomitic limestone where the groundwater water

table is about 0.40 metres below the sabkha basal surface. Small cliffs

between 1 to 2 metres high appear towards the south western coast. They are

topped by shelly coarse particles and underlain by loose fine sand.

The southern sabkha is surrounded by an elevated area consisting of shelly

gravel and sand. Its base is about 0.40 metres below mean sea level. The sub

surface water table is at an average depth of 1.35 metres below the sabkha's

base which is composed of sand and some silt with gypsum minerals especially

in its central part. Some small dunes appear on the southern coast. They

stretch till they reach the 1.5 km long sandpit known as Ras AI-Barr

(Doornkamp et aI., 1980).

Other smaller salt flats also exist not only in these two coasts, but also

scattered on the west and north east coastal plains.

2.2.3 Offshore Islands

The geomorphology of both Sitrah and Nabih Salih Islands is similar. They

consist of an almost flat surface of weakly-cemented Quaternary sediment not

more than 5.6 metres high (Doornkamp et aI., 1980). Some of these sediments

are exposed forming a rocky surface especially on the western coast of the

islands.

17


Muharraq Island lies approximately 2.4 metres above sea level to the north-east

of Bahrain Island. " consists of a semi-elevated area of Quaternary limestones.

loose calcareous sand dunes are found near the coasts. Elevated beach

ridges of shell gravel and sand platform protect the northern and eastern coasts

(Doomkamp et aI., 1980).

Umm-An-Na'ssan Island lies to the west of Bahrain Island. Exposed Quaternary

limestones are found in the north and west of the island. loose calcareous

sand dunes of not more than half a metre high appear throughout the island.

They, in some areas, cover the limestone forming isolated hills not more than

20 metres high. like the eastern offshore islands, Umm-An-Na'ssan has a

rocky shoreline on the west. The rocks also spread to the north of the island.

The other neighbouring northern islands, namely Jiddah and AI-Muhammadiyah

Islands, are similar to Umm-An-Na'ssan having an exposed Quaternary

limestone which covers most of the islands. Elongated sand yardangs appear

over the limestones forming cliffs of about 16 metres high in Jiddah Island.

These yardangs disappear in AI-Muhammadiyah Island where thin layers of

aeolianite not more than one metre thick cover the rich molluscs exposed

limestone (Doornkamp et aI., 1980).

The southern set of islands consists of dolomitic limestone, some of which is

exposed especially towards the eastern side. These rocks form small cliffs of

not more than 8 metres high facing a very narrow coastal belt on Howar, the

main long island (Goadda, 1989). Their top surfaces fall gently towards the

west until they reach the sea where the coast becomes sandy as shown in

Figure 2.12.

18

50-45'

Almatraz

FIGURE 2.12:

RubCl!l

\


Coutal Plain and SabIIIho Surface ~ Undifferentiated

mm Accretion zone

a •• ch Rid,. Complex rn Prominent

lE Traces

Other Marin, Featun.

D Rocky coo,, ond beaCh rock

• •• Sandy coost

@U] ManQrovlor Algol Peat

Bedrock

_ Exposed bedroCk

f7;;<1 B,drocl!; thinly vlne.red l!.:!J With 'Miment.

(some bedrock •• posed)

Motrial.

1.· ... 1 GrQ~r 1;.-::·1 Sand

&t}1l Silt

G!ll Gypsum

E:!I A.~iQni .. ~ Marine ,hell'

Alatian

1,... ... 1 Veget01ion dunes (nebkho)

The Geomorphologyof Howar Islands; (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

After

19


2.3 GEOLOGY

2.3.1 Stratigraphy

The youngest deposits are the superficial sediments of the Holocene Epoch of

the Quaternary Period. They have already been explained in Section 2.2. Also

during the Holocene, the archipelago of Bahrain developed. Ra's AI'Aqr

Formation of the Pleistocene Epoch underlies the Holocene deposits in some

places. During the Miocene Epoch of the Tertiary Period, two formations

developed. The younger one is Jabal-Ad-Dukhan Cap Formation, and the older

one is the Neogene Formation consisting of one aquifer. The Dammam Group

of Formations underlies the Neogene Formation. The former group emerged

during the Early and Middle Eocene Epochs. Two aquifers flow through this

group of formations. They are the Alat Aquifer and the Khobar Aquifer. The

Rus Group of Formations underlies the Dammam Group of Formations. Its

younger formation contains groundwater, which is known as the Rus. This

formation emerged during the Late Eocene Epoch. Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer,

emerging during the Palaeocene Epoch, underlies the Rus Group of

Formations. It flows through the Umm-Er-Radhuma Formation. Figures 2.13

and 2.14 show these geologic formations.

Alternate layers of limestone and dolomite are found near the top of the Aruma

Formation, which underlies Umm-Er-Radhuma Formation, along with

argillaceous dolomite and calcareous shale (Powers et aI., 1966). The Aruma

Formation contains water, but its yield is not high. According to the United

Nations (1982), its quality is utilisable but it has high sulphide values originating

from the very minute fractures of the lower formation namely the Wasia Group

[of Formations). Oil, which is rich in sulphur (McLachlan, 1981), is extracted

from that latter group belonging to the Middle Cretaceous Period as shown in

Table 2.1. Bahrain's basement geology, according to Brunsden et al. (1976),

consists of igneous and metamorphic rocks at a depth of at least three

kilometres.

20

FIGURE 2.13:


50

.'."

AI

Hamala An ti cl i n e--:'>-'tI!I:::1iI

BO

o I

1;;·/~IUnconSolidot.d Sediment

.6! Ras AI Aqr Formafion

.. Jabot Cap Formation

~ Jabot Hi!!oi Carbonate e:::I:!! Wpst Rifa Flint ~ AI Buhayr Carbonate

~ Foraminiferal Carbonate F=l Dil'Rafah Carbona ..

60

} PI eisiocene a Recent Mioeene

}

Formation of the Oammam Group

O Hafiroh Carbonate } Format ion of Awoli Carbonate

the Ru, Group

ta cline

60

Eo c ene

The Geological Formations of Bahrain; (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

21

After

I\) I\)

NW E

o 3 km

BAHRAIN

ASH-SHURAYBIYAH SPRING

SANAO VILLAGE

ARABIAN GULF •

FIGURE 2.14:

1 - UMM-ER- RAOHU MA -

FORMATION I AQUIFER

HAFIRAH CARBONATE FORMATION AWALI CARBONATE FORMATION

'--- OIL' RAFAH CARBONATE FORMATION

'----- FORAMINIFERAL CARBONATE / KHOBAR FORMATION AQUIFER

L-___ AL-BUHAYR CARBONATE FORMATION

L-____ WEST RIFA FLINT

/ ALAT AQUIFER

SANAO BASIN

1 ARABIAN GULF

FORMATION

L----------------NEOGENE FORMATION / NEOGENE AQUIFER ---------------------~

East to North-West Geological and Hydrogeological Cross-Section of Bahrain; Modified from (Doornkamp et al., 1980; and GDC, 1980)


TABLE 2.1: Part of the Statigraphy of Bahrain; Modified from (Doornkamp et al., 1980 and GDC, Vol. 3, 1980)

ERA PERIOD EPOCH FORMATION

Holocene Superficial Deposits Quaternary

Pleistocene Ra's AI'Aqr Formation

C Pliocene E N Miocene Jabal-Ad-Dukhan Cap Formation 0 Z The Neogene Formation

0 I Tertiary Oligocene C

Eocene Dammam Group of Formations Rus Group of Formations

Palaeocene Umm-Er-Radhuma Formation

M Upper Aruma Formation E S Middle Wasia Group [of Formations]: 0 Z Cretaceous Bahrain Petroleum Zone 0 I Lower Thamama Group [of Formations]: C Some formations are oil

producing

2.3.1.1 Holocene

Bahrain was part of the Arabian Peninsula until between Late Pleistocene and

Early Holocene (100,000 to 7,000 BP). Its main feature is a dome surrounded

by desert plains. Drainage moved towards the south where the lower internal

basins were, known at present as Gulf of Salwa.

The presence of this vast area along with the north to north-westerly wind,

known locally as Ashamal, had caused the sand movement from the mainland

(Saudi Arabia).to Bahrain and the south. Consequently, various deflational and

sand-blasted landforms developed (Doornkamp et aI., 1980).

23


Between 10,000 to 7,000 BP, the sea level rose due to the melting of glaciers

causing the total submergence of Bahrain. By early Holocene (7,000 BP),

Bahrain experienced an uplift force causing the Hassa Terrace to flood and the

sea to recede from the nearby islands (Ooornkamp et al., 1980). Since then,

Bahrain has been isolated from the Arabian Peninsula. By the 21 st century the

sea will be expected to re-rise due to global warming. Scientists expect that the

rate of sea rise will be approximately 7 mm per year (Titus et aI., 1984; and

Van Oer Veen, 1989 quoted in Ougdale, 1990). Being low lying islands within

a semi-locked sea, Bahrain Islands will experience submergence of some of

their Coastal Zones.

2.3.1.2 Pleistocene

Ra's AI'Aqr Formation

This is located on the base of the Main Backslopes separating the superficial

sediments of the Coastal Zone from the dome's sides as shown in Figure 2.15.

It appears primarily on Sitrah Island, but it is also observed on some of the

western and northern areas of Bahrain Island.

THE MULTIPLE ESCARPM~NT

o 1 km

Ra~ AI Aqr Formation

Recent Sediment Q f Coastal Zon e

Job.1 AcI Dukh.n

Sub 4 Miocene

Eroded crest

l _..::::' surfOr M ioeane

--- - ~- -- - --~;;:-\

FIGURE 2.15: Ra's AI'Aqr Formation; Obtained from (Doornkamp et aI., 1980)

Ra's AI'Aqr Formation is the youngest geologic formation belonging to the early

Pleistocene with different rock characteristics. The caprock is featured by the

presence of thin layers of marine limestone. They are underlain by mudflood

24


deposits consisting of soft massy conglomerate. The conglomerate thins out

.especially on Sitrah Island forming a disconformable layer below which exists

thin layers of dolomitised calcisiltites rich in bivalve shells. Sand from these

layers, separates and reaches upwards to the mudflood deposits forming sand

volcanoes.

2.3.1.3 Pliocene

No trace of deposits had been found during this epoch. This was because

Bahrain was re-submerged as the sea level had risen +150 metres. Bahrain

experienced an uplift during this epoch. Doornkamp et al. (1980) suggest that

the erosion of the Multiple Escarpment's crest, shown in the above Figure 2.15,

was the evidence that this occurred during the Pliocene.

2.3.1.4 Miocene

Rocks from this epoch appear in two formations. The first formation, known as

Jabal Cap Formation, consists of rocks appearing on the Central Plateau where

Jabal-Ad-Dukhan stands. The second formation, known as the Neogene

Formation, consists of rocks appearing on the Coastal Zone of Bahrain. The

former formation corresponds to the Dam Formation whereas the latter

formation corresponds to the Hadrukh Formation both appearing on the coastal

zone of Saudi Arabia.

The Jabal Cap Formation conformably overlies a layer of conglomerate,

constituting pieces of dolomitic limestone and some flint pebbles. The

Formation, shown in Figure 2.16 consists of massy sandy siltstone containing

plenty of microfossils (Brunsden et aI., 1976). It is formed in shallow seawater

causing the accumulation of micromolluscs surrounded by shales.

The Jabal Cap Formation is cemented with dolosand beds containing sand

mudclasts, shell debris, and other molluscs (Doornkamp et aI., 1980).

Laminated travertine coats some of these sediments.

25

'::. ','.'. ,~. ". ",' ~ '.

m Sandy Siltston.

fXr?1 Dolosand

Geologic Formation:

JABAL CAP FORMATION


FIGURE 2.16:

Stratigraphic Column for the Jabal Cap Formation; Obtained from (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

The Neogene Formation rests uncomformably on the lower aquifer, known as

Alat Aquifer, confining it at the coastal belt. Groundwater flows through this

formation giving rise to most of the offshore springs of Bahrain.

The Neogene Formation, as shown in Figure 2.17, consists of rapid variations

of claystone and shale interbedded with soft clay and sandstone (Powers et al.,

1966; and Wright, 1967). Porous limestone can be found surrounding the main

body of the formation. Layers of calcareous sandstone appear throughout the

whole formation.

Although the formation outcrops by the coasts, it exists inland especially north

of Sitrah Island and by Sanad as well as Nuwaydrat villages (Watson and

Watson, 1975). It also exists near the northern and western coasts of Bahrain

(AI-Noaimi, 1993). To simplify the geologic outlook of the Neogene Formation,

the Neogene Aquifer is held for offshore areas and Sanad Basin is introduced

for inland areas.

26

1===1 Cloystone

r\':?:;m San d

Geologic Formation:


FIGURE 2.17:

Stratlgraphlc Column for Neogene Formation; Obtained from (Powers et aI., 1966)

NEOGENE FORMATION

2.3.1.5

Hydrogeologic Formation:

NEOGENE/SANAD AQUIFER AQUIFER 'A'

Ollgocene

Sedimentation stopped during the Oligocene on Bahrain while erosion

increased deflating the sides of the dome. Some structural faults occurred on

the underlying rocks, forming shallow wide valleys similar to synclines. The

folds were inclined upwards to the dome.

2.3.1.6 Eocene

a) Dammam Group of Formations

This is located between the Multiple Escarpment and the Main Backslope

Zones. It consists of five formations: Jabal Hisai Carbonate Formation, West

Rifa Flint Formation, AI-Buhayr Carbonate formation, Foraminiferal Carbonate

Formation, and DiI'Rafah Carbonate Formation.

The Jabal Hisai Carbonate Formation is clearly exposed south of the oil refinery

tanks as shown before in Figure 2.13. It consists of slightly granular dolosiltites

27


rich in crustacean burrows. A typical section of the formation is shown in

Figure 2.18.

FIGURE 2.18:

glD DolOliltih

Geologic -Formation:

JABAL HISAI CARBONIU"E FORMATION

Stratlgraphlc Column for Jabal Hlsal Carbonate Formation; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

The West Rifa Flint Formation is located on the sides of the Main Backslope

of the Bahrain Dome. Its formation constitutes flint beds within medium-bedded

dolomite, as shown in Figure 2.19. Fossils are present but only in small

amounts. Exposed limestone, towards the top of the formation, can harden

forming a concretionary surface known as the 'blue askar'; refer to Section

2.2.1.4.

FIGURE 2.19:

Flint Layer Interbedded with Dolomite

D Und i fferentiated Mudstone

~ Dolomite Marble

Geologic Formation:

WEST RIFA FLINT FORMATION

Stratigraphlc Column for West Rifa Flint Formation; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

28


The AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation underlies the upper formation. It is located

on the edges of the Main Backslope of the dome structure. It is featured by the

presence of groundwater, known as the Alat Aquifer. The aquifer appears

clearly above a horizon of rusty yellow-orange argillaceous dolosiltite filled

sometimes with attapulgite clays. This bed corresponds to Willis' (1967) Orange

Marl layer. The bed itself acts as an aquitard comformably lying and confining

the lower aquifer, known as the Khobar Aquifer.

The Formation, as shown in Figure 2.20, consists of thick layers of white

porous dolomitised limestone sometimes separated by beds of chert.

Fossiliferous deposits are largely present.

~ r.;.+;-:--"-'--'-' . r •

FIGURE 2.20:

p:::;::q ti::!jj

~ b::::::::J

OOlomitised Limestone

Limestone

Sandy Mudstona

DI1IlD Sandy Si Itstone

Geologic Formation

AL-BUHAYR CARBONATE FORMATION

Hydrogeologic Formation

ALAT AQUIFER (AQUIFER • BI )

Stratigraphic Column for AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation; Based on (Doornkamp et al., 1980 and Willis, 1967)

29


Another small dome exists to the north-west of Bahrain Dome known as the

Hamala Camp. It constitutes rocks which are not saturated by groundwater. Its

outcropping sediments correspond to the white limestone above the rusty

dolosiltite bed appearing under the main dome. Some brown-weathered flints

along with superficial deposits have been traced towards the east of the camp

indicating that West Rifa Flint Formation overlies some of its parts.

A newly developed lake has formed to the east of Hamala Camp. It used to be

a depressional area covered by thin crusts of salts in some places but mainly

underlain by rich quartz-carbonate sand utilised as fine aggregate in concrete

(Doomkamp et al., 1980). This sand is located close to the Alat Aquifer water

table. Depletion of this sand, due to over-excavation, caused the emergence

of the water table forming the lake known as Lawzi Lake or Nakhl Lawzi. The

wet ground had an irregular shape with its widest opening being less than 500

metres and its longest opening being over 400 metres (SO, 1977). It has

increased in size to about 520 metres wide by 700 metres long and its

maximum depth is about 1.1 metres (SO, 1990). The Foraminiferal Carbonate

Formation reaches the top of the Multiple Escarpment Zone underlying the AI

Buhayr Carbonate Formation, as shown in Figure 2.13.

The Foraminiferal Carbonate Formation is notable for the presence of sub

surface water, known as the Khobar Aquifer. It is only not confined between

Sitrah Island north to Askarvillage south (AI-Junaid, 1990). The aquifer appears

above a thick member of porous dolostone filled with dolomitised foraminifera,

particularly Alveolina, and other fossils. The abundant presence of the

fragments implies that they did not experience the oscillations of sea level and

they lived in normal marine conditions. The Foraminiferal Carbonate Formation,

shown in Figure 2.21, constitutes highly fissured hard brown to yellowish-brown

dolomite laid in thick beds. Some flint is also observed. This formation

corresponds to Willis' (1967) Khobar Member.

30

FIGURE 2.21 :


HLlHn Oolosiltit. and Oolosand

~ Dolomite

~ DOlomit. Interbedded with Shole

~ Oolo.ton. Interbedded with ~ Sholely Oolostonl

Geologic Formation:

FORAMINIFERAL CARBONATE FORMATION

Hydrogeologic Formotion:

KHOBAR AQUIFER (AQUIFER 'C')

Stratlgraphlc Column for the Foramlnlferal Carbonate Formation; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

The last formation in the Dammam Group of Formations is the DiI'Rafah

Carbonate Formation. It underlies the Foraminiferal Carbonate Formation by

various thicknesses of carbonate and clay beds. The formation shown in Figure

2.22 consists of porous limestone at the top becoming non-porous dolomitised

chalky limestone towards the bottom. Beds of dolomitic shale and attapulgite

clays are the main features of this formation. Marine sedimentations have been

interrupted due to the frequent oscillation of the sea level. This formation

corresponds to Willis' (1967) Saila Shale Member and Midra Shale Member.

These two members along with the Alveolina Member (part of the Foraminiferal

. Carbonates) form an aquitard.

31

., '.;".~' .

.....

FIGURE 2.22:


F~'\-I Sandstone

D Undifferentiated Mudstone

[]][]J] Sandy Siltstone

Geologic Formation: DILl RAFAH CARBONATE FORMATION

Strati graphic Column for DII'Rafah Carbonate Formation; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

b) Rus Group of Formations

This is the oldest outcropping rocks in the Interior Basin. It consists of two

formations: the Hafirah Carbonate Formation and the Awali Carbonate

Formation. The first formation comformably underlies the DiI'Rafah Carbonate

Formation of the Dammam Group of Formations. It surrounds the sides of the

Interior Basin. The Hafirah Carbonate Formation is featured by the presence

of groundwater, known as the Rus Aquifer. The formation consists of thick

layers of non-porous dolomite at the top changing to loose dolomitic sandy

siltstone interbedded with crustacean burrows towards the bottom as shown in

Figure 2.23.

32

FIGURE 2.23:


§ Dolomite

[llJD Sandy Silt.tone

EEEI3 Shale

Geologic Formation

HAFIRAH CARBONATE FORMATION


THE RUS LENS/ AQUIFER. AQUIFER 101

Statlgraphlc Column for Haflrah Carbonate Formation; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980 and GDC, Vol. 3, 1980)

This second formation, the Awali Carbonate Formation, spreads across the

island but bisects the Rus Aquifer in some places forming the Rus Aquitard

shown in Figure 2.28 in Section 2.5.3.1. The presence of this formation

through the Rus Aquifer restricts the aquifer movement causing the Rus Lens.

The Awali Carbonate Formation is the same as the overlying carbonates except

that its top layers, known as the Rus Aquitard, include lenses of anhydrite and

gypsum of an evaporitic nature which hinder the water movement. The rest of

the Awali Carbonate Formation consists of thick non-porous dolomite being

interbedded with chert in the form of lenses and spheroidal concretions as

shown in Figure 2.24. Layers of fossiliferous deposits also exist.

33

" "" ,. A

" " A

" "


m Shale

~ Dolomite

Anhydrite

Geologic Formation

AWALI CARBONATE FORMATION


RUS AQUITARD

FIGURE 2.24: Stratlgraphic Column for Awall Carbonate Formation; After (Doornkamp et al., 1980 and GDC, Vol. 3, 1980)

2.3.1.7 Palaeocene

Umm-Er-Radhuma Formation

This occupies anticlinally the core of the Central Plateau. It is characterised by

the presence of groundwater, known as Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer. This

formation conformably underlies the Rus Group of Formations. The formation,

shown in Figure 2.25, constitutes dolomitic porous limestone which is

interbedded with very loose dolosand and some shale. It is also enriched by the

presence of fauna.

34

-~


Limestone

Dolomitic Limestone

Shale

Geologic Formation

UMM-ER-RADHUMA FORMATION


UMM-ER-RADHUMA AQUIFER. AQUIFE R I E I

FIGURE 2.25: Stratigraphic Column for Umrn-Er-Radhuma Formation; After (Powers et al., 1966 and GDC, Vol. 3, 1980)

2.3.2

2.3.2.1

Structure

Syncllnes

Six synclines exist on Bahrain. They are named after their locations, as shown

in Figure 2.13. Only three are well developed. They are: AI-Hassay, Ra's

Hayyan, and Ad-Our Synclines.

AI-Hassay is the only syncline trending north to south. It opens northwards as

it closes southwards. Its eastern tip is relatively more gentle than the western

one. The gradient of the former does not exceed 0.14 whereas the latter goes

suddenly to 0.23.

Ra's Hayyan spans from its locality's dipslope to the peak of the Multiple

Escarpment. It re-appears beyond the Interior Basin following the western

dipslope. It opens gently south-westwards undemeath the superficial deposits

north of AI-Mumattalah. The top syncline plunges north-eastwards as it closes

35


south-westwards. The folds' beds are featured by West Rifa Flint Formation

where the dark flints appear next to the flint-free layers of pale limestone. The

beds are sharply dipped at 15° from the north-west to the south-east. Towards

the latter direction, discontinuity appears in the beds, yet the beds continue

dipping. Their angle of dip increases to 9° across the discontinuity. Fractured

limestone, which is filled with red clay, is present in this area (Brunsden et aI.,

1976).

Ad-Our extends from its locality across the top of the south-west of the island

overlooking the Interior Basin. The presence of high elevated long lands of

Oil'Rafah Carbonate Formation indicate that the folds' beds have a gentle slope

throughout their length. They dip gently to the north-east. The beds fall towards

the south-east at an angle of r forming an escarpment which overlooks a

depression. The bottom of this depression exposes Foraminiferal Carbonate

Formation on which an anticline is formed. Small synclines replace the fold as

it decays towards the south-west.

2.3.2.2 Faults

. The presence of the synclines on the dipslopes indicates that the former's

margins represent faults occurring at a shallow depth in the underlying rocks

(Brunsden et aI., 1976), hence they are not resulting from compressive forces.

The faults appear in pairs and they can form wide valley systems. They occur

normal to the core of the synclines. They usually follow the north-east to south

west trend, but they can be trending north to south as on AI-Hassay Syncline.

Brunsden et al. (1976) suggest that the faults have developed before the main

dome has. They suggest that the split in Ra's Hayyan Syncline indicated that

it was continuous and the formation of the large central dome along with the

erosion caused the syncline's folds to plunge in opposite directions. They also

suggest that the presence of the Ad-Our Syncline caused the south-eastern tip

of this dome to be cut but to be re-developed beyond the syncline folds. As a

result, the formation of the complementary anticline has appeared on the south- .

east as shown earlier in Figure 2.13.

36


2.3.2.3 Dlpslopes

Two dipslopes exist on the island. The southern dipslope is found beyond the

Ad-Our Syncline, but before the Coastal Zone. It belongs to the AI Buhayr

Carbonate and West Rifa Flint Formations. The beds dip gently southwards

until they fade away. Small domes dipping gently outwards are found. The

largest is near Ra's AI Qurayan which exposes Foraminiferal Carbonates. They

are formed "due to the local movement in the rocks beneath" (Brunsden et aI.,

Vol. 3, p 28, 1976).

The other dipslope is found in the north. It is found where the West Rifa Flint

Formation is preserved between the synclines of Isa Town and Rifa Ash-Sharqi.

The beds in this area are wavy to some extent. They expose the Foraminiferal

Carbonates at a large erosional depression south of Isa town (Ooornkamp et

aI., 1980). The rocks of the northern dipslope spread out under the superficial

deposits of the Coastal Zone indicating their existence at shallow depths.

2.3.2.4 Joints

Joint traces, as bedding traces, exist on the dipslopes. Most of them are minor.

The only major joint exists trending north-northwest to south-southeast

(Ooornkamp et aI., 1980). It offers areas of weakness causing erosion and

leading to the development of drainage courses. It has also helped in the

formation of the Interior Basin's depression as the parallel north to north

westerly Ashamal wind has.

2.3.2.5 The Hamala Anticline

Hamala's limestone beds are folded asymmetrically forming an anticline with its

steeper edge pointing eastwards. The rusty yellow-orange basal layer appears

on the Multiple Escarpment Zone near Rifa, slopes downwards to the south of

Buri, and extends upwards in Hamala. The formation of the Hamala Anticline

is illustrated clearly in Figure 2.26, where Willis' (1967) has presented a

different interpretation to Ooornkamp et al. (1980). The latter interpretation is

more acceptable.

37

c.l 00

sea level

WNW

HAMALA CAMP

~Alat Limestone .oron\lll Mori

...,.. Plei.toeene and Recent deposit

WNW HAMALA

CAMP

BURI

a::::n Kllobar Ll...J Limestone

I

About km

BURI

RI FA

ESE

~ Shark', Toolh D Rus ~ Shale Formation

RIFA ESE

I~?-:~I West Rifa Flint FOrmation

~ DiI'R.,!'h Carbonate ~Formatlon

P'?9 AI Bullayr CarbmoteFormotion r:\',:.;lForomin,iferal Carbonate 1:£23 ' . FormatIon

DRUS Group • YellOw silt.'one ...,. Pleistacene and Rec.nt deposits

FIGURE 2.26: Two Interpretations of the Hamala Anticline, According to Willis (1967) as Shown above and Doornkamp et al. (1980) as Shown below. Diagrams Obtained from (Doornkamp et al., 1980)

i CD ., I\) ..


2.4 PEDOLOGY

2.4.1 Ancient Soils

These were the sediments which originated from the mainland. They were

deposited on Bahrain where they experienced geomorphological processes

during the low sea level of the Late Pleistocene Epoch. They formed soil

sheets covering all of Bahrain's Zones and the offshore islands. Their landforms

are presented in the Geomorphology Section.

2.4.1.1 Slit

This appears on the Central Plateau particularly to the north of Jabal-Ad

Dukhan. It also appears on the north-northeast edges of the Interior Basin.

The former location consists of a loose layer of silt particles rich in fine sand,

whereas the latter one consists of equal amounts of silt and sand rising up

without any support as a ridge of 3 metres high (Brunsden et aI., 1976). The

material of both locations is rich in carbonate content.

2.4.1.2 Aeollanite

This refers to aeolian dune sands which have undergone cementation creating

beds of sandstone. Miliolite is another word for it. It appears in low areas such

as the valleys in the Interior Basin, the Central Plateau, the south-western side

of the Multiple Escarpment, and the western side of the Main Backslope Zones.

It consists mainly of light yellowish-brown quartz sand with some feldspar

(Brunsden et aI., 1976). Its carbonate content is less than the silt.

2.4.1.3 Sand

This occurs in the Lawzi Depression, where Lawzi Lake exists at present,

between the north-western edges of the Main Backslope of the main large

dome and the south-eastern edges of the Hamala Anticline. The depression

was covered by recent loose sand which was subjected to wind movement. The

Lawzi Depression's sand underlies a semi-hard bed of gypseous sand not more

than half a metre thick. The sand consists of yellowish-brown quartz sand with

39


some fine gravel (Brunsden et al., 1976). The carbonate content is present the

least among the other soil types.

2.4.2 Recent Soils

These are the sediments which have occurred due to the topographic presence

of the underlying ancient soils or bedrock materials. They are influenced by the

climate and the vegetational cover forming their current nature.

The edges of the Jabal·Ad·Dukhan and the sloped banks of the Multiple

Escarpment facing the Interior Basin Zones do not have any Recent Soil due

to continuous wind movement. The Interior Basin is featured by the presence

of different soil textures ranging from gravel to some clay. Gypsum and

calcium carbonate grains are also present, especially above the crusts of the

playas as discussed in Section 2.2.2.2. Gravel·size soils cover most of the

Main Backslope Zone.

The surrounding outer zone is covered by recent soils. The northern, western

and north·eastern coasts are featured by fine to coarse loamy soil which is

suitable for agriculture. Sand is also present towards the north-west where

nebkhas are clearly existing as discussed in Section 2.2.2.4. The south

western and southern coasts are rich in quartz, calcium carbonate and

gypseous sands of which some are cemented due to the development of the

sabkhas.

Brunsden et al. (1976) presented two theories for the origin of gypsum

minerals. The first one relates to the groundwater capillary fringe which has

risen due to the soil-water evaporation. The result is the accumulation of the

salts, particularly calcium sulphate, which slightly infiltrated into the soil by

precipitation. This theory is more acceptable for the Coastal Zone. The other

theory relates to the intensity of the rainfall causing the soil's salts to percolate

to greater depth than above. The rainfall here has a high content of calcium

sulphate. They conclude that the bacteria, in both theories, can increase the

40


accumulation of the salts. The second theory is then more acceptable for the

inner zones.

The infiltration rate increases rapidly in the coarse loamy soil to nearly 260

mmlhr for the first 15 minutes and it decreases to its normal rate at 154 mmlhr

within the next 4 hours (GDC, Vol. 2, Table 6.1 and Figure 6.5, 1980). As the

soil becomes finer, the infiltration rate increases rapidly to 290 mm/hr and it

decreases to nearly 140 mm/hr (GDC, Vol. 2, Table 6.1 and Figure 6.5, 1980).

The presence of the gypsum increases the infiltration rate reaching its normal

status at 185 mm/hr. If the gypsum is cemented or the soil is compacted, then

the infiltration rate reduces.

Not only the infiltration is high, but the water's discharge through the underlying

soil layers, which consist of fine sand particles is also high. The result is the

formation of an artificial water table near to the surface. This table meets the

sea at one point. Pumping from this groundwater will cause seawater intrusion.

2.4.2.1 Burial Mounds

These refer to the mounds which the ancient civilisation people used to bury

their dead. The largest cemetery exists on the Hamala Camp. Other mounds

appear scattered on the base of the Main Backslope Zone. All of them exist

among recent soils. Each mound consists of a heap of soil originated from

nearby sediments being rich in silt and gravel with some boulders. Many of

these man-made geomorphologicallandforms have been destroyed especially

on the northern base of the Main Backslope Zone. Their material is used as

desert fill and coarse aggregate in construction.

2.4.2.2 Vegetatlonal Cover .

The southern half of the Coastal Plain Zone and the inner zones are not

suitable for the growth of consumable vegetations. This is not only due to the

nature of the soil, as explained in Section 2.2.2, but also to the topoQraphy of

41


the land. Desert shrubs, herbs and grass appear in the Interior Basin and the

Main Backslope Zones. They reduce on the Central Plateau and the Multiple

Escarpment Zones.

The northern half of the Coastal Plain Zone, including the offshore islands, are

cultivated with agricultural crops. Many tropical trees and other vegetables are.

grown on Bahrain, but date palm trees are the most important crop.

2.4.2.3 Man-Made Lands

These lands involve sea coast and sea reclamation. They are performed on

the tidal flats between the marine reefs and the Coastal Zone as shown in

Figure 2.27. It has caused the total area of the archipalego of Bahrain to .

increase from 662 km2 in 1973 to 695 km2 in 1990 (CSO, 1991) and it will

increase to more than that figure by the end of this century. The areas include

three artificial .islands, two appear south of Muharraq Island and one between

Bahrain Island and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Other reclaimed lands, which

connect to the islands themselves, include the northern strip of Sitrah Island,

Tubli Creek, the southern and central part of Muharraq Island, north of Sanabis

village as well as west of Buddayya village both on Bahrain Island, and other

privately owned areas.

42

d\ · . ~

• •

" I I .. ~~-".~ o Q~

R"· I{

BAHRAIN IS.

,80 32 33 34 35 36 .. 971- ::= .. ~ TO .... l1li,\1<.

"-' . -"'·8 AI.:B.o.Y'NAH AS-SAGHIAAH IS. ........

.so

94.·

9)1. -"3233 ~4

, o 5 km

All0GG( 38 39 40 41 42 43

• ·0

O···l'l"'"

• • •

o

~ ~ ~~ ) ,

( ! ! r

J . , , . . . ., ., ~.I '.

I I ~ ~ ~8 U ~ ,. ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ M 61 ~ 63

FIGURE 2.27: Location of Man-Made Lands around the Archipelago of the State of Bahrain

43


Reclamation involves the usage of Recent Soils. Marine sand is pumped

forcefully into the bounded area as the fine unwanted material is pushed away

to a nearby trap. The process is continued until the sand appears above sea

level. It is compacted before layers of Class 3 desert fill are placed and

. compacted. This fill is rich in cobbles not exceeding 100 mm in diameter and

in gravel; sand is also present but in small quantities. The minimum depth of

Recent Soil reclamation is 2 metres above mean sea level.

2.5 HYDROLOGY

2.5.1 Climate

Bahrain Islands are regionally surrounded by deserts. They are influenced

generally by a hot dry climate occasionally with some rain. Since they form an

archipelago of small islands within the semi-landlocked sea, they experience

humid climate throughout the year.

The climate is characterised by two main seasons separated by another two

transitional ones. The first main season is the summer which extends from May

to September whereas the other main season is the winter which extends from

December to February. The months of March and April as well as the months

of October and November separate the above seasons.

2.5.1.1 Temperature and Sunshine

The annual average temperature is 27"C. The heat is elevated during the

summer season particularly in the hottest month, August, where its maximum

temperature reaches above 43°C. The apparent temperature, which is a

measure of heat affecting human physiology (CM, August 1989), is higher than

the temperature of the weather. It can reach above 55°C particularly in that

month. The duration of the sunshine also increases in the summer season

reaching an average of 11 hours per day.

44

------------


The heat reduces gradually through October and November until it reaches a

minimum temperature of just below 10°C during the middle of the winter

season. Likewise the duration of sunshine decreases to an average of 8 hours

per day during the latter season.

2.5.1.2 Humidity and Fog

The annual average relative humidity is 80%. The maximum relative humidity

reaches its minimum value in the month of May at 73%. It increases gradually

in the following months. It reaches its maximum value in January at 86%

(averaged from 1986 to 1990 in CSO, ·1991).

Heavy fog occurs but not frequently. Its presence causes the visibility to reduce

to less than one kilometre.

2.5.1.3 Wind and Visibility

The fastest mean wind speed is during the winter season when it reaches 11

knots prevailing from the north west. It is cold because it is continental. When

this wind occurs during the summer, it causes the temperature to reduce and

the weather to become more pleasant. The wind speed reduces and prevails

from the north during the rest of the year. Strong wind speeds occasionally

occur; their speed exceeds 30 knots. Sometimes they carry dust or rain

causing storms which in turn reduce the visibility.

Another type of wind prevails from the south to the south west. It is known

locally as AI-Koas. It carries dust and vapour as it passes over the Indian

Ocean to the Empty Quarter Desert in Saudi Arabia which is known in Arabic

as Rub'AI-Khali. It warms the weather and causes fog formation during the

winter season. It elevates the temperature and the humidity causing

uncomfortable summer days.

45


2.5.1.4 Precipitation

-This occurs primarily during the winter season along with thunderstorms, but·

it always extends to the 'spring' transitional season. The average quantity

differs annually. The annual average rainfall quantity is 74.9 mm (averaged

from data obtained from Isa, 1989) for the period of 1903 to 1969 and from

(CAA, 1992) for the period of 1970 to 1990 as shown in Table 2.2.

Rainfall occurs intensely but in short durations. It forms small ponds, especially

in areas where either the gypsum particles cement the soil or the bedrock

underlies the soil. The infiltration rate is generally 100 mm/hr; it reduces to 50

mm/hr if the area is hardly vegetated (GDC, VOI. 3, Tables 7.2 and 7.4, 1980).

The rain is not enough to recharge the groundwater. If the water percolates, it

will only recharge the shallow groundwater. Its quantity is also short for

planned agricultural crops.

Hail and ice seldom occur. Very minute quantities of hail occurred in December

1976 and January 1992. Ice occurred in January 1964.

2.5.2 Evapotranspiration

This is influenced by the climate; refer to Section 2.5.1. The daily average

potential evapotranspiration is 5.24 mm based on the Penman equation taking

into consideration the effects of the wind as shown in Table 2.2 (Mojica, 1993).

Therefore, the annual average evapotranspiration is 1913 mm/year which far

exceeds the rainfall recharge value. The rate of evapotranspiration reduces

gradually until it reaches its minimum value during the winter months when

irrigation is cut down.

46


TABLE 2.2: Annual Rainfall Recharge and Potential Evapotranspiration from 1970 to 1990

• ••

2.5.3

2.5.3.1

Year Rainfall Recharge (mm)"

1970 8.9 1971 45.7 1972 84.8 1973 11.7 1974 146.1 1975 41.8 1976 232.9 1977 83.3 1978 19.5 1979 17.8 1980 90.3 1981 28.9 1982 197.3 1983 79.8 1984 50.6 1985 49.6 1986 55.1 1987 25.1 1988 129.2 1989 67.0 1990 45.0

Obtained from (CAA, 1992) Obtained from (Mojica, 1993)

Water Resources

Aquifers

Potential Evapotranspiration (mm/year)"

1988 1923 1895 1969 1889 1935 1878 1963

~ 1927 1932 1961 1781 1850 1847 1868 1915 1886 1948 1950 1936 1973

Four formations are developed through the Miocene, Eocene and Palaeocene

Epochs containing totally five aquifers.

The top formation is the Neogene Formation which contains the Neogene

Aquifer offshore or Sanad Aquifer inland. (Wright, 1967; GDC, Vol. 3, 1980;

and United Nations, 1982) stress that the underlying aquifer, known as the Alat

Aquifer or AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation of the Dammam Group of

/. 47

EPOCH

+ Miocene

Eocene

Polaaocene

i

FIGURE 2.28:

HVOROG EOLOGIC GROUPING

(Re.earc her)

Aquifer 'AI

Aquifer 'B'

Aquifer 'C'

Aquifer 'DI

Aquifer '0'

Aquifw 'E'


FEATURE

Neooene/Sanad Aquifer

Alal Aquifer

h~p.~Dr Rusty Vellow-

Uran;e Layer

L~lL.'J1 LJ '--

Khabar Aquifer

Alveolina Limestane bed

Limestone and Clay (Saila and Midra Shale)

Rus Lens

.. ... "- ~ ,. ~

Rus.A Ru. .4 A AqUI-" .. Aqul ....

lard ~ .... .. tard", ,. .. Rus Aquifer

Umm-Er- Radhuma Aquifer

I "1

I •

GEOLOGIC FORMATION

(Doornkamp el al.,1980)

Neogene Formation: Claystone and Shale

A I Buhayr Carbonate Formation: Porous Dolomitised Limestone and Limestone

Foraminiferal Ca rbonate For~ation: Fissured Dolomite

Di I' Rafah Carbonate Formation: Dolomitic Shale and Clay

Hafi rah Carbonate Formation: Loose Dolomitic ~andy Slltstone

Awal i Carbonate Formation: Anhydrite and Non-Porous Dolomi te

Umm-Er-Radhuma Formation: Dolomitic Porous Limestone

Schematic Hydrogeologlcal Column of Bahrain; Modified from (Sandberg, 1975; GDC, 1980; and Doornkamp et al., 1980)

48


Formations, behaves hydraulically as one unit with the Neogene Aquifer

particularly north of Sarr village.

The middle formation is the Dammam Group of Formations which contains two

aquifers, the Alat and the Khobar Aquifers or the AI-Buhayr and the

Foraminiferal Carbonate Formations respectively. These two aquifers also act

hydraulically as one unit particularly south of Sarr heading towards A'ali (GDC,

Vol. 3, 1980), because the rusty yellow-orange marl layer disappears in these

areas. Therefore, the Alat Aquifer or AI-Buhayr Carbonate Formation acts as

an intermediate basin hindering any· hydraulic attachment between the

Neogene/Sanad Aquifer and the Khobar Aquifer.

The Rus Group of Formations underlies the Dammam Group of Formations. It

consists of one aquifer, known as the Rus or Hafirah Carbonate Formation.

When the anhydrite disappears, known as the Awali Carbonate Formation, the

underlying aquifer, Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer of the Umm-Er-Radhuma

Formation, act as one hydraulic unit. When the Awali Carbonate is present, the

Hafirah Carbonates form a small lens of fresh water. The Umm-Er-Radhuma

Aquifer is the lowest utilisable groundwater resource formation. Figure 2.28

shows a schematic hydrogeologic column of Bahrain.

The development of water in each formation is different from one to another.

The Neogene AquiferlSanad Basin consists of recent meteoric water. Likewise

the Alat Aquifer particularly near the coast. The Dammam Group of Formations

consists of old pluvial water for the central portion of the Alat Aquifer and the

whole of Khobar Aquifer. The Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer consists of a mixture

of connate and old pluvial water particularly in the deeper formation (GDC, Vol.

3, Figure 4.1, 1980). Towards its top section and upwards to the Rus, the

aquifers become further mixed with recent meteoric water. Generally, the lower .

aquifers are more saline. Salinity decreases upwards.

49


a) Distribution

The succession of the aquifers has been simplified. The Neogene/Sanad

Aquifer has been denoted the letter 'A', the Alat Aquifer or the AI-Buhayr

Carbonate Formation has been denoted the letter 'B', the Khobar Aquifer or the

Foraminiferal Carbonate Formation has been denoted the letter 'C', theRus

Lens/Aquifer also known as the Hafirah Carbonate Formation has been denoted

the letter '0', and finally the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer has been denoted the

letter 'E' as all appear in Figure 2.28. The letter 'F' can be denoted to Aruma

Aquifer, underlying the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer, although it is not utilisable.

A summary of the outcropped aquifers is presented in Figure 2.29.

b) Characteristics

The thickness of the aquifers varies. It increases under the sea separating

Bahrain from Saudi Arabia, but decreases under Bahrain itself. It reaches up

to 60 metres for the Neogene Aquifer but reaches to not less than 10 metres

(GDC, Vol. 3, Figure 9.7, 1980) for Sanad Aquifer. The thickness ranges

between 15 to 25 metres for Alat Aquifer, between 20 to 45 metres for Khobar

Aquifer, between 60 to 150 metres for the Rus (Brunsden et aI., 1976 quoted

in Table 2.1 in AI-Junaid, 1990; and GOC, Vol. 3, Table 2.1, 1980), and greater

than 200 metres for Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer (GOC, Vol. 3, Table 2.1, 1980).

Although the thickness of the aquifers varies, it forms a continuous hydraulic

fall from the mainland of Saudi Arabia. The hydraulic gradient of all the aquifers

is about 0.8 x 10-3 in the coastal zone of Saudi Arabia. It falls, in Bahrain, to

less than 0.2 x 10-3 (United Nations, 1982).

The porosity of the Alat and Khobar Aquifers ranges between 27% to 43% and

it reduces to less than 30% for the lower aquifers (United Nations, 1982). The

permeability of the aquifers varies. The average permeability for the Alat

Aquifer is 14 m/d. It increases to approximately 306 mid for Khobar Aquifer.

50


It ranges between 2.1 to 126 mId for the Rus and reaches 106 mId for the

upper layers of Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer. These values are obtained from

(GDC, Vol. 3, Figure 3.7 and Table 3.7, 1980). No values for permeability nor

porosity have been reported for the Neogene Aquifer or Sanad Aquifer. A

conclusion can be set that the Neogene Aquifer or Sanad Aquifer is porous but

not permeable.

An upward leakage occurs from Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer to Khobar Aquifer

through the leaky Rus Aquitard especially if the anhydrite is not present. This

leakage is due to changes in the water,head which affects the piezometry. The

water table levels in Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer are generally +3 metres above

mean sea level whereas in Khobar Aquifer they are about +1 metre above

mean sea level (WRD, 1992b). The upward leakage is clearly present at Ali

Salmabad areas (GDC, Vol. 3, 1980).

Confined and unconfined conditions exist within each aquifer causing difficulty

in understanding the formation of that particular aquifer. Generally, unconfined

aquifers appear in the northern half, whereas confined aquifers appear in the

southern half the country (United Nations, 1982).

2.5.3.2 Springs

These emerge due to structural cracks on the bedrock. They have shallow

depths. All the land springs appear from Alat Aquifer (Ferguson and Hill, 1953).

Only two land springs originate from the Khobar Aquifer, namely Ayn Adhari

and Ayn Om-Sha'oom because they are greater than 10 metres deep (GDC,

1980 and WRD, 1989). The total mean flow of all the land springs in 1979 was

258 I/sec which is 8.1 Mm3/year (GDC, Vol. 3, Annex D, Table 11.2, 1980).

Offshore springs also exist, they appear off the north-eastern part of Bahrain

surrounding the other islands from the Neogene Aquifer (GDC, 1980). Kawkab

Umm-Jarajir and Causeway springs are the only two offshore springs

originating from the Khobar Aquifer because their depth exceeds 10 metres

51


(GDC, Vol. 3, 1980). The total mean flow of all the offshore springs in 1979

was 209.4 I/sec which is 6.6 Mm3/year (GDC, Vol. 3, Annex D, Table 11.1,

1980).

,. " 2910000H .. .. OT O. O. o. o. o. 0'

.eOOOOoN

•• .. OT

•• .. •• .. .. . , ,. .. OT ,. •• ,. n •• . ,

n80000N TO

T. TT T. TO T. T, TO Tt

1170000N -,. n .. .. .. .. ea

" .. -•• so OT

so '0 ••

, N

o

Umm-AnNa'sson I •.

LEGEND: o LOCATION (6 OPPSHORI: SPRINGS

-.-.- OUTCROP 0 ... NIOGENI AQUlnR

-- - OUTCROP 0' SANAD AQUIFER

_ ••• - OUTCROP OF ALAT AQUIFER

el - +-- OUTCROP 0'" KHOBAR AQUIP'I!:A

Is .

Silrah Is.

ARABIAN GULF

1---BAHRAIN ISLAND

" __ M

O' O' 07 .. 0' o. O' O' 0' .000_ •• .. eT

•• ., • • .. • • ., _ooM .. •• n .. .. •• .. u ., l.eooooN TO 71 TT

70

T' 7. 71 71 71

n70000N

•• .. 07

•• • • M .. •• ., __ M

" •• IY

•• ,. -54

51

FIGURE 2.29: The Outcrops of Bahrain's Aquifers; Modified from (GDC, 1980 and Doornkamp et al., 1980)

52

CHAPTER THREE

WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE

3.1 WATER SUPPLY

3.1.1 Introduction

Bahrain has always been dependent on groundwater as a source of water

supply. Prior to 1925, water was extracted from hand·dug wells for human

consumption and distributed from natural springs through qanats or seebban

for irrigational purposes. Drilled wells appeared along with oil exploration in the

region. Pumps were introduced by the mid-1940s to increase the well's

pumping capacity. By the early 1960s, the pumped water was either treated

to remove excessive salts for human consumption or used directly for irrigation.

During the same period, a piped water system was under construction

indicating a progressive increase in population.

As the population increased from just above 165 000 in the early 1960s to just

above 215 000 in early 1970s to more than half a million in 1991, the annual

average water consumption based on daily averages per month has also

increased from 10 million gallons in early 1960 to 12.9 in early 1970 to 60

million gallons in late 1992 (CSO, 1991).

3.1.2 Water Availability

Available water is restricted to sub-surlace water. Seawater is another

resource but requires desalination before usage. Treated wastewater is a new

water source. Although religious reasons restrict its use for human

consumption, it is widely used for irrigation.

3.1.3 Distribution Network

The network system operates from three stations. Sitrah Power and Water

Station utilises the Multi-Stage Flash Method to desalinate seawater. Ras Abu

53

-_._._----

Chapter 3: Water Supply and Drainage

Jarjur and Ad-Our Plants utilise the Reverse Osmosis Method. The former

plant treats deep groundwater, whereas the latter desalinates the seawater.

Sitrah's treated water serves Sitrah Island. Its second route is distributed

directly to West Rifa where it is stored in water towers and is then blended with

the extracted groundwater of Oammam Group of Formations before it serves

the northern region including Muharraq Island. The same procedure is

operated at West Rifa where treated deep groundwater is blended by

groundwater from the Oammam Group of Formations at Hamala and then

distributed to serve the adjacent and western regions of Bahrain. Desalinated

seawater from Ad-Our Plant is distributed directly without any blending. It has

not yet been fully operational, but is designed to serve the central region and

any future development in this area.

A secondary network system uses asbestos cement pipes ranging from 250

mm to 50 mm in diameter. The pipes can withstand a maximum pressure of not

more than 10 bars at any time and are surrounded by Class 4 fill to a depth not

exceeding 1.5 metres above their crowns. Flexible polyethylene laterals are

connected by 12 mm diameter holes drilled on pipes' sleeves on which the

laterals are surrounded by Class 3 desert fill to a depth not greater than 0.8

metre. These laterals are also known as house connections.

In areas where the piped water supply does not reach, the residents purchase

drinking water from private plant owners.

3.1.4 Water Supply Cycle

Figure 3.1 illustrates how the water supply cycle in Bahrain is developed around

the available water sources. Deep groundwater, primarily from the Umm-Er

Radhuma Aquifer and to a lesser degree from the Rus Lens/Aquifer, must be

treated. It is used mainly for domestic and industrial purposes and occaSionally

for agriculture. The aquifers of Oammam Group of Formations are utilised

extensively. The groundwater of the Khobar Aquifer especially does not require

54


(de-gasified if hydrogen sulphide is present)

Agriculture <ll-----Groundwater <3---, I I· 1 I L ___ -,

Treatment i I----------l .-___ ...1

I

V Possible Seepage Drinking into the Ground Water

Industry

Partial Treatment

t;.1:..--__ ~

Sewers <l---+-Total Oil t Removal

L-.-(:...:.t...::...er:.....;t:.....;ia::..;...rLy..:.-.) --Treatment

(secondary)

FIGURE 3.1: The Water Supply Cycle in Bahrain

55


any complicated treatment. In some areas treatment is required if the

groundwater is to be used for drinking. The private sector takes care of treating

this water unlike the deeper groundwater.

The Water Resources Directorate records the abstraction rates on an annual

basis. It does not consider each aquifer separately because the extracted

quantities for Sanad Basin. Alat Aquifer. and the Rus Lens/Aquifer are smaller

than the Khobar and Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifers. Table 3.1 displays these

abstraction rates from years 1985 to 1990. Abstraction rates from the top three

aquifers are double the rates from the lower aquifers for domestic purposes.

They are about 30 times more than the Rus and Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifers

.for agricultural purposes.

Treatment of seawater is receiving more attention at present since desalination

costs are similar to the cost of de-gasifying hydrogen sulphide followed by

treatment of the groundwater. Additionally seawater is obviously more

abundant than deep groundwater. Treated seawater is often blended with

water from the Khobar Aquifer of Dammam Group of Formations to further

reduce salinity. Treated seawater is not used in industry.

Although wastewater is a result of using treated seawater and groundwater. its

treatment produces another water resource. Treated wastewater is not used for

human or cattle consumption. Only ozonated tertiary treated wastewater is

used in agriculture. Landscaped parks and road islands receive the majority of

the treated wastewater by drip irrigation whilst it is applied by surface irrigation

to cropped areas. Chlorinated secondary treated wastewater is depoSited to

the sea.

56


TABLE 3.1: Abstraction Rates for Aquifers A, B, C, 0 and E and the Water Usages; Based on Data from (WRD, 1992a)

Abstraction in (m' x 10·) Year Consumption

Aqu~ers 'A', 'B' & 'C' Aqu~ers 'D' & 'E' Total

1 Domestic' 47,4 25.7 73.1 9 Agriculture" 99.9 2.5 102.4 8 Industry" 4.9 4.6 9.5 5 Others" 12.5 1.0 13.5

Total = 164.7 Total = 33.8

1 Domestic' 45.6 24.8 70.4 9 Agricultureb 108.8 2.8 111.6 8 Industry" 5.4 . 3.8 9.2 6 Others" 14.0 1.1 15.1

Total = 173.8 Total = 32.5

1 Domestic" 56.5 24.2 80.7 9 Agricultureb 117.5 4.2 121.4 8 Industry" 5.6 5.2 10.8 7 Others" 17.2 2.3 19.5

Total = 196.4 Total = 35.9

1 Domestic" 54.9 23.0 77.9 9 Agricultureb 107.9 5.1 113.0 8 Industry c 5.6 6.4 12.0 8 Others 17.8 2.8 20.6

Total = 186.2 Total = 37.3

1 Domestic' 60.8 22.2 83.0 9 Agricultureb 114.4 5.1 119.5 8 Industry" 5.8 5.2 11.0 9 Others" 21.6 2.7 24.3

Total'; 202.6 Total = 35.2

1 Domestic" 56.8 23.0 79.8 9 Agricultureb 122.7 5.0 127.7 9 Industry" 5.9 4.0 9.9 0 Others" 25.7 2.2 27.9

Total = 211.1 Total = 34.2

a Domestic: refers to water abstraction used for human oonsumption and other in-house usages whether the extrac18d water is direc1ly disll'ib<JI8d, treated, or blended will! other water. This water can also be used for irrigation. Possible seepage into the ground is included in these rates.

b Agriculture: ratars to walBr _traction used for animal consumption and irrigation whether untreated from the first column of aquifers or treal8d for the saoond one.

c Industry. refers to walBr _traction used for industrial purposes and pianlS cooling.

d Ot!JelS: refers to water abstraction used for works other than those listed above such as car washing or filling swimming pools.

57


3.1.4.1 Recharging the Cycle

The shallow groundwater aquifer of the Sanad Aquifer and to a lesser degree.

the Alat Aquifer receives most of the scarce rainfall. They are further

recharged artificially through agriculture, through leakages from the water

supply network or irrigation pipes, and through seepage from sewer pipes or

septic tanks. GDC (Vol. 3, 1980) add that the recharge occurred through the

upward leakage from Khobar to Alat Aquifers; as explained in Section

2.5.3.1 (b).

The deep groundwater being the Rus, if not under the Interior Basin, Umm-Er

Radhuma, and the Aruma receive little quantity of water through artificial

recharge wells which collect the water from storm channels. These recharge

wells have been introduced recently. Only partially treated industrial water

containing 300 mg/l oil at the most is re-injected into the deep groundwaters

(Khalaf, 1992). The scarce rainfall over AI-Dahna Desert in mainland, Saudi

Arabia, recharges these aquifers.

3.1.5 Water Loss

Water losses from the underground pipe network systems are due to

inappropriate fill material, undurable pipe material, and inefficient workmanship.

Although controls are maintained, a loss of 25% is expected from the water

supply distribution system (AI-Mansoor, 1992a and b).

3.2 DRAINAGE

3.2.1 Storm Water

Despite the scarcity of the rain, rainfall occurs sometimes with high intensities

for short durations resulting in the flooding of roads and causing extensive

puddles. The Meterological Office records only the quantity of precipitation over

Bahrain in millimetres. It has not developed the records to include the rate of

rainfall in mmJhr nor its frequency in years. As a result, Bahrain has been

adopting British meteorological charts which are not suitable because of the

58


. vast difference in climate. The British records will be the extreme cases that

any drainage design, in Bahrain, will undergo during its lifetime.

3.2.1.1 Road Gulleys

These have been introduced as a result of the formation of temporary small

ponds on asphalted roads after an intense rainfall. The gulleys are not

connected to the sewerage network system because it does not have the

capacity to accommodate for the excessive presence of the floods. The road

gulleys dispose of the run-off water to the nearest storm water channels.

Soakaways and catch pits are not used because the high water table of Sanad

Basin would drain itself.

3.2.1.2 Storm Water Channels

These are constructed to facilitate the movement 01 the run-off water. They lead

either to existing catchments or to pre-designed detention ponds which in turn

lead to the sea. The accumulated water has been furthlilr used to recharge the

groundwater. This method emerged in the early 1990s although the storm

water channels have been constructed since the early 1980s.

3.2.2 Agricultural Drainage

This is designed to dispose of unwanted irrigation water which would otherwise

percolate through the soil causing the water table to rise. Agricultural drains are

made of perforated uPVC, unplasticised polyvinyl chloride, pipes which are

surrounded by a Iilterto screen out any soil particles. They drain to the nearest

open channel and then to the sea. As the sea coast is approached, the

gradient of the drain pipes becomes practically flat. Pumping stations are

constructed in these areas to enhance the flow which drains into closed

conduits forming an outlall to the sea.

59


The construction of the agricultural drainage network system did not start until

the mid-1980s although natural agricultural drainage already existed.

3.2.3

3.2.3.1

Wastewater

Septic Tanks

These are found in areas where the sewerage network system has not

reached. They are not very suitable in Bahrain, although they have been used

extensively in the past. The presence of mudstone and marl underlain by the

cap rock cause a barrier preventing the downward seepage. This is present in

the villages which are near the easte.m and western coasts. The problem

worsens if the water table is high. Garden irrigation further complicates the

situation as more water percolates causing the water table to rise which brings

up the bad smell of the septic tanks. On the Main Backslopes Zone where

rocks are present, the situation is not better because no seepage is occunring.

The Municipality cleans the septic tanks upon the owner's request. It disposes

of sludge at the Wastewater Treatment Plant.

3.2.3.2 Sewerage

The construction of Tubli Wastewater Treatment Plant enhanced the upgradal

of the sewerage system. About 60% of the populated areas is piped to the

plant as shown in Figure 3.2.

60

92

91

.9

.,

79

FIGURE 3.2:


D..,_~ 78

The Present Status and the Future Planning of the Piped Sewerage Network System; Modified from (DSOM,1993)

61

CHAPTER FOUR

STATISTICAL METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The method of examining a set of variables against another set statistically is

known as the Regression Analysis. The regressed or dependent variable appearing

on the (Y-axis) is examined against the regressor(s) or independent variable(s)

appearing on the (X-axis). To facilitate th~ analyses a computer software package

known as Statgraphics (STSC, 1991) has been utilised.

This type of analysis has been undertaken to examine the status of the water table

levels statistically with respect to known variables. The conclusions can be drawn

accordingly based on the knowledge of the previous chapters.

4.2 SIMPLE REGRESSION

Four methods have appeared under this heading when using Statgraphics (STSC,

1991). They are the linear, the quadratic, the exponential, and the multiplicative

methods. Linear regression is only chosen to understand the worst status of the

water table levels in each borehole. The other methods are not applied because the

quadratic and the exponential methods do not take into account any seasonal

variations that can occur. The simple multiplicative regression method is dependent

on the multiplication of the variables. Since the unit on each axis is different, the

produced results following this latter method can be misleading.

The simple linear regression is based on the 'method of least squares' to develop

the least square line, also known as the regression line. It depends on producing

first order equation:

where: (9) is the estimated calculated dependent variable,

(x) is the independent variable,

62

130 (beta zero) is the intercept value which intersects the y-axis, and

131 (beta one) is the slope value of the straight line; its sign

determines the line's trend.

The regression line is the best fit line which computes the minimum sum of the

squared difference between the available (y) value and the estimated one. Its

constants, 130 and 131' are calculated using the following equations:

where x and y are the observed values, and n is the sample size.

4.2.1 The t- and p-Values

In order to examine the statistical relationships between the dependent and the

independent variables, statistical testing on the estimated slope has been

conducted to prove it is not zero. This is performed using the two-sided test on null

hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (HI) in the following manner:

Thus, rejecting null hypothesis (Ho) indicates a statistical linear relationship is

present. The results of the hypothesis testing are obtained through the t-value

. which is the result of multiplying the value of the estimated slope by the square root

of the total sum of the squared difference between the observed (x) value and its

mean over the estimated variance.

63

Chapter 4: Statistical Methodology

n

The t-value = (~,)(r L (XI - X)2)/S where i-1

The obtained t-value is compared to the t-critical value from the Statistical

Tables. The confidence level has been set to 95%. Therefore, the result for

the significance level (<X) will be 5%. Therefore if the calculated t-value at (tan>

is less than or greater than the critical t-value, null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected.

The conclusion will then be that the slope is a non-zero and linear statistical

association occurs. The upper and lower limits of the slope can then be

calculated following this formula for a 95% confidence level:

~, ± to.025 [ (I;;2)0.5] where to.025 is the critical t -value.

The reliability of this relationship increases as the p-value, which is the

probability level or the significance level, becomes extremely minute or at least

less than 5%, not only emphasising the rejection of null hypothesis, but also

confirming the strength between the parameters.

4.2.2 The Correlation Analysis

The analysis does not only examine the positive or negative strength, it also

measures the availability of the linear trend between the variables. It relies on

Pearson's coefficient of correlation, r. It can be computed using this equation:

where: X is the difference between the observed x and the mean value

of all the observed x's, i.e. (x-X), and

Y is the difference between the observed y and the mean value

of all the observed y's, i.e. (y-y).

64

-------


Perfect correlation is achieved if the correlation coefficient becomes near ±1

indicating positive or negative strong linear relationship. If the correlation

coefficient approaches zero, then no linear relationship exists between the

variables. High correlating coefficient nearing ± 1 does not conclude a 'because

... therefore' relationship. Guidelines have been set to determine the strength

of the correlation coefficient. These guidelines appear in Table 4.1.

TABLE 4.1: Strength Determination for Correlation Coefficient

(± Correlation Coefficient) Strength

0.00 No correlation >0.00 to 0.10 Very weak >0.10 to 0.30 Weak >0.30 to 0.50 Semi-weak

- >0.50 to 0.70 Semi-strong >0.70 to 0.90 Strong

>0.90 to < 1.00 Very strong 1.00 Perfect correlation

The correlation analysis is performed on the dependent variables amongst

themselves. The results appear, with the aid of computers, as a correlation

matrix which displays three results for each item. The middle result being the

sample size for the correlation analysis is sandwiched between the correlation

coefficient on the top and the significance level on the bottom. These results

are shown separately for each subsurface water basin in the following chapters.

4.2.3 The Coefficient of Determination

It is a measure of how the regression relationship is effective. It does not

conclude statistical significance; it concludes practical significance. Therefore,

the coefficient of determination implies that the 'least squares method' used to

develop simple linear regression produces a better configuration to the available

data if the errors are reduced by (z), where (z) ranges between zero and one.

In simple regression, the coefficient of determination is the result of squaring

65


the coefficient of correlation; hence the former is also known as R-squared. If

the coefficient of determination approaches one, then practical significance is

n n

achieved. As the difference between E (YI - y)2 and E (YI - 9;)2 1-1 j-1

becomes equal, the independent variable has no justification to predict the

trend of the dependent variable. Therefore, a 'cut-off' range must be set for

practical significance. The range between 0.6 to 1.0 following Anderson et al.

(1990) has been chosen because it presents a more definite break for scientific

results.

4.2.4 Sample Calculation

Since manual calculations are long and repetitive, only one sample calculation

is presented. Below the manual calculations some computer print-out results

of some boreholes are presented. They present typical results for each aquifer.

Two pairs of dotted lines appear around the regression line in the computer

software. The first pair which is close to the regression line refers to the 95%

confidence band about the line itself. The further pair refers to the predication

range for the whole data (Davies and Tremayne, 1991). The following sample

is extracted from one of the Alat Aquifer's borehole's data, namely borehole

(1185). The computer print-out results will show more accurate results

because it has utilised all the recorded data.

x·

48 60 72 96

108

I:384

• ••

y •• x2 xy X V XV ~ V2

3.58 2304 171.84 -28.8 -0.278 8.0064 829.44 0.On3 3.66 3600 219.60 -16.8 -0.198 3.3264 282.24 0.0392 3.n 5184 271.44 -4.8 -0.088 0.4224 23.04 o.oon 4.09 9216 392.64 19.2 0.232 4.4544 368.64 0.0538 4.19 11664 452.52 31.2 0.332 10.3584 973.44 0.1102

19.29 31968 1508.04 0 0 26.5680 2476.80 0.2882

(x) is the number of months where January 1980 is equivalent to 1 . (y) is the water table level in metres above BNLD starting from the same duration. For an explanation of BNLD, refer to Section 6.1.

66


The intercept, ~ = (31968)(19.29) - (384)(1508.04) = 3.034 ° 5(31968) - (384)2

The slope of the line, ~ = (5)(1508.04) - (384)(19.29) = 0.011 1 (5)(31958) _ (384)2

The new estimated equation, 9 = 3.034 + 0.11 x

The coefficient of correlation, r = 26.5680 = 0.9944 [(2476.80 )(0.2882))°·5

The coefficient of determination, R2 = (0.9944)2 = 0.9888. Replacing (x) with

any numbers, the (9) can be obtained. The regression line appears below.

x y

48 3.58 60 3.66 72 3.77 96 4.09 108 4.19

1:384 19.29

The estimated variance, s = [ 0.00564 ]0.5 = 0.0434 (5-2)

9 3.562 3.694 3.826 4.090 4.222

19.394

Therefore the t-value = (0.011 )(2476.80)°·5/0.0434 = 12.6258

Comparing this t-value to the critical t-value at (X = 0.025, this t-value is greater

than the critical t-value. This indicates that Ho: ~, = 0 is rejected and the slope

is a non-zero value.

67

C ...J Z CD

W > § Ul W

~ ::E

Ul ...J W > I&J ...J

4.20

4.10

4.00

3.90

3.80

3.70

3.60

3.50


Regression Line ------...... A

y=3.034 +O.Ollx

--~ ;'" Water Table Level "y,/

."

48 60 72

Manual Regression Line for Borehole 1185

96 108

NUMBER OF MONTHS

(01/83) (01/84) (01/85) (01/86) (01/87)

(MONTH/YEAR)

In conclusion, the water table levels of borehole (1185) have a positive

statistical significant relationship with time indicating that they are rising. They

are clearly correlating with time as the correlation coefficient is +0.9944

indicating a positive strong linear relationship. The coefficient of determination

being 0.9888 indicates that the available data have practical significance to

develop a good fit for a line.

68


The following table is a computer print-out of the results of borehole (1185).

TABLE,4.2: Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1185) with Respect to Time

Regression Analysis - Unear Model: Y = ~o + ~,X

Dependent Variable: LEVEL 1185 Independent Variable: MONTHS

Parameter Estimate Standard t-value Prob. Level Error

Intercept 3.39378 0.05131550 66.1357 .0000 Slope 5.34213E-3 5.05022E-4 10.5780 .0000

Correlation Coefficient = 0.742624 R-squared = 55.15 percent Standard Error of Estimate = 0.130743 Of = 92

• " ,------!I--' - '1

1

'- ----1

1

'---'-,- '--~-~

.,]-,-,---'---- -! '" ,- ,~:::l" : j'(' I "

,!","'''''''''''' .1,.. I'" ,,/! I ;(~._

)' : .'. .;; ·'.""""IL/' •. :; ~ I",""""" ;, .... ';/ 1 § ],' _____ ;_ _ .\,.;" /' i _: • 1 •

~ I i ........... ~ .... (/ I. -.- :,·,~JI·····~···-;···· ~ ; ... ~. ... I ';'", ~ l·:~···········~· ~.:.:.~ ....... ~:. " . . ... ; ......... / i

3.1 r;- ....... - " 1,1 ----- !_. I,' '; . I 1<: "// I I .. ' i"

],5 :--- .. j, : ,- 1 .. -- - ,

52 " 92 .12 ']2 152

MONTHS

FIGURE 4.1: Statgraphlcs Simple Regression Plot of Borehole (1185)

69

Chapter 4: Statistical Methodology·

The following computer print-out is a typical result for a positive inclined

gradient in Sanad Aquifer.

TABLE 4.3: Modified Statgraphlcs Print-out for Simple Regression . Results for the Water Table Levels of Standpipe (01 H) of Sanad Aquifer with Respect to Time

Regression Analysis - Unear Mod~l: Y = ~o + ~,X

Dependent variable: LEVEL 01 H Independent Variable: MONTHS

Parameter Estimate

Intercept 0.2765450 Slope 3.89835E-3

Correlation Coefficient Stnd. Error of Est.

IX 0.01)

• o

128

10.

"

15

Standard Error

0.086382 8.27004E-4

= 0.554682 = 0.104173

85 95

I-value Prob. Level

3.20142 .00238 4.71382 .00002

R-squared = 30.77 percent Df = 51

• •••• ,., ..... , ••. 1 .•.•• , •••••• __ ,,, ••

lOS

MONTHS

125

.J I

.-l .' I

135

FIGURE 4.2: Statgraphics Simple Regression Plot of Standpipe (01 H)

70


The following computer print-out is a typical result for a declined gradient in

Sanad Aquifer.

TABLE 4.4: Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Standpipe (3C2) of Sanad Aquifer with Respect to Time

Regression Analysis - Unear Model: Y = 130 + I3,X Dependent variable: LEVEL 3C2 Independent Variable: MONTHS


Intercept 2.20610 0.088168, 25.0216 .00000 Slope -2.3779E-3 8.523E-4 ,2.79001 .00759

Correlation Coefficient = -0.376046 R-squared = 14.21 percent Stnd: Error of Est.

FIGURE 4.3:

= 0.104301 Of = 48

2.)' .. I

i I

1·······+· i. '·· .... ·1.... .

.: ~.,-.. , 2.1 :"···"'· __ · .. ··"·"···'r-'·" . ~'" :

. , • i

, ... -:: .. :: ........ 1,:.::::),:::::·:>·, I ...:l 1.9: " i. "':~'" i

~ I i •• , I • "'-';." , ...:l i --'I"

..... !. I,' ", . '. I , .............. r .... ·r· .. ·<·· ...

17 I i '.

1.S' , I I i i. _U-L-L LJ~~I....-LJ_I...J_.L-L-i..J~u-'_'-'--!~ _'---'---'-- _

BS " 105 115 125

MONTHS

Statgraphlcs Simple Regression Plot of Standpipe (3C2)

71


The following computer print-out is typical for a declined gradient in A1at

Aquifer.

TABLE 4.5: Modified Statgraphlcs Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1170) of Alat Aquifer with Respect to TIme

Regression Analysis - Un ear Model: Y = ~o + ~,X

Dependent variable: LEVEL 1170 Independent Variable: MONTHS


Intercept 2.81463 0.120638 23.3313 .00000 Slope -8.11858E-3 1.22578E-3 -6.62322 .00000

Correlation Coefficient = -0.554119 R-squared = 30.70 percent Stnd. Error of Est. = 0.359154 Of = 100

" 60 8. , .. 120 1<0 160

MONTHS

FIGURE 4.4: Statgraphics Simple Regression Plot of Borehole (1170)

72


The following computer print-out is typical of a declined gradient in Khobar

Aquifer.

TABLE 4.6: Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1007) of Khobar Aquifer with Respect to Time

Regression Analysis - Unear Model: Y = 130 + I3,X Dependent variable: LEVEL 1007 Independent Variable: MONTHS

Parameter Estimate Standard t-value Error

Intercept 2.244810 0.0501402 44.7705 Slope -5.11131 E-3 5.99969E-4 -8.51928

Correlation Coefficient = -0.581581 R-squared Stnd. Error of Est.

2.6

2.2

, 0

~

" l.8

~ w "

1.4

i !.

"

=

."-. : ',' . '.

-'

:

-0.299276

:',

:',

.-

'.~-., .... --

- :

. -

'.".., . ....

''. ..

Of = 143

.'

'.

I I . . . . I

i

. !

·····.1

',' i ~"'~

!

. :. i - l-__ l __ L_..l..._...l....-..I. __ L--l.-.....I~L.-L_L...._L ___ l ___ .L. __ l

o )0 60 90 120 150

MONTHS

Prob. Level

.00000

.00000

= 33.82 percent

_ FIGURE 4.5: Statgraphlcs Simple Regression Plot of Borehole (1007)

73_

---, ,

.

. Chapter 4: Statistical Methodology

The following computer print-out presents the Rus's only declined borehole

gradient.

TABLE 4.7: Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1002) of the Rus Lens/Aquifer with Respect to Time




Intercept 3.410750 0.0632762 53.9025 .00000 Slope -0.0111071 7.54519E~4 -14.7208 .00000

Correlation Coefficient = -0.778342 R-squared = 60.58 percent Stnd. Error of Est.

FIGURE 4.6:

• ••

1. 4 .. :

= 0.372454

'.

" . ", .',' :. . '0, ",'

" .. '"', ".:

'''"'. '~'" "'. " . '. . ,

Of = 142

:

I ",- ••• j ,

I

i !

:.. I • ". I

:-': " . . :

.,.,,1. !

',: . '.

. ". "', . "',

",' .. ':"',j .. ".' ': i ,

- r-__ I_..--l~ __ J __ ! __ ~_L--l , '~l..........~_L-...-L-

o JO 60 90 120 1SO

MONTHS

Statgraphics Simple Regression Plot of Borehole (1002)

74


The following computer print-out is typical of a declined gradient in Umm-Er

Radhuma Aquifer.

TABLE 4.8: Modified Statgraphlcs Print-out for Simple RegressIon Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1014) of Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer with Respect to Time




Intercept 5.986280 0.034753? 172.25 .00000 Slope -0.0215747 4.03073E-4 -53.5254 .00000


FIGURE 4.7:

. 0

" ~ • "

= 0.187297 Of = 134

S.8 !.,. ' I " . "J,

5. )

.. ,

.. )

). ,

). )

i\

' ....... " ,.

"~~':'\, ", -:: .

, " '.'. "~:;': .

... ... .. .... ... ......... . '::\:'<~~:.;;:,'."'.'

'\ .... ~<~

i !

. .. ,. : '.,:--, . " 1

\",,1 2. a "': '~ -

1 ___ 1. •• ,"" •• 1_._,-. _I __ L ___ L __ ..L __ J .. ___ l __ .• 1. ___ 1 __ .• L o JO 60 90 120

MONTHS

Statgraphlcs Simple Regression Plot of Borehole (1014)

75


The following computer print-out presents the Aruma's only declined bore hole

gradient.

TABLE 4.9: Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Simple Regression Results for the Water Table Levels of Borehole (1127) of Aruma Aquifer with Respect to Time

Regression Analysis - Un ear Model: Y = ~o + ~,X



Intercept 6.120740 0.063142 96.936 .00000 Slope -0.0245754 6.09123Ec4 -40.3455 .00000


FIGURE 4.8:

= 0.145148 Df= 87

5.1;. I-

•. J

§ 3.9 _.

J.5

" " " 111

HONT~S

Statgraphics Simple Regression Plot of Borehole (1127)

76


4.3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION

Its analysis follows the simple regression analysis. The development of models

has been restricted to the first order linear model for the same reason

appearing in the previous section. The difference between the simple and

multiple regression relies on the independent variables. The latter analysis

depends on regressing one dependent variable to a set of (k) independent

variables.

4.3.1 The F·Ratlo and the p·Value .

Examining the ~ parameter of each independent variable using the t-value is

not practical because not only is the t-test conducted on a fixed variable, but

it can also produce higher errors leading to misrepresenting the conclusion.

The F-ratio statistic test is applied. It examines how efficient the multiple

regression model is as a whole for all the ~ parameters. The F-ratio is obtained

following this equation:

F -ratio = ":":",:-="",,,R,,.2/_k..,.,...-:-:-:-:-[(1-R2)/(n-(k+1))]

It is tested using null hypothesis in this manner:

. Ho: ~, = ~ = ~3 = ..... = 0

H,: at least one of the ~ parameters is not zero.

The obtained F-ratio is compared to the critical F-ratio from the Statistical

Tables for a significant level of 5% where the numerator's degree of freedom

is equivalent to k, as will be discussed in Chapter 6. If the calculated F-ratio

is greater than the critical F-ratio, then null hypothesis is rejected and the

alternative hypothesis is accepted resulting in the model having some value for

drawing a conclusion. Obviously if the significance level (p-value) is small, the

model has stronger evidence to prove its adequacy.

77


4.3.2 The Coefficient of Determination

It holds the same idea as the simple regression's coefficient of determination.

Since it relies on multiple f3 parameters, it is adjusted and its calculation is

changed. The adjusted A-squared value is equal to:

n

E (y; - y;}2/(n -(k + 1)) 1 - (n-1) 1-::-__ 1_01 ____ -::-__ _

n n

E (YI - y)2 and all E (XI - X}2 1-' j .. l

where n is the sample size and k is the number of independent variable sets.

4.3.3 Sample Calculations

Borehole 1185 of the Alat Aquifer is re-applied in this calculation. Two more

independent variables are included which are the evapotranspiration and the

rainfall. Therefore, the (k) value is equal to 3. Due to the length and

complexity of the calculations, the computer print-out results are displayed in

Table 4.10.

TABLE 4.10:

Source

Model Error

Total (Gorr) =

A-squared =

Modified Statgraphics Print-out for Multiple Regression Results for Borehole (1185)

Sum of OF Mean Square F-ratio p-value Squares

2.05736 3 0.685787 43.2607 .0000 1.41087 89 0.015824

3.46823 92

0.593202 A-squared (Adj for df) = 0.57949 Standard Error of Estimate = 0.125906

78


4.4 FORECASTING

It is based on the found regression analysis to predict the future trend.

Therefore, linear regression is applied as a tool for forecasting. It can predict

the worst case for the dependent variable.

4.4.1 Sample Calculations

Following the linear regression analysis, the limits of the slopes are estimated

to follow this equation:

~, ± (critical t-value at 95% confidence level) [ s ] (X 2)0.5

Therefore, continuing with the above results for borehole (1185), the confidence

boundaries on the slope are calculated to be:

0.011 ± (1.96) [(0.0434)/(2476.80)°·5] = 0.011 ± 0.0017

The predicted forecasts follow the previous equation, y = ~o + ~,x where x is

equal to months 168 and 252 for anticipated values at the end of years 1993

and 2000 respectively.

The water table levels are expected to rise, following the same example

borehole (1185), to 4.88 metres and to 5.90 metres both above BNLD by the

end of years 1993 and 2000 respectively.

79

CHAPTER FIVE

DATA AND HYDROGEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Eleven groundwater samples were collected and analysed from the Alat Aquifer

and one sample from the Neogene Aquifer. These samples were taken from

exposed fresh water surfaces. Two spring water samples which originated from

the Khobar Aquifer of the Dammam Group of Formations were also tested.

Whether the springs originated from the Neogene, Alat, or Khobar Aquifers,

they have been grouped in Section 5.~.1 so a broad view of the general trend

of all exposed water bodies can be understood. No samples have been tested

from Sanad Aquifer because the standpipes were only used for observation

after which they were capped.

Ninety-five samples were sampled from the Dammam Group of Formations.

The samples were collected from pumped bore holes from primarily the Khobar

Aquifer and to a much lesser degree from the Alat Aquifer (AI-Noaimi, 1990).

Eighteen samples were tested from the Rus Lens/Aquifer and eighty samples

from the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer.

All the above locations were visited and the collections of the above samples

were performed usually on a weekly basis, during the day, extending from mid

August 1990 until the beginning of January 1992. The above towns have been

re-situated on the UTMm grid coordinates from 1 :10000 and 1 :25000 maps.

They have been transferred to a 1 :50000 map. This final map has been

reduced to A3. The locations of the samples along with their UTMm grid

coordinates, laboratory number, old reference number, and the new reference

number are shown in Appendix B.

80

\

Chapter 5: Data and HydrogeochemicaJ Analysis

5.2 FIELD PROCEDURES

The preparation, including the sterilisation of the bottles is presented in

Appendix A, along with the testing procedures. When sampling, the bore hole

valve was left open for five minutes to flush any suspended solids in the

system. All the sample bottles and their cappings were washed with the

borehole water except the bacteriological bottle. A two-litre glass bottle was

filled to test all chemical constituents except sodium and potassium in which a

50 ml plastic bottle was filled. Borehole water filled four-fifths of the 500 ml

glass bottle tested for the coliforms. The rest of the bottle was left free to

facilitate the natural environment for the bacteria and to allow for mixing. These

samples were stored upright in a cool box containing ice cubes to maintain a

temperature of 25°C. Cooling was only performed when the outside

temperature exceeded 30°C. Another SOO ml glass bottle was filled with the

sample. It was used for testing BOOs, which stands for the five-day Biochemical

Oxygen Demand test. A 150 ml glass bottle was filled with the sample to test

the nitrite. The last bottle was used to detect hydrogen sulphide. Since the gas

is unstable and it disappears very quickly, solution of one normal of sodium

hydroxide had to be used. According to (APHA et aI., 1985), 1 M of zinc

acetate and 1 N of sodium hydroxide must be used as reagents on-site. The

former solution was disregarded (AI-Aradi, 1990) since it preserved the sample

for 24 hours. Therefore, only 0.6 ml of 1 N of NaOH was pipetted in a 150 ml

glass bottle. The sodium hydroxide solution was stored in a plastic bottle away

from sunlight. The bottle was filled and it was capped immediately making sure

that no air went into the bottle. Air would cause the formation of sulphates

which would be present along with sodium sulphide. The sample was shaken

then placed upright in the cool dark ice box to avoid any heating which could

cause the escape of any hydrogen sulphide. Table 5.1 displays a summary of

the bottles used in the analyses.

81


TABLE 5.1: Summary of the Bottles Used In the Analyses

Determinant Volume Type of Preservative Bottle

Chemistry except 2000 ml Glass None sodium and potassium

Sodium and potassium 50 ml Plastic None only

Bacteriology 500 ml Glass 0.5 ml of 10% sodium thiosulphate solution

BOD5 500 ml . Glass None

Nitrite 150 ml Glass None

Hydrogen sulphide 150 ml Glass 0.6 ml of 1 N sodium hydroxide

5.3 RESULTS

All the results were recorded in milligrammes per litre on the form shown in

Table 5.2(a). The results were then entered into the Aquatec computer

software programme developed by Lewis (1988). The chemical results were

entered on the left column and the physical results were entered on the right

one.

The software computes the mill i-equivalents per litre for each of the input

datum. It presents the sum of the total anions and the total cations. This step

detects the error in the measurement of the anions or cations at the laboratory.

On the opposing column, the software calculates the electrical conductivity and.

the total dissolved solids based on the entered data. The computer program

determines the percentage of the ionic balance to check the accuracy of the

determinations. The ionic balance is determined by this equation:

Ionic Balance (%) = (the sum of anions - the sum of cations) ~----------------------~x100

(the sum of anions + the sum of cations)

82

Chapter 5: Data and Hydrogeochemica1 Analysis

TABLE 5.2(a): APPLICATION FOR WATER TEST:

WATER-CHEMICAL AND -PHYSICAL ANALYSES

Laboratory Reference

Sender Reference

Sender Name

Date Sampled (Day. Month. Year)

Required Test for:

Carbonate

Bicarbonate

Chloride

Sulphate

Nitrate

Fluoride

Sodium

Potassium

Calcium

Magnesium

Iron

Manganese

Hydrogen Sulphide

Electrical Conductivity (Ee)

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Silica

Suspended Solids

Turbidity

pH (Lab)

pH (Field)

Remarks:

Signature and Date:

Result

83

mg/l

mg/l

mg/l

mg/l

mg/l

mg/l

mg/l

mg/l

mg/l

mgll

mgll

mg/l

mg/l

J.lmhos/cm

ppm

mg/l

mg/l

NTU

pH units

pH units

Chapter 5: Data and Hydrogeochemical Analysis

The computer presents values of hardness and alkalinity in the form of calcium

carbonate based on the entered data. The computer calculates the saturation

pH at which the field measured pH has just been saturated by calcium

carbonate. The computer utilises this formula to obtain the Langelier Saturation

Index:

Langelier Saturation Index = pH (laboratory) - pH (saturation)

If the saturation index is negative, then the water has the ability to dissolve

calcium carbonate. If it is positive, then the water has the potential to deposit

calcium carbonate.

A computer print-out can be obtained for each of the samples. A sample of this

print-out appears in Table S.2(b). Appendix B shows all the results of the tested

samples on microfiche jackets.

TABLE 5.2(b): A Sample Computer Print-out for the Water-Chemical and -Physical Results of Umm-Er-Radhuma Aqulfersc

Lab No. 305191 Date Sampled 27.07.91 Ref E59L Source ID. Ras Abu Jarjur Sample Point Well 14

mgl1" me/l'

Carbonate 0.00 0.000 Field pH 6.75 Bicarbonate 182.00 2.983 Lab pH 6.93 Chloride 6550.00 184.767 EC 20320.00" Sulphate 350.00 7.287 Computed EC 24419.09 Nitrate 0.60 O.OtO TDS 10160.00" Fluoride 1.30 0.068 Computed TDS 11263.04

Ionic balance % -0.28" 195.115

Sodium 3283.00 142.801 Silica 11.00 Potassium 134.00 3.427 Suspended Solids 0.00 Calcium 600.00 29.940 NTU 0.00 Magnesium 243.50 20.041 Hardness (CaCO,) 2500.71" Iron 0.15 0.005 Alkalinity (CaCO,) 149.24" Manganese 0.00 0.000 Saturation Index -0.23"

t96.2t5

Notes a These are the measured values in the laboratory. b These are the computer calculated values based on the measured values. c The strudural layout of this table is identical for all the other aquifers; the resutts are only

different.

84


5.3.1 Ion Balance VarIatIons

The determination of ions by titration is always subject to human errors. When

testing for bicarbonate, calcium, or chloride, the titrating liquid was not titrated

to the sample slowly as the Standard Methods (APHA et aI., 1985) specified.

The valve to the titrating liquid flask was left practically open until the colour of

the tested sample changed. The change might have occurred earlier, but the

result was reported later. In the calcium case, the determination of magnesium

was influenced accordingly; refer to Appendix A. Since solution calibrators

were required to determine the sodium and potassium through the Flame

Photometer, the calibration was not prepared every 10 parts per million. The

calibration was prepared every 100 parts per million causing an inaccurate

calibration curve. Finally, the samples were not tested on the same day of

delivery. This could cause increase in the salts being leached from the glass

bottle to the sample itself.

The samples' ionic balance results are shown in Figures 5.1 to 5.4. The

analytical error ranges from ±O% to ±25%. This wide range indicates that either

the chemical analysis is subject to errors or another element.is present but it

is not detected.

As a result of the above, the accuracy limits for the available results must be

set. The limit must be internationally acceptable. The HMSO (1980) and WHO

(1993) do not specify a certain limit. They refer to the concentration of the

least substance. The confidence limit for the chemical analysis will be

expressed as 10% of the recommended guideline value of that substance. The

(APHA et aI., 1989) have set the limit between ±2% to ±5% based on the anion

sum being between 20 meqll to 800 meq/l. Hem (1989) of the USGS specifies

that the acceptable range is set to be between ±2% to ±1 0%.

85

4

UI

~ 3 0.. ~ « UI

IL. 2 o


°t+:==~=~~~""""""':I'Q o 2 ----~6~----~B~----~10~----~12~

FIGURE 5.1:

30

27

24 UI UI 21 ...J 0.. ~ IB « UI

I~

IL. 0 12

15 ID ~ ::> 6 z

3

0

FIGURE 5.2:

(± %) ION BALANC E ERROR

Frequency Histogram for all the Exposed Water Bodies

24 27 30

(± %) ION BALANCE ERROR

Frequency Histogram for the Dammam Group of Formations

86

IIJ 1&.1 ..J Q. :lE <I: IIJ

11.. o

ffi CD :lE :::J Z

FIGURE 5.3:

UI 1&.1 ..J Q. :lE <I: UI

11.. o

ffi CD ::;; :::J Z

FIGURE 5.4:


10

8

8

4

2

o ~0------~2~------~------~8------~8'---~-'1~0

(t %) ION BALANCE ERROR Frequency Histogram for the Rus

12

(t %) ION BALANCE ERROR

Frequency Histogram for the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer

87


Iron is the least concentrated substance. Its recommended guideline value is

0.3 mg/l (WHO, 1993) but increases to 1.0 mg/l in the Standards of the Public

Health Directorate (Undated). Therefore, the maximum allowable total error is

equivalent to ±3% following WHO's Standards or ±10% following Bahrain's

Standards.

Referring to the above histograms, most of the ionic balances range between

±2.40% and ±3.60% as well as between ±8.40% and ±9.60% for all the

exposed water bodies. The ionic balances stretch between ±3.00% to ±6.00%

for Dammam Group of Formations, but decrease to between ±O.80% to ±1.60%

for the Rus Lens/Aquifer and ±O.OO% to ±1.20% for Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer.

The Dammam Group of Formations has the highest ionic balances because the

solution calibrators used for detecting sodium are high, 100 milligrammes per

litre is the smallest calibrator. This calibration is more suitable for saline

waters. Therefore, the maximum allowable error, which is accepted

internationally and nationally, is set at ±1 0%. This error range is utilised on the

chemical analysis. Any values beyond this limit will be disregarded in the

analysis of water unless they blend graphically with the acceptable ones.

5.3.2 Result Grouping

Since the quantity of the analysed data is great, grouping them to sub areas

has been performed. Figure 5.5 shows the location of all the sampled water

along with their sub-areas. The computer print-out results, shown in Appendix

B are grouped accordingly.

5.3.3 Graphical Presentation

Piper's (1944) Trilinear Diagram has been chosen to present the results

graphically. This diagram can show the relationships of different water

chemical analyses. It can also present the water trend over a period of time.

88

·370oo

E 36 39 4Q 41 42 43 44 4~ 46 47 46 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 56 ~9 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 .66ooo

E 290~OOONI ' , , , r' , IltOgoootl

08

0'

06

0'

o.

0,

02

0'

UOOODOtl

99

90

9'

96

., go

93

')2

"' ~o

89

BB

87

86

B'

B.

B3

82

8'

lfBOOOON,

7~1

" " 76

" " " 72

" U10000tl

69

68

67

66

6, 6.

63 ., 62

9

6' 93

U60000N

,. '8

" '6

" " " I

'2 o U5l000N

18500001l!

". r~· • T

.os

"l ......... ~

N

43 MIIWARRAQ IS.

Al·.UOOAYY ..

~"'"::~·r

.11 ~} J .9,-96

rl~" ~'" li6 .,18 e{19 10~ e'03 e83 6] 2'l "'129_24 ]Ol4~el~ r"

.0 ' ,,... '22 • Ba • '.6" 6'

.,_'" L. ..r-!60\'" " =" " '\." '0' I~' '0] BR ''', o-{~l L·" '"'

~ -1 "',,,,,. '1,>6 -~.- '"

~-~ ........ ,.9.16 -

UMM AN NASAN IS.

."

BAHRAIN IS.

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LEGEND:

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FIGURE 5.5: Location of the Sampled Groundwater and their Sub·Grouping

89


The diagram is divided into two triangles and a central diamond. The percent

milli-equivalent per litre of calcium to the whole cation sum is obtained. The

same is performed for the magnesium and both sodium and potassium. The

point is then plotted in the cation triangle. The same operation is followed on

the anion triangle for both carbonate and bicarbonate, both chloride and

fluoride, and both sulphate and nitrate. Two lines are extended from each

triangle intersecting at the central diamond. Two templates (Domenico and

Schwartz, 1990) shown in Figure 5.6 are placed over the central diamond.

These templates assist in studying the nature of the water in that particular

location. Since the geographical, geological and climatological background are

known, the water nature can be fully understood.

FIGURE 5.6:

ANION T!MPLATI!

CATION TEMPLATE

The Interpretation of Piper's Central Diamond Using the Templates; After (Domenlco and Schwartz, 1990)

90


All the results were plotted on A 1 sheets by the areas shown in Figure 5.5.

The central diamonds are only reduced to A4. The samples' identification

numbers are not re-traced to maintain a clear graph.

The GDC (1980) chemical results for 1978-1980 are plotted with permission.

Their results are used as historical data to show whether any changes have

occurred in the quality of the water.

5.4 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

5.4.1 Exposed Water Bodies

All fourteen spring water samples were collected from land springs except one

offshore spring; Umm-As-Sawali spril)g off the south-east of Muharraq Island.

A sample of this spring water was collected from a pipe which was constructed

from the spring outlet to the Arab Ship Repair Yard (ASRY). The locations of

these water bodies are shown in Figure 5.5.

Unlike consulting firms, the researcher could only collect samples from the

surface of the accessible springs. Their results will not be as accurate as

sampling from the spring discharging outlets since the latter water is in its most

natural flowing form. Some land springs have rubbish along their peripherals;

no samples were collected from them.

5.4.1.1

a)

Land springs

Chemistry

The ratio of the sodium to the total cations as well as the chloride to the total

anions is greater than 50% each. Therefore, the water nature of these springs

is of sodium chloride as appears in Figure 5.7. Three springs on the eastern

coast are heavily affected by seawater intrusion. Two of them are in Sanad and

the other one is in AI-Nuwaydrat. They appear in the chloride-sulphate section

along with Bahrain's seawater and the Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW)

91

EXPOSED WATER BODIES

'0

KEY:

'11 - COf'£NHAGDB WDRlDWIOI! . APf'ROVED S[AWlTER

B - BAHRAIH'S SUWATER


. . do

(GDC .,"" '01--"

.... • C)..

't> .. . . l,.

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,~ . .-,-

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NOTt :

OTHER THAN THE R£RRfNCm Rf5UUS,THf ROT 15TH! R£5[ARotf;R'S 'M)RK.

FIGURE 5.7: The AnalytIcal Results for the Exposed Water BodIes on Piper's Central Diamond

92

--- - -----


which is denoted with a (W) on the Piper diagram. On the opposing coast,

Lawzi Lake is highly saline. The lake is considered as being an internal

drainage basin discharging point. The rest of the spring water samples appear

above the chloride-sulphate separation line but they are still influenced by

seawater intrusion.

A correlation analysis was applied between the electrical conductivity and all

the other water quality parameters as shown in Figure 5.8. A list of the

correlated results, along with their significance level (p-value) appears in Table

5.3. The correlation between the electrical conductivity and the carbonate,

chloride, sulphate, sodium, potassium, calcium as well as magnesium has a

positive linear relationship which is very strong as the p-value approaches zero.

These results confirm that sodium chloride is the groundwater trend along with

other salts such as calcium sulphate and calcium carbonates. Electrical

conductivity also correlates with the bicarbonate in a negative manner implying

that the bicarbonate is present in a lesser quantity than the other chemical

constituents. Its p-value is still within the acceptable statistical significance level

being less than 0.05. The values of iron, fluoride and nitrate do not lend

themselves to this type of analysis because their presence is extremely small

relative to the other constituents.

93


IX 1000.'

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SUlphat.

~ o~:""~,":!:-::--,~",:,!:~~L.J.~-'-.....L~...u....a o lOO 1000 1500 .... . ...

oe 100001

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Potassium

Sodium

,. " ,.

(mg/J ) IX 10001

400 100 1200 .,00 1000 "00

Colcium (m 9 / ,I.)

1200 ,eoo 1000 1400

Magnesium (mgl1)

FIGURE 5.8: Regression Plots of Electrical Conductivity on the Exposed Water Bodies' Chemical Constituents

94


TABLE 5.3: Results of the CorrelatIon CoeffIcIents between Electrical Conductivity and the Chemical Constituents for the Land and Offshore Springs

Chemical Electrical Significance Electrical Significance Constituents Conductivity Level Conductivity Level

(mg/l) (l1fTlhoslcmj" (Unitless)* (l1fTlhoslcm) ** (Unitless)**

Carbonate 0.9739 0.0000 0.9744 0.0000 Bicarbonate -0.7043 0.0155 -0.6679 0.0126 Chloride 0.9996 0.0000 0.9996 0.0000 Sulphate 0.9855 0.0000 0.9865 0.0000 Nitrate 0.4634 0.1511 0.4757 0.1004 Fluoride 0.4361 0.1800 0.4597 0.1140 Sodium 0.9992 0.0000 0.9992 0.0000 Potassium 0.9995 0.0,000 0.9995 0.0000 Calcium 0.9821 0.0000 0.9829 0.0000 Magnesium 0.9957 0.0000 0.9926 0.0000 Iron -0.2765 0.4104 -0.1982 0.5162

Notes: '

* These results refer to all the exposed water bodies which were sampled and analysed (from the Neogene, Alat and Khobar Aquifers).

** These results refer to the land springs only excluding the presence of the Neogene Aquifer sample.

b) Bacteriology

Total and faecal coliform bacteria were present in a range of 11 to 280

coliforms per ml indicating that the springs are polluted. The offshore sample

is excepted; it is bacteriologically safe.

c) The BOD5 Test

The presence of the organic matter, detected through the five day BOO test,

is small and it corresponds to the absence of organic material and the absence

of gross bacterial contamination for the offshore sample unlike the land spring

samples.

d) Nitrite

The maximum obtained value is 2.1 mg/l. The nitrite values correlate with the

increase in coliform bacteria. This is expected because the samples were

collected from exposed water bodies.

95


TABLE 5.4: Summary of Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) for the Exposed Water Bodies

•

b

c

Exposed Water Identifi· SARb

Body cation Remarks Number •

Ayn Om Sha'oom (from N1VK 10.0 It consists of two springs. The small one is abandoned. Khobar Aquifer) The IaJge one where !he sample was collected is used ID

feed channels with irrigation water but at present these channels have been filled wi!h sand.

Ayn Adhari (from Khobar N2VK 9.1 It is used for irrigation and leisure. It used ID feed channels Aquifer) ID irrigalB further areas. At present, it irrigalBS !he

. surroundings.

CAyn in Mohammed SIEE 11.7 It is used ID inrigalB !he garden and fill !he swimming pool. MoSlata's private garden in Nabih Salih Island

'Ayn Al-Sheikh in Nabih S2VE 9.6 It is not utilised at all. WRD (1989) recommended to use its Salih Island water for irrigation onty. The researcher would further

recommend to use it for tourism since its deanest water flows ID !he nearby channels creating a relaxing abnosphere as it overlooks the nearby village.

'Ayn Af-Saffahiya in Nabih S3VN 9.8 It is not utilised at all. It is IocaIBd at lIle enlranoa of !his Salih Island island. WRD (1989) would like ID use it as lDuristic location.

'Ayn in Sayyed Abbas's TtVE 16.2 It is used ID irrigate !he garden and fill !he swimming pool. private garden in Sanad

CAyn in private garden in T2VE 25.8 It is utilised for ba!hing only. Saned

'Ayn A~Dab'bassah in A~ T3VE 18.6 It is not utilised at 311. During winter, the rain causes its Nuwaydrat level ID rise and irrigalB lIle nearby gardens.

'Ayn Bashah T4VE 10,1 It is used for irrigation only.

CAyn in Mohammed Juma's T5YW 9.5 It is used for irrigation only. private garden at Jasra

'Lawzi Lake T6VW 64.7 It is not utilised at all. Individual's rubbish is sometimes left 1here. To 1he north swampy plants exist UnwanlBd water

Lawzi Lake QT7DW 60.7 ~ waslBwater) is discharged to it Ministry of Housing is planning to bacldill some parts of it for !he conslruction of

Lawzi Lake T8J2W 64.6 housas and 1he creation of leisure par1<s.

Um Sawali (Offshore MW 4.3 It is used for irrigation, for o1her domestic usas except spring; Neogene Aquijer) drinking, and for ASRY plant itse~.

Identification Number. Refer to Appendix 'B' for letter explanation, The first letter refers to the location, as shown in Figure 5.5, Therefore: M = Muharraq Island and Hs surroundings; N = Manama; S = SHrah and Nabih Salih Islands; and T = Coastal Sector

SAR: It is the sodium absorption ratio calculated by this formula = NaI[(Mif+ + Ca>+)/2f5, All the values are in meqll. The acceptable SAR range by (FAO, 1985) is between 0 to 15.

All these springs originate from the Alat Aquner, Ayn in Arabic is equivalent to spring in English,

96


e) Sodium Absorption Ratio

The results of the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) are compared to the same

recommended value by FAO (1985). A list of the spring water SAR values

appears in Table 5.4. From the table, Nabih Salih Island's springs and

Manama springs are more suitable for irrigation.

5.4.1.2 Offshore Springs

Due to their presence in the sea, only one sample was collected. GDC (1980)

studied the offshore springs more thoroughly. This company tested the same

sample that the researcher tested; Umm-As-Sawali offshore spring, sample

(M1Y:233/91). This sample's water has deteriorated, but not greatly. Its

electrical conductivity was 4820 Ilmhos/cm and the chloride value was 1150

mg/l. According to the GDC (1980) study, the same sample's former value

used to be 4100 Ilmhos/cm and its latter value used to be 1014 mg/l.

Therefore, the water quality of the offshore springs is not much better than the

land springs. The presence of the Neogene Aquifer samples in the previous

correlation results, Table 5.3, further confirms that its chemical analysis follows

the other exposed land bodies. The slight difference in the results indicates

that the Neogene sample is fresher than the other samples.

From the GDC (1980) results, plotted on the Piper diagram in Figure 5.7, the

offshore springs are fresh particularly the springs near the north and east

coasts of Muharraq Island. Two samples GDC reported (1980) that they

originated from Khobar Aquifer. One of them is near Sitrah Island and it

appears at the bottom of the Piper central diamond indicating that possible

sampling error is due to difficulties of sampling in the sea. The other spring

appears near the southern coast of Muharraq. It is fresher than the former

Sitrah spring.

97


5.4.2 Dammam Group of Formations

a) Chemistry

The ratio of the chloride to the total sum of the anions is greater than 50% and

likewise is the sodium to the total sum of cations. Therefore, the water character

of Dammam Group of Formations is predominantly sodium chloride. The second

dominant anion and cation are sulphate and calcium respectively. Waters with

different salinities are scattered around the islands. Fresh water appears south

of Muharraq Island and west-north west of Bahrain Island. Figure 5.9 illustrates

a map showing the total dissolved solids of all the analysed samples.

Apart from the above areas, the salinity increases steadily. This implies the

encroachment of the seawater inland is due to excessive groundwater abstraction

used for human consumption, after being treated if necessary, or used for

irrigation. The salinity reaches its maximum on Sitrah Island and some parts of

the eastern coast of Bahrain facing south of Sitrah Island. It also increases where

sabkhas are present as on the western coast of Bahrain Island. Figure 5.10

displays the analysed results. The Standard Mean Ocean Water (Degremont,

1979) and Bahrain's seawater results are amongst the highly saline groundwater

confirming that the seawater has intruded into the groundwater system. Although

the encroachment is clear on the east, its influence is reduced on the west

because the groundwater is not utilised on Umm-An-Na'ssan Island which acts as

a barrier protecting the shores of the opposing Bahrain Island. Similarly, Sitrah

Island on the east protects the oppo~ing shore. The sea currents are stronger on

the eastern shore. This will increase tidal range and speed up the saline intrusion.

The worst salinity appears in the central part of the northern coast where sea

coastal reclamation is undertaken. Although the sea reclamation does not

influence the water table levels of Dammam Group of Formations, refer to Chapter

6, it reduces the distance between the coast and the nearby coral reefs. As a

result, seawater becomes saltier due to high evaporation rates. The north

westerly wind along with the sea currents push the saline water back to the land. ,

98


... ToOG! .8511 40 4142.' 4.45., 4748 48 eo " • !SI U 54 M 5. 57 SI SII eo 8182" &4 SS M 87 .aeooo!: .,09000N

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.. ,TOODI!: 311 :sg 4041 42 ...... 5 ••• 1 •• 411 eo 8' 52 SS 5. " sa 575. S' eo 81 828"'" 153 8887 .. 68 000 I!

FIGURE 5.9: The Distribution of the Total Dissolved Solids of Dammam Group of Formations

99


ALAT AND KHOBAR AQUIFERS

• - r GDC, 19801

K£l' :

B - BAHRAIN'S SEAWATER

W - COPENHAGEN'S WORLDWIDE APPROVED SEAWATER (SMOW)

• - (Cl DC ,.8ao, RESULTS

• - THIS STUDY'S RESULTS

~ . , c:. •

'f,.. " 1;. -.

\. -, '0. -

,." L. ~.

FIGURE 5.10: The Analysed Results of Dammam Group of Formations on Piper's Central Diamond

100


The correlation results, shown in Table 5.5, validates the above. The presence

of the chloride with respect to conductivity is high. The correlation coefficient

between them is equivalent to 0.9814. Accordingly the coefficient of

determination is high (0.9814)2 which is equivalent to 0.9631 or 96%. Similarly,

sodium and potassium highly correlate with conductivity confirming the nature

of the water. As the correlation coefficient decreases to negative values having

high significance levels, the presence of these other elements in the water

becomes less. Figure 5.11 displays the regression analysis between the

electrical conductivity and the chloride, sodium as well as potassium. The other

constituents do not develop a strong relationship indicating that a linear

association cannot be presented clearly; that is the results cannot produce a

good fit for a linear line.

TABLE 5.5: Results of the Correlation CoeffiCients between Electrical Conductivity and the Chemical Constituents for Dammam Group of Formations

Chemical Electrical Significance Electrical Significance Constituents Conductivity Level Conductivity Level

(mg/l) (~mhos/cm)a (Unitless)a (~mhos/cm)b (Unitless)b

CarbonateC No No No No correlation correlation correlation correlation

Bicarbonate -0.0420 0.6832 -0.0432 0.6779 Chloride 0.9814 0.0000 0.9813 0.0000 Sulphate 0.6307 0.0000 0.6286 0.0000 Nitrate 0.3467 0.0005 0.3692 0.0002 Fluoride 0.4623 0.0000 0.4600 0.0000 Sodium 0.9736 0.0000 0.9736 0.0000 Potassium 0.9036 0.0000 0.9031 0.0000 Calcium 0.7240 0.0000 0.7234 0.0000 Magnesium 0.7244 0.0000 0.7240 0.0000 Iron 0.2708 0.0073 0.2674 0.0088

Notes:

a These results refer to all the samples analysed from Dammam Group of Formations including the two springs of Khobar Aquifer.

b These results refer to all the samples analysed from Dammam Group of Formations excluding the two springs of Khobar Aquifer.

c All the carbonate values are zero disabling the performance of any correlation analysis.

101

FIGURE 5.11:


I X loooel

-E I

~ ., 0

1.11 .c E i -~ 1.2

'> 'ij ::J ~ 0.' c 8 -o o.~ u .;:: U • 0 iii

0 2 4 • (mgl t ) IX 10001

I X 10000)

-e 2

~ III Potossi urn o .c 1.11

E 1---

(rnglll ) I X 10001

Regression Plots of Electrical Conductivity on the DammamGroup of Formations' Chemical Constituents

102

------

Chapter 5: Data and Hydrogeochemica/ Analysis

b) Bacteriology

Eighty out of ninety-five samples gave less than one coliform per 100 ml for

total coliform bacteria. Positive total coliform bacteria were obtained on 8.4%

of the samples but these had negative faecal coliforms. 7.4% of the samples

had positive results for both types of coliforms. The failed results are not

thought to be due to the quality of the groundwater itself, but it is due to the

water delivery techniques. The connecting pipes from the source are not

always maintained properly. Additionally, some of the wells are not securely

sealed creating a suitable environment for insects and other germs.

According to the bacteriological standards of the (WHO, 1993), no coliform

must be present per 100 ml or in 95% of the samples taken on an annual

basis. If this guideline was a~plied, then the groundwaters of the Oammam

Group of Formations would not be suitable for drinking. However the failed

results occurred where protection is not undertaken to the pump and its

facilities. Therefore, a conclusion is drawn that the subsurface waters of

Oammam Group of Formations is suitable for drinking without prior treatment

if the chemical constituents results are below (WHO, 1993) guideline values .

. c) The B005 Test

The presence of the organic matter is minute. It ranges between nil to 2.6 mg/I.

d) Nitrite

Nitrite was tested to detect the presence of nitrifying bacteria especially where

the bore holes were near septic tanks or in dairy farms. Although the nitrite has

reached a maximum of 0.22 mg/I, which is much less than WHO's (1993) value

of 1 mgll, it does not correlate with the bacteriological results, indicating that

this groundwater is still safe for health.

103 "


e) Hydrogen Sulphide

Negative values were always obtained concluding not only thal the samples

from the Dammam Group of Formations were free of sulphur reducing bacteria,

but confirming that the Dil'Rifah Carbonate Formation was able 10 restrict any

upward flow from the underlying aquifers.

f) Sodium Absorption Ratio

Comparing the results in Table 5.6 for the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) to the

acceptable range in irrigation water, most of the tested water samples (84 out

of 95) are within the limits of 0 to 15 set by (FAO, 1985). Eleven samples have

higher ratio particularly on the eastern and western coasts. Two out of these

eleven blend their salty water with the piped water from the Water Supply

Directorate (WSD) usually in an enclosed pool above the ground. Three other

samples from the eleven samples are not used in irrigation. Two of them are

used industrially at the BAPCO plant, while the other is treated by reverse

osmosis for human consumption. The other six sample owners still utilise their

salty water in irrigation along with other domestic usages.

5.4.3 The Rus Lens/Aquifer

Difficulty was confronted in locating its boreholes. AI-Noaimi (1990) confirmed

that groundwater extracted from the racecourse at AI-Sakhir was from the Rus.

Access was given by its Deputy Director to sample its water.

Eighteen samples were collected from the Rus from two different boreholes;

wells 1 and 2. They are about 60 metres apart. They are at AI-Sakhir. The

pumping capacity of each well is not the same. The first one pumps at a rate

of 500 gallons per minute whereas the second one pumps at a rate of 700

gallons per minute. Another borehole lies about 100 metres from the first well

and 50 metres from the second one. This borehole had been abandoned since

its metallic casing was corroding, causing high values of iron in the water (AI

Mosallam, 1990).

104

TABLE 5.6: Total Dissolved Solids and Sodium Absorption Ratio for the Samples of Dammam Group of Formations

New Ref Measured SAR New Ref Measured SAR TDS (ppm) TDS (ppm)

BR1Y 2240 8.3 N18P 2720 11.6 BR2G 2890 8.9 N19P 2400 8.6 BR3G 2580 9.0 N20V 3580 9.8 QBR1Y 4110 8.4 S1E 2650 9.4 QBR2Y 3850 7.9 S2E 2980 10.1 QBR3Y 4745 8.9 S3E 2590 9.5 QBR4Y 3425 8.6 S4G 4250 13.1 QBR5Y 3850 7.5 S5P 4545 10.9 QBR6L 4740 11.6 T1VOE 9770 27.2 QBR7L 3605 9.1 T2VOW 4895 13.8 QBR8L 2260 17.9 T3VOW 8020 15.2 QBR9G 3130 18.6 T4DOE 8600 22.0 QBR10G 7260 15.6 T5AE 3760 12.0 QBR11G 4000 8.2 T6YW 1410 6.0 QBR12G 4160 8.6 T7YW 1965 5.9 QBR13G 4720 9.4 T8YN 2290 8.6 QBR14G 6390 14.6 T9EW 2130 7.4 QBR15G 2380 10.4 T10EW 2000 6.6 QBR16G 4950 9.9 T11EW 1920 6.5 QBR17G 2400 7.8 T12EN 2595 6.1 QBR18P 4135 10.0 T13EN 2695 7.9 E1G 3490 9.2 T14LN 2790 8.2 E2GO 3700 7.8 T15LN 2230 8.3 QE1G 3305 7.9 T16LN 6040 13.5 QE2G 4330 8.8 T17LN 2650 7.8 M1Y 773 4.3 T18GE 4920 16.7 M2Y 2400 8.1 T19GE 3540 11.5 M3Y 2690 8.0 T20GE 3630 11.4 M4Y 2215 7.9 T21GE 5945 18.6 M5Y 1975 7.7 T22GE 8260 21.8 M6Y 7480 29.2 T23GW 4780 12.2 M7Y 2185 8.1 T24GN 2620 8.4 N1A 2265 9.5 T25GW 7415 19.0 N2A 2600 9.7 T26GW 6320 16.3 N3G 2660 9.3 T27GW 7010 19.5 N4G 2670 9.2 T28VE 7240 13.2 N5G 8100 21.5 T29EW 2210 7.3 N6G 3430 12.6 T30EW 2080 7.6 N7G 2160 8.1 QT1EN 3450 8.5 N8G 2460 8.1 QT2EN 3970 7.8 N9G 2620 9.2 QT3EN 3330 8.2 N10G 2340 8.3 QT4LN 2580 8.1 N11G 2600 9.4 QT5GN 3320 7.7 N12G 2660 9.3 QT6GN 3680 7.8 N13G 2660 9.4 QT7GN 3760 8.0 N14G 2760 9.2 QT8PE 3735 9.6 N15G 2660 9.4 N1VK 3690 10.0 N16P 2555 8.8 N2VK 3467 9.1 N17P 2530 12.3

105

RUS AOUIFER

Kn;

w -COf'ENHAGEN's WOII..DWU APPROVED SEAWATEA

8 -8AHJWN'S ~WATER

°0


(GOC,I980 lfeU..TS

..-' • C).,

•

<£" ·0

1" ••

.~

•• >?

t, 0' ..

'0, •

FIGURE 5.12: The Analysed Results for the Rus Lens/Aquifer on Piper's Central Diamond

106


a) Chemistry

The water nature for the Rus Lens/Aquifer varies enormously from fresh water

high in calcium bicarbonate to salty water high in sodium chloride. This result

is from the GDC (1980) study. The change in their results is due to the

geologic nature of the aquifer; refer to Section 2.3.1.5(b). If the available

results are considered, the water nature can be concluded as of sodium

chloride as appears in Figure 5.12. The presence of the sodium to the total

cation is greater than 50%. The ratio of the chloride to the anions is greater

than 90%. The TDS is about 9500 ppm. The available results have been

compared to the GDC's (1980) results on the racecourse at AI-Sakhir. Their

result is on the chloride-sulphate separation line in the sodium-calcium rich

area. The available results are not far off from their results. Therefore, the

water quality at AI-Sakhir has not changed greatly for the past 13 years. It has

the same quality as Bahrain's seawater. The extracted water is not useable

unless it is treated.

TABLE 5.7: Results of the Correlation Coefficients between Electrical Conductivity and the Chemical Constituents for the Rus

"

Chemical Constituents Electrical Conductivity Significance Level (mg/I) (Ilmhos/cm) (unitless)

Carbonate" No correlation No correlation Bicarbonate -0.4113 0.0899 Chloride 0.5081 0.0313 Sulphate -0.1621 0.5204 Nitrate 0.0217 0.9318 Fluoride 0.1005 0.6917 Sodium -0.1468 0.5611 Potassium -0.2448 0.3275 Calcium 0.0711 0.7793 Magnesium 0.1111 0.6609 Iron 0.2901 0.2428

All the carbonate values are zero disabling the performance of any correlation analysis.

107


High significance levels appear between conductivity and the other parameters

implying that the probability of their presence is unclear. The correlation

coefficients are weak as shown in Table 5.7. Chloride is the only element

which has a linear relationship with conductivity as shown in Figure 5.13. This

indicates that the groundwater is influenced by other input variables. This is

expected because the Rus has no external drainage, so all the recharge,

whether it is natural or caused by man, is expected to infiltrate directly to it.

Upon correlating the parameters without conductivity, a strong positive linear

relationship exists between the bicarbonates, sulphate, sodium and potassium

as shown in Table 5.8. This relationship still confirms the nature of the water.

It also confirms that the water is influenced by the presence of the surrounding

geological formations which are the anhydrite and gypsum, both are rich in

sulphate. r

b) Bacteriology

None of the samples failed when tested for total and faecal coliforms; they all

had negative results.

c) The BOOs Test

All the samples had pronounceable positive BOOs values indicating that organic

matter is present.

d) Hydrogen Sulphide

The samples were analysed for hydrogen sulphide. Their results were positiYe

confirming the presence of the sulphur reducing bacteria within the geologic

formation, which is characterised by gypsum and anhydrite.


The Rus's groundwater is not suitable for irrigation not only because its SAR

value is high, but also because it contains the toxic hydrogen sulphide gas.

108

FI~URE 5.13:

I X 10001

-E,9.4 ~ 8 ~ 19

E ~ -'8.6

>-.. . ; '~'8.2

-0

~17.8 -0 .~ 17.4 ... .. u •

I&J 17

IX 10001

-E la4 u ...

1" .... ~ !8.6 .. . -


BODO 8200 6400 6600

Chlo ride (mt)ll)

2800 1100 5400 5700 4000 4500 4600

Sodium (mg/,()

Regression Plots of Electrical Conductivity on the Rus Lens/Aquifer's Chemical Constituents

109

.... .... o

TABLE S.B: The Correlation Coefficients amongst the Rus's Chemical Constituents

BicaJt>onal8 Chloride Sldphal8 NitraID Auoride Sodium POlaSSium

Bicarbonal8 1.0000a ·.0950 .7795 -.0526 -.2338 .8761 .6172 (18)b (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.0000c .7076 .0001 .8356 .3504 .0000 .0064

Chloride -.0950 1.0000 .0473 -.1341 -.0418 .0322 .2552 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.7076 .0000 .8520 .5958 .8692 .8990 .3068

Sulphal8 .7795 .0743 1.0000 .0002 -.2399 .7310 .6469 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.0001 .8520 .0000 .9994 .3376 .0006 .0037

Nitral8 -.0526 -.1341 .0002 1.0000 .1393 -.0597 -.1308 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.8356 .5958 .9994 .0000 .5815 .8141 .6050

Auoride -.2338 -.0418 -.2399 .1393 1.0000 -.3099 -.4125 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.3504 .8692 .3376 .5815 .0000 .2107 .0815

Sodium .8761 .0322 .7310 -.0597 -.3099 1.0000 .5799 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.0000 .8990 .0006 .8141 .2107 .0000 .0116

Potassium .6172 .2552 .6469 ,.1308 -.4215 .5799 1.0000 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.0064 .3068 .0037 .6050 .0815 .0116 .0000

Calcium -.5983 .1901 -.4125 -.1093 .2288 -.4282 -.1222 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.0087 .4498 .0869 .6660 .3611 .0763 .6291

Magnesium .3527 .0437 .2600 .0532 .0852 .1861 .1238 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.1511 .8633 .2975 .8339 .7369 .4586 .6247

Iron -.1601 .2896 -.1366 -.4458 .2419 -.0616 .0128 (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18) (18)

.5257 .2437 .5889 .0637 .3334 .8081 .9600

a = Correlation Coefficient; b = Sample Size for Correlation Analysis; C = Significance Level

Calcium Magnesium Iron

-.5983 .3527 -.1601 (18) (18) (18)

.0087 .1511 .5257

.1901 -.0437 .2896 (18) (18) (18)

.4498 .8633 .2437

-.4125 .2600 -.1366 (18) (18) (18)

.0869 .2975 .5889

-.1093 .0532 -.4458 (18) (18) (18)

.6660 .8339 .0637

.2298 .0852 .2419 (18) (18) (18)

.3611 .7369 .3334

-.4282 .1861 -.0616 (18) (18) (18)

.0763 .4586 .8081

-.1222 .1238 .0128 (18) (18) (18)

.6291 .6247 .9600

1.0000 - -.5286 .3050 (18) (18) (18)

.0000 .0241 .2185

-.5286 1.0000 .2531 (18) (18) (18)

.0241 .0000 .3109

.3050 .2531 1.0000 (18) (18) (18)

.2185 .3109 .0000

--------


5.4.4 Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer

The subsurface water pumped from the eastern coast of Bahrain Island for the

industrial area only was from Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer.

Eighty samples were analysed from Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer from four

distinct areas, namely Ras Abu Jarjur Reverse-Osmosis Desalination Plant

(RAJ), Aluminium Bahrain Smelting Plant (ALBA), Bahrain Petroleum Company

Plant (BAPCO), and Haji Hassan Block Factory (HHBF). Sixty-eight samples

were tested from the first plant wellfield area which is 2.5 kilometres from the

shore on the edges of the Main Backslopes. The plant extracts water from 15

boreholes lying on a straight line and being spaced in equi-distances of 250

metres. These boreholes are never all functioning at the same time. They are

computer controlled so only ten boreholes are in action at one time. Each

bore hole was analysed about four times.

a) Chemistry

Sodium is the most abundant cation with a presence of greater than 50% of

total cations. Calcium is the second, its presence is about 20%. Magnesium's

presence is about half the calcium's presence. The presence of potassium is

very minute. Although it is tested separately, it is always calculated with the

sodium. The chloride on the anion side is the most abundant element with a

presence of greater than 90%; the sulphate follows. The rest of the anions do

not influence the water nature. Therefore, the Umm-Er-Radhuma (UER)

Aquifer is of a sodium chloride nature as appears in Figure 5.14. The results

correlate well with the GDC (1980) results concluding that the water quality has

not changed. The GDC (1980) reported the TDS result from AI-Mumattalah

was on the average of 11 730 ppm which is similar to this study's TDS result

of 10 308 ppm from Ras Abu Jarjur well 15.

111

UMM-ER-RADHUMA AQUIFER

KEY:

• - (GDC. 19801 RESULTS

• - THIS STUDY" RESULTS


... , • c:.,

•

"b, '. 1" •• \' -. CO, -

•

FIGURE 5.14: The Analysed Results for Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer on Piper's Central Diamond

112


The correlation coefficients have a different trend than all the other aquifers as

shown in Table 5.9. Chloride and sodium form a strong positive linear

relationship with conductivity. The iron's coefficient of correlation is almost equal

to the sodium, confirming the presence of sedimentary sulphides in the form of

pyrite within the geologic formation. The anaerobic bacteria utilise the sulphur

of the pyrite (FeS2 ) forming hydrogen sulphide. Correlation analysis has been

reapplied on the chemical constituents themselves shown in.Table 5.10. The

results confirm the above as the chloride has a strong significance level of less

than 0.05 with all the cations concluding the nature of water. Figure 5.15

illustrates the regression analysis between the electrical conductivity and the

chloride as well as the sodium based on linear analysis.

TABLE 5.9: Results of the Correlation CoeffiCients between Electrical Conductivity and the Chemical Constituents for Umm-ErRadhuma Aquifer

-

Chemical Constituents Electrical Conductivity Significance Level (mg/l) (I!mhos/cm) (Unitless)

Carbonate- No correlation No correlation Bicarbonate 0.2467 0.0264 Chloride 0.8279 0.0000 Sulphate 0.3046 0.0057 Nitrate -0.0178 0.8743 Fluoride 0.2059 0.0652 Sodium 0.5781 0.0000 Potassium 0.2571 0.0205 Calcium 0.2557 0.0212 Magnesium 0.2659 0.0164 Iron 0.4933 0.0000

All the carbonate values are zero disabling the performance of any correlation analysis.

113

FIGURE 5.15:


I XIoOOI

-E 2.

~ 8 .c 24 e ~ ~

?:u "S "£ ::I ~ 20 C

<3 8 I1

1: ¥

III W ->-.LL.

~400 11900 .400 .'00 1'400 7900 1400

Chlo ride (mg/t)

IXIOOOI

--S 2 • ...... III 0 .c 24 E :s.... ~

~22 -"-~ ": "£ "" "" ::I 20 ~ c <3 - I1 S "i

I. iLi

IZOO 2700 3200 STOO 4200 4TOO ~200

Sodium (mg/,[)

Regression Plots of Electrical Conductivity on the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer's Chemical Constituents

114

..... ..... U1

TABLE 5.10: The Correlation Coefficients amongst the Umrn-Er-Radhuma's Chemical Constituents

IIicaJtonaI8 Chloride SuIphaI8 Nilrata Ruoride Socium Potassium caJcium Magnesium

IIicarbonal8 1.00Cl0a .2389 -.0128 .1513 .3213 .1042 .2848 -.1550 -.0532 (81)b (81) (81) (81) (81) (81 ) (81 ) (81) (81 )

.0000c .0317 .9096 .lnS .0034 .3547 .0100 .1670 .63R

Chloride .2389 1.0000 .2448 .1346 .1650 .5806 .2376 .3629 .2547 (81) (81) (81) (81 ) (81) (81 ) (81 ) (81) (81 )

.0317 .0000 .0276 .2309 .1410 .0000 .0327 .0009 .0218

Sulphal8 -.0128 .2448 1.0000 .0223 .0542 .0320 .0440 .0826 .0967 (81 ) (81) (81 ) (81) (81 ) (81) (81) (81) (81 )

.9096 .0276 .0000 .8430 .6311 .7767 .0000 .4636 .3904

Nilrata .1513 .1346 .0223 1.0000 .0716 -.0738 -.0015 .2044 -.0719 (81) (81) (81 ) (81) (81 ) (81) (81) (81) (81 )

.ln5 .2309 .8430 .0000 .5253 .5128 .9892 .0672 .5236

Ruoride .3213 .1650 .0542 .0716 1.0000 .1908 .0370 -.2863 .1388 (81 ) (81 ) (81 ) (81) (81 ) (81) (81 ) (81) (81)

.0034 .1410 .6311 .5253 .0000 .0879 .7431 .0096 .2131

Sodium .1042 .5806 .0320 -.0738 .1908 1.0000 -.0489 .1243 -.0398 (81) (81 ) (81) (81) (81 ) (81) (81) (81) (81 )

.3547 .0000 .7767 .5128 .0879 .0000 .6646 .2689 .7243

Po1aSSium .2848 .2376 .4440 -.0015 .0370 -.0489 1.0000 -.0766 .0578 (81) (81) (81 ) (81) (81) (81 ) (81) (81) (81 )

.0100 .0327 .0000 .9892 .7431 .6646 .0000 .4965 .6063

calcium -.1550 .3629 .0826 .2044 -.2863 .1243 -.0766 1.0000 -.1649

(81) (81) (81 ) (81) (81) (81 ) (81 ) (81) (81) .1670 .0009 .4636 .0672 .0096 .2689 .4965 .0000 .1412

Magnesium -.0532 .2547 .0967 -.0719 .1398 -.0398 .0578 -.1649 1.0000 (81) (81) (81) (81 ) (81) (81 ) (81 ) (81) (81 )

.6374 .0218 .3904 .5236 .2131 .7243 .6063 .1412 .0000

Iron .0920 .4153 .1990 .0872 .0874 .2987 .2414 .0873 .1463 (81) (81 ) (81 ) (81 ) (81) (18) (81 ) (81) (81 )

.4141 .0001 .0749 .4381 .4379 .0068 .0068 .4384 .1924

a = Correlation Coefficient; b = Sample Size for Correlation Analysis; c = Significance Level

Iron

.0920 (81 )

.4141

.4153 (81 )

.0001

.1980 (81 )

.0749

.0872 (81 )

.4381

.0874 (81 )

.4379

.2987 (81 )

.0068

.2414 (81 )

.0299

.0873 (81 )

.4394

.1463 (81)

.1924

1.0000 (81 )

.0000


b) Bacteriology

All the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer samples were safe bacteriologically.

c) The BOD5 Test

The samples had positive organic matter.

c) Nitrite

Like the Rus Lens/Aquifer, the Umm-Er-Radhuma groundwater was tested once

to check the availability of the nitrite. The nitrite value did not exceed 0.009

mgll.

d) Hydrogen Sulphide

Hydrogen sulphide was highly present, due to the presence of the sulphur

reducing bacteria. Unlike the Rus Lens/Aquifer, the sulphide correlated with the

BOOs results as shown in Table 5.11.


Like the Rus's groundwater, Umm-Er-Radhuma groundwater is not suitable for

irrigation unless it is treated. The aquifer's SAR value is extremely high

reaching 27.8 on average.

TABLE 5.11: Correlation Matrix Results between Hydrogen Sulphide and the BOOs for Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer

H2O. BOOs

1.0000a .8755 H2S (80)b (80)

.0000c .0000

.8755 1.0000 BOD5 (80) (80)

.0000 .0000

a = Correlation Coefficient; b = Sample Size for Correlation Analysis; c = Significant Level

116


5.4.5 Conclusion

Sodium chloride is the water nature of all water bearing formations as shown

in Figure 5.16. The TOS values of the land springs reach up to 5 000 mg/1

except Lawzi Lake which reaches above 60 000 mg/1. The quality of the lake's

water is due in part to seawater intrusion but mostly due to being a drainage

relief. Nabih Salih Island springs maintain a TOS value of 3 500 mg/1. They ,

increase to above 4 500 mg/I when the spring flow reduces.

The quality of the underlying formation, the Oammam Group of Formations, is

more stable. Most of this water can be I,Ised without treatment. The TOS values

range from 773 mg/I to 3 500 mg/l. Some of the other values reach as high as

7 000 mg/I especially on the eastern side due to the seawater intrusion. This

water does not contain the toxic hydrogen sulphide gas like the underlying

formation. The quality of Aquifers '0' and 'E' is the worst. This water must be

treated thoroughly whether for human consumption or for irrigation. Table 5.12

displays a summary of all the analyses of each formation whereas Table 5.13

presents the recommended national and international guideline values.

The extracted water from all the aquifers reported nearly all negative values in

bacteriological tests indicating its safety to health. The water from the Rus and

Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifers is an exception due to its nature.

Figure 5.17 illustrates other values which do not belong to any of the aquifers

such as Bahrain's recommended drinking values. The sampled treated

" wastewater and tap water are also plotted. Both of these are utilised in

irrigation. Their TOS values are 4 130 mg/1 and 1 710 mg/1 respectively. Their

SAR values are 9.9 and 4.6 respectively. Both Bahrain's seawater and

Copenhagen's approved worldwide seawater, which is the Standard Mean

Ocean Water, are plotted. Being a semi-locked seawater in an arid

environment Bahrain's seawater is more saline than other seawaters.

117


SUMMARY

IICKY:

• - ........... II.W.ft ..

• - .. CO".HA •• N'I WORLOWIOI ........ O .... D _.ATa"t •• ow,

----- 1.'0.0 WAT •• 10DII.

•• '" (j

DA ........... M P'O.UIATlOJlla t ALAT .110 ICHOMlt Aoun ... ,

TH' RV. LI."AOU.,. ... -,- UNM .. 11t· .... O"u .... AQUIP-D.

/ ,

~ (Jl \ , ) I f

I ! I .,

I ) , ,

8-11:/< w-

(

FIGURE 5.16: Summary of the Water Nature of all of Bahrain's Aquifers

118

TABLE 5.12: The Minimum and Maximum Results for all Analyses from all the Water Bearing Formations

Test lor Determinant Exposed Water Bodies

Electrical ConductivHy" 5480-102398 Total Dissolved Solids· 3565-65450

C pH" 7.2-8.8 H Carbonate' 0-40 E Bicarbonate' 124-270 M Chloride' 1445-29000 I Sulphate' 216-2450 S NHrate' 0.60-12.30 T. Fluoride' 0.95-6.25 R Sodium' 731-17300 Y Potassium' 42-850

Calcium' 328-2280 Magnesium' 68-2021 Iron' 0.02-0.30

BACTERI- Total' <1-280 OlOGY Faecal' <1-280

0 T BOO,' 1-110 H Hydrogen Sulphide' 0-0.35 E NHrHe' 0-2.10 R SAR' 9-65 S

Note: The above notes are shown in Table 5.13. , 11 this value is exceeded, it is protection 01 the odd boreholes.

not due

Damrnam Group 01 The Rus lenslAquHer Umm-Er-Radhuma Formations AquHer

1546-19540 17090-19080 16470-24180 773-970 8040-12850 8285-16700 6.7-8.1 6.5-7.1 6.4-7.7

Not present Not present Not present 90-1992 152-3500 112- 250

390-6400 5650-6575 5400-8250 80-875 250-1100 325- 750

0.50-8.80 0.03-3.50 0.05-6.16 0.40-2.00 1-1.45 1.00-1.65 172-3125 2800-4500 2243- 4799

14-200 98-200 121- 300 80-1000 . ·82-900 480- 1080 24-413 146-353 121- 487

0.02-0.50 0.06-0.60 0.02-1.000

<I' <1 <1 <I' <1 <1

0-2.60 1.20-6.9 1.00-16.20 0-1.20 1.90-5.30 3.40-21.80 0-0.22 Trace Trace 4-29 22-48 18-39

to the groundwater but it is due to the improper


TABLE 5.13: A Comparison between (WHO, 1993) Drinking Water Standards as well as (FAO, 1985) Irrigation Water Standards with Respect to Bahrain's Standards

(WHO, (PHD, (FAO, Test for Determinant 1984) Undated)· 1985)b

ODW ODW Irrigation

Electrical ConductivitY< NGV NGV NIR Total Dissolved Solidsd 1000 1500 2000

C pH" 6.5 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.4 H Carbonate' NGV NGV 3.09

E Bicarbonate' NGV NGV 610.~ M Chloride' 250 600 1063.5g

I Sulphate' : 250 400 960.69

S Nitrate' 10 45 10.0 T Fluoride' 1.5 1.5 1.0 R Sodium' 200 -h 919.69

Y Potassium' NGV NGV 2.0 Calcium' 100 200 400.89

Magnesium' 30 150 60.8g

Iron' 0.3 1.0 5.0

BACTERI- Total' Nil Nil 500 OLOGY Faecal' Nil Nil NIR

0 T BODs' NGV Nil NIR H Hydrogen Sulphide' j Nil 2.0 E Nitrite' <1 <1 10k R SAR' NIA NIA 15 S

Notes

a These values are the upper guidelines for Ordinary Drinking Water, set by Public Health Directorate. These values are not published. Agriculture Directorate has not set any guidelines for irrigation water.

b These values are the upper guidelines.

c Measurement unit is in ~mhoslcm.

d Measurement unit is in parts per million (ppm).

e Measurement unit is pH units.

120


f Measurement unit is in mg/l.

g These values have been converted from milliequivalents per litre.

h A Public Health Official has quoted that the maximum sodium concentration in ordinary drinking water is 500 mg/I.

Measurement unit is in coliform colonies per 100 ml of sample.

The guideline value is set to the taste of the consumer.

k This value is quoted for livestock drinking water.

Sodium Absorption Ratio is unitless.

NGV = No guideline value is determined NIR = Not reported NIA = Not applicable

121


MISCELLANEOUS RESULTS

KEY,

a - IlAHItb(S SEAwATfR

~

w - COPCOtAGOtS WOItLDWIDI APfI'ADIIim sr"."TU.

.... • '!-.

\ ''''-'-'---\ '_w_' __ • '.

\

'£" " '1\ • . ,

't o· ., '0 . •

·0

FIGURE 5.17: Graphical Results for Miscellaneous Samples on Piper's Central Diamond

122

CHAPTER SIX

DATA AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 6.1 DATA

The levels for Sanad Aquifer are obtained from Watson·Khonji (1992) who

drilled fifty·six standpipes across the northern coast surrounding Buddayya

Road for various studies stretching from 1986 to 1990. They had drilled other

standpipes on the other coasts, but the water table levels had not been

recorded consistently. Therefore, these levels are discarded. The standpipes

have been drilled to the water table levels which have been measured in

metres above Bahrain National Level Datum (BNLD). This reference level is

the same as the Mean Sea Level (MS'L) which is zero level at Mina Sal man.

The recordings have been performed manually on a weekly basis. The

piezometric levels presented, in this research, are on a monthly basis

calculated by taking the monthly average of the weekly data. The levels for the

rest of the aquifers are obtained from the Water Resources Directorate, WRD

(1992b) who drilled a total of sixty-nine regularly monitored boreholes. Alat

Aquifer has eighteen boreholes, Khobar Aquifer has twenty-eight bore holes,

Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer has twenty-one bore holes, and the Rus Lens/Aquifer

along with Aruma Aquifer, have one borehole each. The measurements are

automatically read in metres above (BNLD) and are recorded on a monthly

basis stretching from 1980 to 1991. Figure 6.1 illustrates the location of the

observation wells and the standpipes. The water table levels are presented in

Appendix B on one of the microfiche jackets.

Neither Watson-Khonji nor WRD's water levels are measured consistently on

time taking into account the variations of the sea tides. Therefore, a water level

datum of any borehole can be measured on (x) day at (y) hour and re

measured the following week or month at (lC±2) day at (y±2) hours. During this

period, the tides can be inconsistent causing changes in the readings. The

available and analysed data will still be reliable even if the tides appear

because the tidal variations in (MSL) do not exceed ±O.1 0 metres (SD, 1992).

123

';STOOGE 38 39 "0 4' 42 43 44 45 "6 "'7 48 419 ~ 51 52 53 54 55 56 51 58 59 60 61 6Z 63 64 65 66 6T '"66oao

l "09°0°11 1't()9OOON

0'

01

06

0,

0<

0,

02

0'

"OOOOON.·

•• •• .,

Buddayya Road

... " ,UA ,&H201

l"'A/"tClA tIO. t 9A, t8Al!lAt68

.13,,1128.118 t9B t88 .idse

.L·I!Ilj" ....... O".H ~ .. ~

"DOl" ...

ne·m 'BHnl

1110_ .1421

"125' 8HZ41

.1142

'~.

MUHARAAQ IS.

'0.

01

06

'" Cl """ )')3]--, CBACHfUEDI'04

Mina Salmon

0' :02

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t'tOOOOON

99

9tit~ lOoe.6. tBH38.1 1200.

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., 9;' .,

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BAHRAIN IS.

... '003 .. 006 ....

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1126 IIBS_ .... rt-IlB,e y O"A .. I'.U'

IIBO. IBAC~~~~i~)

tSH291

• • JO 1001

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tSH33.1

~ . 1051. ",1201

• • ,O~"

1366IRECHAAGING WELL t«JT

["'10

0- CtiECKED) •

•

9 32 33 34 35 _36 31 38

'. " "'''0' I 9.'.IlAaI ... ..-.ro ....... ,111

.' 12&3 ~ 9,

1I

AL-BAYNAH AS,SAGHIRAH IS.

,951

'N u ............ ·s .... I.

,9 32 33 34 35 36 37

UGENO:

• o

• - B~IKllE N ALAT AQUifER

• - OORElo..E N t<ltOBAR AQUIFER

.A.R - OOREHJLE f.I ntE RU5 AQUIfER

... - ~'u..£ N LM.t ER·RAOH.MA AOUFEA

A - fIOAEt-O...E IN ARUMA AQUifER

- BOR[tlCL[ eR STANDPIPE IN N[OGENE AQUIfER I SAtIAD BA51t1

5 km

5

• BH 34.1

'~9' 1010'" Ion.

13, ••

101:U .

AU27

.1143

.&'014

ell03

.&.(* ... 1116 1118

.AoIU4 .~-1 1115 0

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.6.1016

• 11""

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T1l21-LII2Z_

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'14

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'J2

',"

1190000N

09

OB

" 01.

015

U4

'" "' '" 18 60000

'9

I.

" 16

15

" " " " le 7QOOOU

1;9

1;8

"' ';6

65

(;.1

6, 62

G,

"60000 ,..

!,g

5, ~)7

'6

~'5

" " "

I1

5QOODt

J " l"50(lO'lt, ·370

ooE 39 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 41 48 49 50 51 52 53 '54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 6'1 65 66 67 'fjFloooE

"5100011

FIGURE 6.1: Location of the Observation Boreholes and the Monitoring Standpipes

124

Chapter 6: Data and Statistical Analysis

A separate file is created in Statgraphics (STSC, 1991) for each borehole as

well as for each of the other independent variables being the time,

evapotranspiration, and rainfall. The following sub-sections have not been

analysed per group of formations as discussed in Chapter 2; they are analysed

per aquifer to present a clear understanding of the water table position in each.

Appendix C presents the hydrograph of each borehole/standpipe for each water

bearing formation separately.

6.2

6.2.1

6.2.1.1

a)

STATISTICAL ANALYSES

Simple Regression

Water Table Levels and Time

Sanad Aquifer

Positive statistical slopes appear for the water tables near the shore. The

slopes decrease gently and become negative away from the shore.

Linear statistical significance is evidenced on 68% of the slopes of the Aquifer's

standpipes whether they have negative or positive slopes. The developed

statistical relationship is strong as its significance level is less than 0.05.

Practical significance is not achieved implying that a good fit for a line with a

pronounceable gradient being much greater than zero cannot be produced. A

summary of the above results is shown in Table 6.1.

The water table levels in the standpipes are correlating in an obscure linear

relationship. This is due to the status of each standpipe. A strong linear

relationship occurs between standpipes having the same gradient within one

area shown in Table 6.2.

b) Alat Aquifer

Negative statistical slopes appear for all the water table levels except two

boreholes namely (1185) and (1216). The latter borehole is disregarded

because its readings are not measured consistently; refer to its hydrograph in

Appendix C.

125

TABLE 6.1: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Sanad Aquifer Standpipes and Time

Stand- Slope t-value p-value Correlation Coefficient of Remarks on Water pipe Coefficient Determination Table Readings

018 0.002461 3.41899 0.00126 0.435304 0.1895 Sufficient 01C -0.011365 -4.97850 0.00071 -0.576920 0.3314 Sufficient 01F -0.011500 -4.00423 0.00021 -0.492760 0.2428 Sufficient 01G -0.122679 -5.63353 0.00134 -0.917062 0.8410 Insufficient 01H 0.003898 4.71382 0.00002 0.554682 0.3077 Sufficient lA2 0.007246 8.19000 0.00000 0.831242 0.6910 Sufficient 102 0.009693 4.06633 0.00033 0.602601 0.3631 Sufficient lE2 0.006303 11.55520 0.00000 0.852987 0.7278 Sufficient 02F -0.004570 -0.80018 0.43034 -0.149520 0.0224 Sufficient 02G 0.005790 7.58500 0.00000 0.731453 0.5350 Sufficient 2A2 0.004761 5.51472 0.00000 0.614982 0.3792 Sufficient 2C2 -0.006253 -4.49431 0.00004 -0.538412 0.2877 Sufficient 202 0.009725 8.37365 0.00000 0.841082 0.7074 Sufficient 2E2 0.002765 3.08962 0.00343 0.418336 0.1750 Sufficient 03A -0.008500 -1.18491 0.27472 -0.408736 0.1671 Insufficient 03G -0.011402 -5.57167 0.00000 -0.618908 0.3830 Sufficient 03H 0.002835 4.86523 0.00001 0.566835 0.3213 Sufficient 382 0.002499 2.18986 0.03414 0.320121 0.1025 Sufficient 3C2 -0.002378 -2.79001 0.00759 -0.373946 0.1421 Sufficient 302 -0.000513 -0.65706 0.51422 -0.093454 0.0087 Sufficient 3E2 0.004748 4.62784 0.00016 0.719100 0.5171 Insufficient 3F2 -0.000007 -0.00541 0.99571 -0.000765 0.0000 Sufficient 04A 0.001051 0.76610 0.45214 0.164888 0.0272 Insufficient 048 -0.004641 -4.91880 0.00002 -0.844789 0.4158 Sufficient O4C -0.004846 -5.23070 0.00000 -0.594704 0.3537 Sufficient O4E -0.006920 -3.79862 0.00040 -0.473242 0.2240 Sufficient O4F -0.014113 ~.34357 0.00000 -0.667778 0.4459 Sufficient 402 0.001915 2.89617 0.00559 0.379021 0.1437 Sufficient OSA -0.004739 -5.44374 0.00000 -0.610024 0.3721 Sufficient 05E -0.000492 -0.93653 0.35350 -0.141298 0.0172 Sufficien1 05F -0.005130 -2.20382 0.03217 -0.297551 0.8850 Sufficient 582 -0.005036 -4.45814 0.00005 -0.533326 0.2844 Sufficient 5C2 0.000535 0.08007 0.93877 0.015408 0.0002 SuffICient 502 -0.001620 -2.60449 0.01268 -0.345630 0.1195 Sufficienl 06A 0.004650 3.06614 0.00349 0.397827 0.1583 . Sufficien1

068 -0.006638 -2.91814 0.00526 . -0.381479 0.1455 Sufficien1 06C 0.002123 1.06978 0.28986 0.149587 0.0224 Sufficien1 060 -0.031975 -2.62099 0.01928 -0.560461 0.3141 Insufficient 07A -0.009906 -2.83596 0.00611 -0.460659 0.2122 Sufficien1 078 0.000952 0.13087 0.89733 0.030833 0.0010 Sufficien1 07C -0.016857 -3.27931 0.00251 -0.501528 0.2515 Sufficient 08A -0.015521 -4.44772 0.00010 -0.618083 0.3820 Sufficient 088 -0.015308 -3.17057 0.00334 -0.468924 0.2390 Sufficien1 08A 0.000808 0.21124 0.83404 0.037316 0.0014 Sufficient 098 -0.019793 -4.34899 0.00013 -0.609496 0.3715 Sufficien1 09C -0.019692 -4.20631 0.00020 -0.596697 0.3560 Sufficient lOA -0.006680 -0.95348 0.35453 -0.231874 0.0538 Insufficien1 llA 0.000295 0.30049 0.76575 0.053045 0.0028 Sufficient 118 -0.007389 -1.72032 0.10465 -0.395089 0.1581 Insufficien1 12A 0.000685 0.67567 0.50410 0.118600 0.0141 Sufficient 128 0.000234 0.77201 0.44577 0.135220 ·0.0183 Sufficien1 12C -0.012240 -4.91273 0.00003 -0.655701 0.4299 Sufficienl 13A -0.032500 -2.02043 0.18075 -0.819248 0.6712 Insufficient 138 0.001331 1.35398 0.18523 0.232777 0.0542 Sufficient 13C -0.000270 -0.14877 0.88267 -0.026280 0.0007 Sufficien1 14A -0.014939 -1.80825 0.10818 -0.538643 0.2801 I nsuflicient

126

TABLE 6.2(a): Correlation Matrix for Some of Sanad Aquifer's Standpipes near the Coast

LEVEL 01H LEVEL 02G LEVEL 03H LEVEL 402 LEVEL 06A LEVEL 09A LEVEL 12A LEVEL 13B

1.0000a .8706 .7496 .6163 .5229 .4373 .5486 .4702 LEVEL 01H (52)b (52) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32) (32)

.0000c .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001 .0123 .0011 .0066

.8706 1.0000 .9029 .7946 .5578 .7133 .6683 .7443 LEVEL02G (52) (52) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32) (32)

.0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000

.7496 .9029 1.0000 .8728 .5424 .8168 .6631 .6348 LEVEL 03H (52) (52) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32) (32)

.0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001

.6163 .7946 .8728 1.0000 .5458 .6619 .3542 .3827 LEVEL 402 (52) (52) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32) (32) -N .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .. 0000 .0467 .0307

...... .5229 .5578 .5424 .5428 1.0000 .7094 .2813 .5547

LEVEL 06A (52) (52) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32) (32) .0001 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .1188 .0010

.4373 .7133 .8168 .6619 .7094 1.0000 .5120 .6783 LEVEL 09A (32) (32) (32) (32) (32) (34) (34) (34)

.0123 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0020 .0000

.5486 .6683 .6631 .3542 .2813 .5120 1.0000 .6542 LEVEL12A (32) (32) (32) (32) (32) (34) (34) (34)

.0011 .0000 .0000 .0467 .1188 .0020 .0000 .0000

.4702 .7443 .6348 .3827 .5547 .6783 .6542 1.0000 LEVEL13B (32) (32) (32) (32) (32) (34) (34) (34)

.0066 .0000 .0001 .0307 .0010 .0000 .0000 .0000


TABLE 6.2(b): Correlation Matrix for Some of Sanad Aquifer's Standpipes away from the Coast

LEVEL 02F LEVEL 03G LEVEL 04E LEVEL 05F LEVEL 09C LEVEL 13C

1.0000a .5879 .8986 .7692 .8423 .8565 LEVEL 02F (30)b (30) (30) (30) (10) (10)

.000Oc .0006 .0000 .0000 .0022 .0016

.5879 1.0000 .7484 ,

.6896 .7096 .3812 LEVEL03G (30) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32)

.0006 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0313

.8986 .7484 1.0000 .7680 .8798 .5757 LEVEL 04E (30) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32)

.0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006 - () N co .7692 .6896 .7680 1.0000

, .7639 .5740

LEVEL 05F (30) (52) (52) (52) (32) (32) .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006 f

01 .. .8423 .7096 . 8798 .7639 1.0000 .7045

LEVEL 09C (10) (32) (32) (32) (34) (34) .0022 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000

.8565 .3812 .5757 .5740 .7045 1.0000 LEVEL13C (10) (32) (32) (32) (34) (34)

.0016 .0313 .0000 .0006 .0000 .0000



Linear statistical significance is evidenced on all the boreholes except (1253).

The developed relationship is extremely strong as it falls much less than 0.05.

The practical significance is not achieved. The results are shown in Table 6.3.

TABLE 6.3: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Alat Aquifer Boreholes and Time

Bore- Slope t-value p-value Coefficient of Remarks on Water hole Determination Table Readings

1102 -0.005661 ·9.87476 0.00000 0.4088 Sufficient 1132 -0.005612 ·6.67486 0.00000 0.3040 Sufficient 1134 ·0.005823 -4.95316 0.00000· 0.1939 Sufficient 1136 ·0.003920 -4.92207 0.00000 0.1919 Sufficient 1142 ·0.007522 -6.28908 0.00000 0.2855 Sufficient 1170 ·0.008119 -6.62322 0.00000 0.3070 SuffiCient 1176 ·0.003889 -5.23515 0.00000 0.2257 Sufficient 1103 ·0.003463 -6.44056 0.00000 0.3179 Sufficient 1185 0.005342 10.57800 0.00000 0.5515 Sufficient 1191 -0.008178 -5.24388 0.00000 0.3039 Sufficient 1197 -0.006206 -7.83152 0.00000 0.3948 Sufficient 1200 -0.012109 ·5.84479 0.00000 0.3667 Sufficient 1204 -0.010332 -7.98579 0.00000 0.4042 Sufficient 1216 0.004048 3.16376 0.00488 0.3335 Insufficient 1219 -0.000937 ·5.13885 0.00000 0.3502 Sufficient 1247 -0.004963 -5.02038 0.00000 0.2114 Sufficient 1253 -0.001846 ·1.62947 0.10621 0.0247 Sufficient 1263 -0.015953 ·7.34287 0.00000 0.4733 Sufficient

Very strong positive correlation exists between the bore holes. This is expected

since they are falling and forming a linear statistical relationship with time.

Borehole (1253) does not correlate very strongly especially with boreholes

(1102). (1132). (1170). (1183) and (1204). Their coefficient of correlation

amongst them ranges between 0.8698 and 0.8971. yet it is strong. This is due

to the fact that these boreholes are extremely close to the shore where their

ground elevation is less than 2 metres above MSL.

129

TABLE 6.4: Correlation Matrix among the Boreholes of the Alat Aquifer

LEVELl102

LEVELll32

LEVELllJ.l

LEVELll36

LEVELll42

LEVELll70

LEVELll76

LEVELll83

LEVELll85

LEVELll91

LEVELll97

LEVELl200

LEVEL 1204

LEVELl216

LEVELl219

LEVELl247

LEVELl2.53

LEVELl263

LEVELll02 I.DOOOa

(143 )b .0000,

.9760 (104) .0000

.9783 (104) .0000

.9428 (104) .0000

.9813 (101) .0000

.9759 (101 ) .0000

.9402 (96)

.0000

.9170 (91)

,0000

·.1903 (93)

.0677

.9723 (65)

.0000

.9742 '(96)

.0000

.9853 (61 )

.0000

.9807 (96)

.0000

·.2167 (22)

.3328

.9020 (51 )

.0000

.9449 (96)

.0000

.8722 (107) .0000

.9649 (62)

.0000

LEVELll32 , .9760

(104) .0000

1.0000 (104) .0000

.9779 (104) .0000

.9686 (104) .0000

.9886 (101 ) .0000

.9843 (101 ) .0000

.9547 (96)

,0000

.9350 (91 )

.0000

-.2768 (93)

.0072

.9697 (65)

.0000

.9886 (96)

.0000

.9866 (61 )

.0000

.9891 (96)

.0000

-.2322 (22)

.2984

.9505 (51 )

.0000

.9505 (96)

.0000

.8698 (98)

.0000

.9817 (62)

.0000

LEVEL1l34 .97R3 (104) .0000

,9779 (104) .0000

1.0000 (104) .0000

.9750 (104) .0000

.9942 (101 ) .0000

.9849 (la!) .0000

.9698 (96)

.0000

.9410 (91 )

.0000

-.1629 (93)

,1187

.9770 (65)

.0000

.9878 (96)

.0000

.9895 (61)

,0000

.9877 (96)

.0000

-.2712 (22)

.2221

.9361 (51 )

.0000

.9749 (96)

.0000

.9231 (98)

.0000

.9735 (62)

.0000

LEVEL I 136 .9428 (104) .0000.

.9686 (104) .0000

.9750 (104) .0000

1.0000 (104) .0000

.9772 (101) .0000

.9675 (101 ) .0000

,9763 (96)

.0000

.9507 (91)

.0000

·.1956 (93)

,0602

.9615 (65)

,0000

.9&74 (96)

.0000

.9801 (61 )

.0000

.9761 (96)

.0000

-.2474 (22)

.2670

.9711 (51 )

.0000

,9731 (96)

.0000

.9210 (98)

.0000

.9837 (62)

.0000

LEVEL I 142 .9813 (101 ) .0000

.9886 (101 ) .0000

.9942 (la!) .0000

.9772 (la!) .0000

1.0000 (101 ) .0000

.9891 (101 ) .0000

.9651 (96)

.0000

.9381 (91 )

,0000

-.2098 (93)

.0435

.9782 (65)

.0000

.9919 (96)

.0000

,9918 (61 )

.0000

.9909 (96)

.0000

·.2508 (22)

.2603

.9388 (51)

.0000

.9676 (96)

.0000

.9041 (95)

.0000

.9756 (62)

.0000

LEVEL1l70 .9759 (ID!) .0000

.9843 (101) .0000

.9849 (101 ) .0000

.9675 (101) .0000

.9891 (101 ) .0000

1.0000 (101) .0000

.9524 (96)

.0000

.9345 (91 )

.0000

-.2343 (93)

,0238

.9709 (65)

.0000

,9865 (96)

.0000

.9876 (61 )

.0000

.9930 (96)

.0000

-.2646 (l2)

.2340

.9411 (51)

.0000

.9558 (96)

.0000

.8889 (95)

.0000

.9687 (62)

.0000

, CORRELATIONCOEFlCIENT: b = CORRELATED SAMPLE: ,= SIGNIFlCANCELEVEL

LEVEL1I76 .9402

(96) .0000

.9547 (96)

.0000

.9698 (96)

.0000

,9763 (96)

.0000

.9651 (96)

.0000

.9524 (96)

.0000

1.0000 (96)

.0000

.9639 (91 )

.0000

·.0675 (93)

.520-1

.9588 (65)

.0000

.9700 (96)

.0000

.9772 (61)

,0000

.9543 (96)

.0000

-.2207 (22)

.3237

.9622 (51)

.0000

.9880 (96)

.0000

.9459 (90)

.0000

.9747 (62)

.0000

LEVEL I 183 .9170

(91 ) .0000

.9350 (91 )

.0000

.9410 (91 )

.0000

.9507 (91)

.0000

.9381 (91

.000

.9345 (11)

.0000

.9639 (91)

.0000

1.0000 (91 )

,0000

.. 0916 (91 )

.3878

.9133 (65)

.0000

.9524 (91 )

.0000

.9323 (61 )

.0000

.9350 (91 )

.0000

-.2517 (22)

.2585

.96016 (51 )

.0000

.9586 (91)

.0000

.8841 (85)

.0000

.9452 (62)

.0000

LEVELl185 -.1903

(93) .0677

-.2768 (93 )

.0072

-.1629 (93)

.1187

-.1956 (93 )

.0602

·.2098 (93 )

.0435

-.2343 (93)

.0238

·.0675 (93)

.5204

-.0916 (91)

.3878

1.0000 (93)

.0000

.2555 (65)

.0399

-. .2213 (93)

.0331

.3329 (6!)

.0088

·.2466 (93)

.0172

,.745 (22)

.0256

.7291 (51 )

.0000

-.0668 (93)

.5244

.0938 (87)

.3877

.2487 (62)

.0513

LEVEL1191 .9723

(65) .0000

.9697 (65)

.0000

.9770 (65)

.0000

.9615 (65)

.0000

.9782 (65)

.0000

.9709 (65)

.0000

.9588 (65)

.0000

.9133 (65)

.0000

.2555 (65)

.0399

1.0000 (65)

.0000

.9701 (65)

.0000

.9838 (61 )

.0000

.9759 (65)

.0000

-.1944 (22)

.3860

.9222 (51 )

.0000

.9779 (65)

.0000

.9767 (65) .

.0000

.9616 (62)

.0000

LEVEL1197 .9742

(96) .0000

.9886 (96)

.0000

.9878 (96)

.0000

.9874 (96)

.0000

.9919 (96)

.0000

.9865 (96)

.0000

.9700 (96)

.0000

.9524 (91 )

.0000

-.2213 (93)

.0331

.9701 (65)

.0000

1.0000 (96)

.0000

.9855 (61 )

.0000

.9878 (96)

.0000

-.2589 (22)

.2446

_9557 (51)

.0000

.9654 (96)

.0000

.9004 (90)

.0000

.9790 (62)

.0000

LEVEL1200 .9853

(61 ) .0000

.9866 (61 )

.0000

.9895 (61)

.0000

.9801 (61)

.0000

.9918 (61 )

.0000

.9876 (61 )

.0000

.9772 (61)

.0000

.9323 (61)

.0000

.3329 (61 )

.0088

.9838 (61)

.0000

.9855 (61)

,0000

1.0000 (61)

.0000

.9924 (61)

.0000

-.2235 (21 )

.3302

.9396 (51 )

.0000

.9895 (61 )

.0000

.9944 (61 )

.0000

.9773 (61 )

.0000

LEVEL1204 .9807

(96) .0000

.9891 (96)

.0000

.9877 (96)

.0000

.9761 (96)

.0000

.9909 (96)

.0000

.9930 (96)

.0000

,9543 (96)

.0000

.9350 (91 )

.0000

-.2466 (93)

.0172

.9759 (65)

.0000

.9878 (96)

.0000

.992.l (61)

.0000

1.0000 (96)

.0000

-.2674 (22)

.2289

.9399 (51 )

.0000

.9548 (96)

.0000

.8971 (90)

.0000

.9782 (62)

.0000

LEVEL1216 ·.2167

(22) .3328

·.2322 (22)

.298.l

-.2712 (22)

.2221

-.2474 (22)

.2670

-.2508 (22)

.2603

-.2646 (22)

.2340

-.2207 (22)

.3237

-.2517 (22)

.2585

.4745 (22)

.0256

-.194.l (22)

.3860

-.2589 (22)

.2446

-.2235 (21 )

.3302

-.2674 (22)

.2289

1.0000 (22)

.0000

-.3426 (11 )

.3024

-.1977 (22)

.3779

-.2381 (22)

.2860

-.2025 (21)

.3787

LEVEL1219 .9020

(51 ) .0000

.9505 (51 )

.0000

.9361 (51 )

.0000

.9711 (51 )

.0000

.9388 (51 )

.0000

.9411 (51 )

.0000

.9622 (51 )

.0000

.9646 (51 )

.0000

.7291 (51)

.0000

.9222 (51 )

.0000

.9557 (51 )

.0000

.9396 (51 )

.0000

.9399 (51 )

.0000

-.3426 (11 )

.3024

1.0000 (51 )

.0000

.9477 (51)

.0000

.9462 (51 )

.0000

.9547 (51 )

.0000

LEVEL1247 .9449

(96) .0000

.9505 (96)

.0000

.9749 (96)

.0000

.9731 (96)

.0000

.9676 (96)

.0000

.9558 (96)

.0000

.9880 (96)

.0000

.9486 (91 )

.0000

·.0668 (93)

_5244

,9779 (65)

.0000

.9654 (96)

.0000

.9895 (61)

.0000

.9548 (96)

.0000

·.1977 (22)

.3779

.9477 (51 )

.0000

1.0000 (96)

.0000

.9607 (90)

.0000

.9796 (62)

.0000

LEVELI2.53 .8722 (107) .0000

.8698 (98)

.0000

.9231 (98)

.0000

.9210 (98)

.0000

.9041 (95)

.0000

.8889 (95)

.0000

.9459 (90)

.0000

.8841 (85)

.0000

,0938 (87)

.3877

.9767 (65)

.0000

.9004 (90)

.0000

.9944 (61)

.0000

.8971 (90)

.0000

·.2381 (22)

.2860

.9462 (51)

.0000

.9607 (90)

.0000

1.0000 (107) .0000

.9829 (62)

.0000

LEVEL1263 .9649

(62) .0000

.9817 (62)

.0000

.9735 (62)

.0000

.9837 (62)

.0000

.9756 (62)

.0000

.9687 (62)

.0000

.9747 (62)

.0000

.9452 (62)

.0000

.2487 (62)

.0513

.9616 (62)

.0000

.9790 (62)

.0000

,9773 (61 )

.0000

.9782 (62)

.0000

-.2025 (21 )

.3787

.9547 (51 )

.0000

.9796 (62)

.0000

.9829 (62)

.0000

1.0000 (62)

.0000


Very weak to semi-weak negative correlation is expected for borehole (1185)

because its slope is acting differently than the others as shown in Table 6.4.

c) Khobar Aquifer

Negative statistical slopes appear for all the boreholes except (1020), (1022),

(1051) and (1103). The first two former boreholes are ignored because the

recording of their water table levels has not been consistent; refer to their

hydrographs in Appendix C.

Not only does a linear statistical significant relationship exist between the water

table levels and time, but also their association is strong, as shown in Table

6.5. The coefficient of determination is weak, similar to the above aquifers,

indicating that the practical significance is not sufficient to develop a regression

line between the variables with the least amount of error around the slope.

131


TABLE 6.5: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Khobar Aquifer Boreholes and Time

Bore- Slope t-value p-value Coefficient 01 Remarks on Water hole Determination Table Readings

0107 -0.000459 -1.13635 0.25806 0.0106 Sufficient 648A -0.002800 -4.78900 0.00000 0.1550 Sufficient 6488 -0.002111 -6.12436 0.00000 0.2239 Sufficient 1001 -0.010010 -9.28460 0.00000 0.3794 Sufficient 1004 -0.009539 -12.52160 0.00000 0.5265 Sufficient 1007 -0.005111 -8.51928 0.00000 0.3382 Sufficient 1011 -0.009487 -9.06744 0.00000 0.3683 Sufficient 1015 -0.002597 -11.35260 0.00000 0.4n5 Sufficient 1018 -0.004653 -3.26768 0.00159 0.1165 Sufficient 1019 -0.014326 -4.75481 0.00001 . 0.2805 Sufficient 1020 0.003876 4.58612 0.00005 0.3504 Insufficient 1021 -0.001208 -9.29572 0.00000 0.3885 Sufficient 1022 0.001621 3.32765 0.00115 0.0820 Sufficient 1023 -0.003032 -4.84346 0.00000 0.1624 Sufficient 1051 0.004279 10.49890 0.00000 0.4569 Sufficient 1100 -0.007401 -7.08235 0.00000 0.3112 Sufficient 1103 0.000262 0.45250 0.65190 0.0021 Sufficient 1121 -0.000647 -3.92706 0.00016 0.1422 Sufficient 1123 -0.007592 -7.99353 0.00000 0.4380 Sufficient 1124 -0.003986 -5.54061 0.00000 0.2367 Sufficient 1128 -0.000008 -0.00798 0.99365 0.0000 Sufficient 1135 -0.009096 -6.84755 0.00000 0.3259 Sufficient 1138 -0.005758 -5.39264 0.00000 0.2270 Sufficient 1164 -0.003398 -8.16661 0.00000 0.4025 Sufficient 1171 -0.010991 -9.07488 0.00000 0.4617 Sufficient 1181 -0.012807 -7.15276 0.00000 0.3549 Sufficient 1184 -0.015886 -8.87047 0.00000 0.4897 Sufficient 1351 -0.030227 -0.49029 0.63709 0.2920 Insufficient

The boreholes themselves are not all correlating uniformly. The strength varies.

Most of the bore holes have semi-strong to very strong positive correlation

confirming that they share a specific trend which is the negative inclination of

the water table levels as shown in Table 6.6. When a negative value appears

for a correlation coeffiCient opposing the other values, it signifies that the trend

is different. This is true for borehole (1051) especially because its slope is

steeper than the other rising water table borehole (1103) which is almost flat.

132

TABLE 6.6: Correlation Matrix among the Boreholes of the Khobar Aquifer

Llvt:UJHn

LEVEl..1OOI

l£VELIOOI

LEVEL1001

LEVEL10ll

LEVELIOIS

LEVEL10l8

l£ValOl9

L.EVEl..I~1

LEVEL101J

lEVR1~1

U;VI'J!llU7 LtIOOOa <lBlb .0000,

.9196 om 0000

.b9.51 (123)

.0000

.1519 fin) .0000 ..... om 0000

69H (113) 0000

61H 1123) 0000

.'H6 (7S)

0000

.9H9 In)

0000

.H42 {)9)

.0001

.H79 01]) .0000

6496 (111)

0000

.SJ09 (lO~)

0000

A749 111U\

.0000

LEVEllloo .8856 (lO])

.0000

LEVELIlOl .un (89)

0000

LEVEJ..ll:1 .9'OS (U)

0000

LEVElllD .J80~ (81)

.000'

l.EVall~~ .9191 (89)

.0000

LE\lEI.II~~ ~9U

(91)

0000

LEVELlll' .'1040 (87)

.0000

LEVEllllI nn (89]

.0000

LEVELl164 .IU" (89)

. 0000

LEVELII7! .81S4 In)

0000

LE'laWll .U20 183)

.0000

LEVB..III .. I .9O.f6 (13)

.0000

LEVEL 1351 1.0000 .., .0000

LIM'.I/>IM IJ;YFJ.6UR 11:V'lil.lOOI 'J296 .90H .6\15. Uti} (120) (lm

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.7621 (101)

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.0000

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.9760

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.9144 (lOll .0000

.9111 (l01)

.0000

.9111 (91)

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d) The Rus

A negative statistical slope signifies the Rus's only one borehole (1002). The

statistical significance between the water table levels and time is strong. The

practical significance is achieved indicating that a statistical line with less range

of error around the slope is fulfilled.

The Rus's borehole (1002) develops a very strong positive linear correlation

with the Alat Aquifer and Khobar Aquifer boreholes, but semi-strong positive

linear correlation with the Sanad Aquifer. This indicates that this bore hole, like

the Alat and Khobar Aquifers, is influenced by large cyclic variations although

all of them are not hydraulically linked. For the boreholes which experience

rising water table levels, from any of the above aquifers, the Rus's borehole

(1002) does not correlate strongly. In fact, it .develops a negative linear

correlation indicating that it has a different trend.

e) Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer

Negative statistical gradients characterise the aquifer's boreholes. The

developed relationship is statistically significant and extremely strong. Only

bore hole (1125) has a different gradient. Its levels are not counted in the

analysis of the aquifer because their recording of levels did not start until the

beginning of year 1990. The results of the statistical analysis appear in Table

6.7.

The results produce a better fit minimising the range of the error on the

statistical slope indicating that they are of practical significance. Upon

correlating the boreholes themselves, strong to very strong positive correlation

has been found which confirms the declining trend of the water table levels as

shown in Table 6.8.

134


TABLE 6.7: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer Boreholes and Time

Bore- Slope t·value p-value Coefficient of Remarks on the Water hole Determination Table Readings

1003 ·0.020122 -59.17630 0.00000 0.9766 Sufficient 1005 -0.022827 -60.92560 0.00000 0.9682 Sufficient 1006 -0.017818 -40.67950 0.00000 0.9215 Sufficient 1008 -0.019667 -40.18730 0.00000 0.9653 Sufficient 1010 -0.010969 -16.70340 0.00000 0.8942 Insufficient 1012 -0.024614 -62.39520 0.00000 0.9703 Sufficient 1013 -0.023160 -55.8n10 0.00000 0.9606 Sufficient 1014 -0.021575 -53.52540 0.00000 0.9556 Sufficient 1016 -0.025633 -59.62750 0.00000 0.9671 Sufficient 1017 -0.023818 -60.92440 0.00000·. 0.9682 Sufficient 1114 -0.028394 -44.22500 0.00000 0.9560 Sufficient 1115 -0.026282 -41.28630 0.00000 0.9498 Sufficient 1116 -0.046160 -18.31650 0.00000 0.9307 Insufficient 1118 -0.023052 -34.48620 0.00000 0.9333 Sufficient 1119 -0.026331 -36.02210 0.00000 0.9372 SuffiCient 1120 -0.022285 -37.60540 0.00000 0.9402 Sufficient 1125 0.002635 1.48305 0.14964 0.0753 Insufficient 1126 -0.017396 -17.53170 0.00000 0.n16 Sufficient 1143 -0.025874 -39.41480 0.00000 0.9452 Sufficient 1144 -0.026740 -35.33240 0.00000 0.9321 Sufficient 1207 -0.020107 -47.52190 0.00000 0.9766 Sufficient

Correlating the Rus borehole along with this aquifer'S boreholes, the correlation

coefficient between the former and the latter reduces. Therefore, the Rus'

borehole (1002) does not correlate with the Umm-Er-Radhuma water table

levels. This indicates that this borehole is not hydraulically connected to Umm

Er-Radhuma Aquifer. Its hydrograph in Appendix C is different from any of the

latter aquifer's hydrographs.

f) Aruma Aquifer

Similar to the Rus borehole, Aruma's only bore hole (1127) is characterised by

a declined slope. The linear statistical association is strong between the water·

table levels and time. The practical significance is achieved. It is as high as

the values obtained for Umm-Er-Radhuma's bore holes.

135

......... ---------------------------TABLE 6.8: Correlation Matrix among the Boreholes of the Rus Lens/Aquifer, the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer. and the Aruma Aquifer

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.9931 (92)

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.9743 '601

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.9761 (3S)

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.99.:57 (92'

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_9678 (27)

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.9905 (89)

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.9190 (q2)

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.9814 (56)

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.9943 fIll

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.9909 (93)

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.9104 (601

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.9126 ClS}

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.9925 (93)

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.9921 (93)

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.9939 (93)

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.9916 (93)

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.99"0 (93)

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.9902 (92)

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.9793 (27)

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.9919 (87)

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.-l262

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Correlating this borehole (1127) with Umm-Er-Radhuma boreholes, a very

strong positive correlation coefficient is found indicating that this borehole

relates to Umm-Er-Radhuma boreholes as shown pre~iously in Table 6.B.

Observing the hydrograph of borehole (1127) in Appendix C along with Umm

Er-Radhuma boreholes, the strong relationship is clearly present.

6.2.1.2 Water Table Levels and Evapotranspiratlon

a) Sanad Aquifer

Although almost half of the aquifer's standpipes experience positive slopes, only

three of them produce a linear statistical significant relationship. The strength

of this association is weak. The practical significance is extremely weak

indicating that the rate of evapotranspiration does not produce a good fit for a

regression line with minimum errors around the slope. Table 6.9 displays the

statistical results.

b) Alat Aquifer

A negative linear statistical relationship is evidenced between the water table

levels and the rate of evapotranspiration. It is extremely strong as its

significance level is much lower than 5%. The coefficient of determination is

low indicating that the rate of evapotranspiration does not contribute to the

formation of a good fit for the regression line; as referred to in Table 6.10.

137

TABLE 6.9: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Sanad Aquifer Standpipes and the Rate of Evapotransplratlon

Standpipe Slope t·value p-value Coefficient 01 Determination

OtB 0.007682 1.000n 0.32176 0.0196 01C ·0.035148 ·1.32084 0.19257 0.0337 01F ·0.056220 ·1.81391 0.07570 0.0617 01G ·0.074912 ·0.85138 0.42722 0.1078 01H 0.003982 0.41389 0.68073 0.0034 lA2 0.008050 0.93327 0.35813 0.0282 102 0.005240 0.34021 0.73615 0.0040 lE2 0.009025 0.89780 0.37360 0.0159 02F ·0.011226 ·0.38450 0.70351 0.0053 02G ·0.000856 ·0.07897 0.93737 0.0001 2A2 0.011090 1.05629 0.29591 0.0218 2C2 0.001313 0.08215 0.93485 0.0001 202 0.014700 1.36712 0.18209 0.0605 2E2 0.009136 1.05324 0.29785 0.0241 03A 0.007437 0.55803 0.59421 0.0426 03G 0.020678 0.82404 0.41384 0.0134 O3H 0.003964 0.57997 0.58454 0.0067 3B2 ·0.007178 ·0.7253' 0.47228 0.0124 3C2 0.002466 0.27204 0.78n8 0.0016 302 0.003513 0.45967 0.64n8 0.0043 3E2 0.007601 1.50042 0.14913 0.1012 3F2 ·0.002495 ·0.20930 0.83507 0.0009 O4A ·0.002841 ·0.54569 0.59103 0.0140 O4B ·0.008006 ·0.59814 0.55371 0.0104 O4C ·0.010460 ·0.94453 0.34944 0.0175 O4E ·0.014611 ·0.73256 0.46724 0.0106 O4F ·0.036406 1.27653 0.20766 0.0316 402 0.009601 1.41316 0.16381 0.0384 05A ·0.006325 ·0.59587 0.55395 0.0071 05E 0.007051 1.39881 0.16804 O.03n O5F 0.002455 0.10366 0.91769 0.0020 5B2 ·0.005447 ·0.42143 0.67525 0.0035 5C2 ·0.018069 ·0.56497 0.57676 0.0117 502 ·0.001229 ·0.19137 0.84901 0.0007 06A 0.008116 0.50767 0.61391 0.0051 06B ·0.012488 0.52479 0.60205 0.0055 06C ·0.027563 ·1.44589 0.15445 0.0401 060 0.006576 0.16333 0.87244 0.0018 07A 0.009151 0.38168 0.70522 0.0045 07B -0.084879 ·2.59503 0.01829 0.2723 07C -0.026587 -0.70620 0.48517 0.0153 08A -0.035786 -1.29519 0.20452 0.0498 08B -0.022850 -0.65081 0.51981 0.0131 09A -0.027021 -1.12751 0.26791 0.0382 09B -0.011159 -0.30485 0.76245 0.0029 09C -0.045748 -1.25806 0.21747 0.0471 lOA -0.004713 -0.20114 0.84313 0.0025 llA -0.012548 -2.13404 0.04060 0.1246 lIB -0.040356 -2.76554 0.01379 0.3234 12A -0.008078 -1.27015 0.21319 0.0480

- 12B 0.004024 2.20855 0.03449 0.1323 12C 0.042530 2.16058 0.03832 0.1273 13A 0.046032 3.04509 0.09304 0.8226 13B -0.016109 ·2.78164 0.00899 0.1947 13C -0.019190 -1.73196 0.09291 0.0657 14A -0.032223 -3.69557 0.00608 0.6306

138

TABLE 6.10:

Borehole

1102 1132 1134 1136' . 1142 1170 1176 1183 1185 1191 1197 1200 1204 1216 1219 1247 1253 1263


Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Alat Aquifer Boreholes and the Rate of Evapotransplratlon

Slope t-value .. p-value Coefficient 01 Determination

-0.100468 -6.76120 0.00000 0.2448 -0.078553 -5.32021 0.00000 0.2172 -0.120228 -6.63398 0.00000 0.3014 -0.063858 -4.82381 0.00000 0.1858 -0.121214 -6.24977 0.00000 0.2829 -0.125266 -6.18898 0.00000 0.2790 -0.060517 -5.36113 0.00000 0.2342 -0.035292 -4.11304 0.00009 0.1597 -0.015875 -1.48732 0.15406 0.0222 -0.089825 -5.67805 0.00000 0.3385 -0.073086 -5.36737 0.00000 0.2346 -0.111041 -5.46144 0.00000 0.3358 -0.127378 -5.79508 0.00000 0.2632 0.019153 0.83689 0.41254 0.0338

-0.005412 -3.26351 0.00201 0.1785 -0.086026 -5.92922 0.00000 0.2722 -0.112317 -6.10231 0.00000 0.2618 -0.098776 -3.75341 0.00040 0.1902

c) Khobar Aquifer

A strong negative linear statistical association exists between the variables

unlike their practical significance. The coefficient of determination is weak

indicating, like the above basins, that the rate of evapotranspiration does not

form a good fit for a statistical line. Table 6.11 displays the results.

139

TABLE 6.11:

Borehole

0107 648A 6488 1001 1004 1007 1011 1015 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1051 1100 1103 1121 1123 1124 1128 1135 1138 1164 1171 1181 1184 1351

d) The Rus

----- ------


Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Khobar Aquifer Boreholes and the Rate of Evapotransplratlon

Slope t-value p-value Coefficient of Determination

-0.047243 -6.98273 0.00000 0.2872 -0.078364 -7.23829 0.00000 0.2953 -0.049091 -6.96669 0.00000 0.2719 -0.245224 -10.37520 0.00000 0.4329 -0.141000 -6.28259 0.00000 0.2187 -0.103113 -7.05492 0.00000 0.2595 -0.239731 -10.67930 0.00000 0.4472 -0.043988 -7.04806 0.00000 0.2605 -0.119106 -7.70719 0.00000 0.4231 -0.154403 -5.71979 0.00000 0.3606 -0.031875 -3.12673 0.00333 0.2004 -0.025524 -8.62992 0.00000 0.3538 -0.026792 -2.34108 0.02082 0.0423 -0.042009 -2.81455 0.00570 0.0614 -0.014457 -1.21654 0.22596 0.0112 -0.123367 -6.32538 0.00000 0.2650 -0.044579 -5.39930 0.00000 0.2275 -0.011938 -4.95640 0.00000 0.2090 -0.021037 -1.22272 0.22494 0.0179 -0.067357 -5.86542 0.00000 0.2579 -0.086686 -6.19623 0.00000 0.2754 -0.131897 -6.06719 0.00000 0.2751 -0.098076 -5.76572 0.00000 0.2514 -0.031842 -3.92876 0.00016 0.1349 -0.136699 -6.18241 0.00000 0.2848 -0.193618 -7.10383 0.00000 0.3518 -0.159494 -5.60n4 0.00000 0.2n2 -0.290408 -4.34158 0.00247 0.7020

A strong negative linear statistical significant relationship is evidenced between

the variables, but this line is not of practical significance as its coefficient of

determination is much less than the 'cut-off' range.


None of this aquifer's boreholes form a linear statistical relationship with the

rate of evapotranspiration. The association is weak. Furthermore, the practical

significance is not fulfilled among the variables as shown in Table 6.12.

140

TABLE 6.12:

Borehole

1003 1005 1006 1008 1010 1012 1013 1014 1016 1017 1114 1115 1116 1118 1119 1120 1125 1126 1143 1144 1207


Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer Boreholes and the Rate of Evapotransplratlon

Slope t-value p-value Coefficient of Determination

-0.007069 -0.23445 0.81520 0.0007 -0.012170 -0.29128 0.n134 0.0007 0.008430 0.23518 0.81441 0.0004 0.021273 0.85688 0.39504 0.0125 0.001871 0.16469 0.87019 0.0008

-0.013367 -0.30344 0.76209 0.0008 0.012708 0.28144 0.nSS2 0.0006

-0.008631 -0.20266 0.83971 0.0003 -0.002778 -0.05916 0.95292 0.0000 -0.017041 -0.39102 0.69646 0.0013 0.027358 0.61411 0.54069 0.0042 0.025338 0.61249 0.54176 0.0042

-0.043495 -1.07546 0.29244 0.0442 -0.022257 -0.62433 0.53409 0.0046 -0.007112 -0.17248 0.86346 0.0003 0.028203 0.80109 0.42519 0.0071 0.013036 1.55151 0.13242 0.0819 0.032007 1.04714 0.29781 0.0119 0.029363 0.71979 0.47352 0.0057 0.022831 0.53173 0.59621 0.0031 0.030680 1.27496 0.20n8 0.0292

f) Aruma Aquifer

A weak negative non-linear statistical relationship is the result between the

water table levels and evapotranspiration. The coefficient of determination

similar to Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer, is extremely minute giving evidence that

the evapotranspiration rate does not contribute any value to the water table

levels.

6.2.1.3 Water Table Levels and Rainfall

a) Sanad Aquifer

The rate of rainfall produces similar results to the rate of evapotranspiration.

Almost all the boreholes experience positive statistical slopes. Only six of them

form a linear statistical relationship of which four bore holes develop a strong

association as shown in Table 6.13. The practical significance is not different

from the results with the rate of evapotranspiration.

141

TABLE 6.13:

Standpipe

01B 01C 01F 01G 01H 1A2 102 1E2 02F 02G 2A2 2C2 202 2E2 O3A O3G O3H 3B2 3C2 302 3E2 3F2 04A O4B O4C O4E O4F 402 05A 05E 05F 5B2 5C2 502 06A 06B 06C 060 07A 07B 07C 08A 08B 09A 09B 09C 10A 11A 11B 12A 12B 12C 13A 13B 13C 14A

Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Sanad Aquifer Standpipes and the Rate of Rainfall

Slope t-value p-value Coefficient 01 Determination

0.000339 0.40416 0.68782 0.0033 0.003199 1.10357 0.27506 0.0238 0.004986 1.46852 0.14823 0.0413 0.065068 4.53068 0.00397 0.n38 0.000583 0.56041 0.57n1 0.0062 0.000417 0.51790 0.60833 0.0089

-0.000107 -0.07378 0.94169 0.0002 0.000221 0.20113 0.84141 0.0008 0.001949 0.74683 0.46139 0.0195 0.001028 0.88218 0.38190 0.0153 0.000328 0.28498 0.n684 0.0016 0.001606 0.93556 0.35400 0.0172 0.000009 0.00829 0.99345 0.0000 0.000585 0.64641 0.52130 0.0092 0.004021 0.82536 0.43639 0.0887 0.000827 0.30248 0.78354 0.0018 0.000306 0.41316 0.68126 0.0034 0.000145 0.14498 0.88542 0.0005 0.001226 1.24603 0.21893 0.0320 0.000761 0.93034 0.35675 0.0174

-0.001130 -0.87648 0.39118 0.0370 0.001207 0.94215 0.35065 0.0174 0.000809 2.12809 0.06534 0.1n4 0.006587 1.63476 0.11133 0.0729 0.001094 0.91091 0.36671 0.0163 0.003040 1.42748 0.15966 0.0392 0.004650 1.51422 0.13627 0.0438 0.000135 0.18015 0.85n6 0.0006 0.001096 0.95846 0.34244 0.0180

-0.000209 -0.37588 0.70860 0.0028 0.004013 1.60621 0.11453 0.0491 0.001192 0.85609 0.39603 0.0144 0.002379 0.83172 0.41286 0.0250 0.000630 0.91292 0.36567 0.0164 0.000353 0.20332 0.83971 0.0008 0.001287 0.49908 0.61991 0.0050 0.002640 1.27220 0.20919 0.0314 0.008028 0.899n 0.38246 0.0512 0.003292 1.51564 0.13943 0.0670 0.005864 2.07625 0.05247 0.1932 0.006215 1.84048 0.07499 0.0957 0.004569 1.80839 0.07995 0.0927 0.005744 1.82483 0.07737 0.0943 0.003860 1.76822 0.08656 0.0890 0.004793 1.44188 0.15905 0.0610 0.007081 2.17615 0.03704 0.1289 0.002328 1.35321 0.19480 0.1027 0.000891 1.57240 0.12569 0.0717 0.002198 1.74949 0.09938 0.1608 0.0011n 2.05157 0.04847 0.1162

-0.000092 -0.50752 0.61527 0.0080 0.000455 0.23089 0.81903 0.0017

-0.003739 -0.89764 0.46411 0.2872 0.0009n 1.68888 0.10097 0.0818 0.002108 2.07025 0.04658 0.1181 0.000897 1.08158 0.31096 0.1276

142


b) Alat Aquifer

A strong positive linear statistical significant relationship is evidenced, but the

practical significance is not fulfilled implying that the rate of rainfall does not

produce a better fit for the statistical regreSSion line. A summary of the results

appears in Table 6.14.

TABLE 6.14: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Alat Aquifer Boreholes and the Rate of Rainfall

Borehole Slope t-value p-value Coefficient of Determination

1102 0.008383 4.45794 0.00002 0.1235 1132 0.007359 3.44842 0.00082 0.1044 1134 0.010803 3.96088 0.00014 0.1333 1136 0.0067n 3.63340 0.00044 0.1146 1142 0.010479 3.68049 0.00038 0.1204 1170 0.010666 3.58913 0.00052 0.1151 1176 0.005695 3.60700 0.00050 0.1216 1183 0.003608 3.10547 0.00255 0.0978 1185 0.003544 2.50808 0.01391 0.0647 1191 0.007841 3.97868 0.00018 0.2008 1197 0.006280 3.25947 0.00155 0.1015 1200 0.009653 3.85118 0.00029 0.2009 1204 0.010331 3.25871 0.00156 0.1015 1216 0.001838 0.36443 0.71936 0.0066 1219 0.000646 3.84978 0.00034 0.2322 1247 0.007926 3.83789 0.00022 0.1355 1253 0.010328 4.37334 0.00003 0.1541 1263 0.009076 2.94207 0.00463 0.1261

c) Khobar Aquifer

A strong positive linear statistical association exists between the rate of rainfall

and the water table levels. However, similar to the previous section, the

practical significance is weak giving evidence that a better fit for the regression

is not possible as referred to in Table 6.15.

143


TABLE 6.15: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Khobar Aquifer Boreholes and the Rate of Rainfall

Borehole Slope t-value p-value Coefficient of Determination

0107 0.004265 4.95594 0.00000 0.1687 648A 0.006893 4.99596 0.00000 0.1664 6488 0.004021 4.40711 0.00002 0.1300 1001 0.018410 5.50404 0.00000 0.1769 1004 0.012067 4.30366 0.00003 0.1161 1007 0.009408 5.15213 0.00000 0.1575 1011 0.017895 5.57428 0.00000 0.1806 1015 0.004157 5.34753 0.00000 0.1686 1018 0.010422 4.72204 0.00001 0.2159 1019 0.012791 3.78993 0.00036 0.1985 1020 0.002024 1.87992 0.06760 0.0831 1021 0.002075 5.22614 0.00000 0.1614 1022 0.003995 3.00995 0.00317 0.0681 1023 0.002651 1.48447 0.14029 0.0179 1051 0.002440 1.70283 0.09097 0.0217 1100 0.010045 3.82891 0.00021 0.1167 1103 0.004617 3.99646 0.00012 0.1389 1121 0.001416 4.43018 0.00003 0.1743 1123 0.001884 0.84156 0.40248 0.0086 1124 0.006392 3.88345 0.00019 0.1322 1128 0.008988 4.42939 0.00002 0.1627 1135 0.011313 3.56704 0.00056 0.1160 1138 0.009024 3.69407 0.00036 0.1211 1164 0.002589 2.30075 0.02350 0.0508 1171 0.010990 3.38912 0.00102 0.1069 1181 . 0.015012 3.66477 0,00041 0.1262 1184 0.012958 3.26258 0.00161 0.1149 1351 0.015254 1.04642 0.32595 0.1204

d) The Rus

The developed statistical relationship between the water table levels and the

rate of rainfall is a strong positive linear association. Still, the available rainfall

results are not of a practical significance to produce a better' fit for the

regression line.


Similar to Section 6.2.1.2(e), none of this aquifer's boreholes develop a linear

statistical relationship with the rate of rainfall .. Additionally the association is

weak. The practical significance follows the same trend as in the above

mentioned section. A summary of the results appears in Table 6.16.

144


TABLE 6.16: Simple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Umm-Er-Radhurna Aquifer Boreholes and the Rate of Rainfall

Borehole Slope I-value p-value Coefficient of Determination

1003 -0.000873 -0.22699 0.82098 0.0006 1005 0.003211 0.66889 0.50483 0.0037 1006 0.001596 0.37911 0.70517 0.0010 1008 0.000195 0.06976 0.94463 0.0001 1010 0.001516 0.87366 0.38862 0.0226 1012 0.003889 0.76952 0.44311 0.0050 1013 0.003663 0.71680 0.47480 0.0040 1014 0.003119 0.64147 0.52232 0.0031 1016 0.003042 0.56728 0.57158 0.0027 1017 0.003538 0.70655 0.48119 0.0041 1114 -0.004654 -0.79971 0.42599 0.0071 1115 -0.004300 -0.79577 0.42826 0.0070 1116 -0.005948 -0.63092 0.53382 0.0157 1118 -0.001862 -0.40897 0.68359 0.0020 1119 -0.003457 -0.65319 0.51535 0.0049 1120 -0.004148 -0.90139 0.36979 0.0089 1125 0.000205 0.15543 0.87764 0.0009 1126 -0.002482 -0.61820 0.53799 0.0042 1143 -0.004230 -0.79309 0.42981 0.0069 1144 -0.004232 -0.75456 0.45246 0.0062 1207 0.000241 0.08962 0.92892 0.0001

f) Aruma Aquifer

The rate of rainfall follows the same trend as the rate of evapotranspiration. It

produces a weak negative non-linear statistical association with the water table

levels. The practical significance is extremely weak similar to the results in the

above Section 6.2.1.3(e).

6.2.2 Multiple Regression

a) Sanad Aquifer

The model has not improved tremendously when all the independent variables

have been introduced. Statistical significance is evidenced on 71 % amongst

the variables; an increase of only 3%. The significance level is also strong

corresponding to the same percentage. The results of the statistical analysis

are shown in Table 6.17.

145

TABLE 6.17:

Standpipe

01B 01C 01F 01G 01H

, lA2 102 lE2 02F 02G 2A2 2C2 202 2E2 03A O3G O3H 3B2 3C2 302 3E2 3F2 O4A O4B O4C O4E O4F 402 05A 05E O5F 5B2 5C2 502 06A 06B 06C 060 07A 07B 07C 08A 08B 09A 09B 09C lOA llA lIB 12A 12B 12C 13A 13B 13C 14A

Multiple Regression Results between the Water Table Levels of Sanad Aquifer Standpipes and all the Other Independent Variables

F-ratio p-value Adjusted R'

7.82385 0.0002 0.286429 8.45578 0.0001 0.304868 7.56750 0.0003 0.278668

18.64690 0.0082 0.883218 7.85545 0.0002 0.287375

25.98720 0.0000 0.707441 5.23571 0.0056 0.297541

51.16060 0.0000 0.746875 0.41479 0.7438 0.000000

20.20510 0.0000 0.530454 11.62860 0.0000 0.384696

7.02790 0.0005 0.261765 29.76660 0.0000 0.742046

4.12020 0.0118 0.169084 0.50037 0.6982 0.000000

11.52240 0.0000 0.382322 8.38986 0.0001 0.302989 1.08348 0.3674 0.005928 3.19516 0.0323 0.120645 0.67282 0.5730 0.000000

15.61080 0.0000 0.676087 0.29426 0.8293 0.000000 1.40221 0.2729 0.051995 7.90896 0.0004 0.371937 9.79525 0.0000 0.340964 5.67936 0.0021 0.215844

16.08740 0.0000 0.470196 4.03368 0.0123 0.151429

10.25510 0.0000 0.352507 0.91498 0.4408 0.000000 2.72765 0.0542 0.092251 6.78697 0.0007 0.253960 O.23m 0.8692 0.000000 2.48847 0.0716 0.080508 3.28803 0.0285 0.118624 3.02769 0.0384 0.106565 1.264n 0.2970 0.015336 2.n466 0.0834 0.249671 3.86737 0.0189 0.206nl 3.38842 0.0440 0.273847 4.24694 0.0129 0.227904 7.45083 0.0007 0.369658 4.00282 0.0165 0.214444 1.19479 0.3285 0.017400 6.45343 0.0017 0.331446 7.30757 0.0008 0.364440 0.88876 0.4710 0.000000 1.88305 0.1537 0.074311 2.84246 0.0758 0.245362 1.93489 0.1452 0.078332 1.72691 0.1826 0.061986

16.06220 0.0000 0.5n932 0.00000 0.0000 1.000000 4.36028 0.0116 0.233998 l.n436 0.1733 0.065767 3.51320 0.0890 0.455852

146


Similar to simple regression, the practical significance has not improved

implying that the available variables cannot produce a better fit for the model.

b) Alat Aquifer

A statistical significant relationship is evidenced for the whole model. The

association is strong as the significance level is much less than 0.05. The

practical significance has improved. About 30% of the bore holes have passed

the 'cut-off' value; an increase of 30%. Table 6.18 clearly displays these

results.

TABLE 6.18: Multiple Regression Results between Water Table Levels of Alat Aquifer Boreholes and all the Other Independent Variables

Borehole F-ratio p-value ,Adjusted R'

1102 100.33900 0.0000 0.6n285 1132 45.90820 0.0000 0.566725 1134 41.29030 0.0000 0.539914 1136 26.19390 0.0000 0.423233 1142 47.68540 0.0000 0.583431 1170 50.84590 0.0000 0.599259 1176 30.09160 0.0000 0.478809 1183 33.11840 0.0000 0.517051 1185 43.26070 0.0000 0.579490 1191 47.52670 0.0000 0.665628 1197 58.34740 0.0000 0.644251 1200 55.18630 0.0000 0.730408 1204 68.16830 0.0000 0.679600 1216 4.50108 0.0159 0.333402 1219 23.54490 0.0000 0.574955 1247 33.29270 0.0000 0.504894

.1253 16.43920 0.0000 0.304086 1263 41.49160 .0.0000 0.665707

c) Khobar Aquifer

Uke the above aquifer, a strong statistical significant association is evidenced.

The practical significance has also improved. About 40% of the boreholes have

passed the 'cut-off' value of the adjusted coefficient of determination as shown

in Table 6.19; an increase of 40%. Therefore, the variables produce a better

fit for the model.

147


TABLE 6.19: Multiple Regression Results between the Water Table . Levels of Khobar Aquifer and all the Other Independent Variables

Borehole F-ratio p-value Adjusted R'

0107 20.69720 0.0000 0.326308 648A 38.89460 0.0000 0.474307 648B 44.73700 0.0000 0.500402 1001 258.23000 0.0000 0.844586 1004 160.19600 0.0000 0.n0816 1007 78.51570 0.0000 0.619222 1011 265.01200 0.0000 0.847972 1015 170.98000 0.0000 0.782189 1018 38.25680 0.0000 0.576819 1019 46.44390 0.0000 0.697949 1020 10.46700 0.0000 0.415213 1021 151.15100 0.0000 0.766789 1022 8.08598 0.0001 0.145345 1023 11.36710 0.0000 0.203142 1051 42.52140 0.0000 0.485509 1100 49.29790 0.0000 0.564022 1103 11.98830 0.0000 0.247922 1121 22.00790 0.0000 0.401364 1123 22.74630 0.0000 0.440093 1124 36.98860 0.0000 0.519152 1128 15.74440 0.0000 0.302465 1135 50.30670 0.0000 0.601497 1138 33.84320 0.0000 0.496297 1164 39.2n50 0.0000 0.534521 1171 73.80950 0.0000 0.692482 1181 87.91330 0.0000 0.735017 1184 103.06500 0.0000 0.786739 1351 6.73241 0.0239 0.656452

d) The Rus

Strong statistical significance is evidenced along with improved practical

significance. Therefore, the model produces a good fit for the water table levels

statistically and practically.


Like simple regression, a strong statistical significant relationship characterises

the model. The practical significance is still strong. It has reduced minutely

due to the introduction of the rates of evapotranspiration and rainfall by an

average of not more than 0.001.

148


f) Aruma Aquifer

The model has produced a strong statistical significant relationship as well as

strong adjusted coefficient of determination.

6.2.3 Forecasting

The following forecasts are based on the found regression analysis where (±

error) refers to the confidence range on the slope provided that the abstraction

rates will follow the same present trend.

a) Sanad Aquifer

The piezometric levels. near the coast. are expected to rise not more than +10

± 5 mm per month. They are estimated to rise above the ground surface level

by the end of year 2000. About 1.5 kilometres from the new reclaimed sea

coast. the waler table levels are calculated to continue rising at a rate not less

than +5 ± 2 mm per month. They are foreseen by the end of Ihis century 10

reach 1.68m above BNLD. This is equivalent to about 0.32m below the ground

surface. Further inland. the levels are predicted to fall not more than -20 ± 10

mm per month. The levels are expected to reach 0.19m above BNLD by the

end of this century which is equivalent to not less than 1.80m below the ground

surface. Table 6.20 displays these forecasts.

r.

b) Alat Aquifer

Being the only borehole (1185). the water table levels are predicted to rise with

time at a rate of 5 ± 1 mm per month. With respect to the other boreholes.

their piezometric levels are foreseen to fall at an average rate of -6 ± 2 mm per

month but not exceeding an average rate of -12 ± 4 mm per month. Table 6.21

displays the predicted results for all the boreholes.

149

TABLE 6.20:

Standpipe

01B 01C 01F 01G 01H lA2 102 lE2 02F 02G 2A2 2C2 202 2E2 03A 03G O3H 382 3C2 302 3E2 3F2 04A 048 O4C O4E O4F 402 OSA 05E OSF 582 5C2 502 06A 068 06C 060 07A 078 07C 08A 088 09A 09B 09C lOA llA 118 12A 128 12C 13A 13B 13C 14A

Predicted Forecasts between Water Table Levels of Sanad Aquifer Standpipes with Respect to Time Based on Simple Regression Analysis

Confidence Range on Forecast (m above BNLO) I nIB""",t Slope !he Slope (m)

End 1993 End 2000

0.84181 0.002461 0.0015 . 1.26 1.46 3.61530 .0.011365 0.0055 1.70 0.75 4.15492 .0.011500 0.0058 2.22 1.26

12.38260 .0.122679 0.0533 -8.23 -18.53 0.27654 0.003898 0.0017 0.93 1.26 0.34653 0.007246 0.0018 1.56 2.17 0.08217 0.009693 0.0049 1.71 2.52 0.13731 0.006303 0.0011 1.20 1.72 4.42193 .0.004570 0.0117 3.65 3.27 0.45684 0.005790 0.0015 1.43 1.91 0.48159 0.004761 0.0017 1.28 1.68 3.83872 .0.006253 0.0028 2.79 2.26 0.05569 0.009725 0.0024 1.69 2.51 0.72251 0.002765 0.0018 1.19 1.42 1.91917 .0.008500 0.0170 0.49 .0.22 4.43654 .0.011402 0.0048 2.52 1.56 0.50409 0.002835 0.0012 0.98 1.22 1.11172 0.002499 0.0019 1.53 1.74 2.20610 .0.002378 0.0017 1.81 1.61 1.17154 .0.000513 0.0016 1.08 1.04 0.33717 0.004748 0.0021 1.53 1.53 3.69611 .0.000007 0.0025 3.69 3.69 1.13188 0.001051 0.0028 1.31 1.40 1.84362 .0.004641 0.0019 1.06 0.67 1.89689 .0.004846 0.0019 1.08 0.67 2.33025 .0.006920 0.0037 1.17 0.59 4.05463 .0.014113 0.0045 1.68 0.50 0.66416 0.001915 0.0013 0.98 1.15 1.90757 .0.004739 0.0017 1.11 0.71 0.72338 .0.000492 0.0010 0.64 0.60 3.10706 .0.005130 0.0047 2.24 1.81 1.83871 .0.005036 0.0023 1.09 0.67 1.73463 0.000535 0.0137 1.82 1.87 1.45658 .0.001620 0.0012 1.19 1.05 1.33772 0.004660 0.0030 2.12 2.51 4.10849 .0.006638 0.0048 2.99 2.41 4.98470 0.002123 0.0040 5.34 5.52 6.22838 .0.031975 0.0260 0.66 -1.63 4.71500 .0.009806 0.0068 3.07 2.24 3.03661 0.000952 0.0153 3.20 3.28 5.71594 .0.016857 0.0105 2.88 1.47 4.76005 .0.015521 0.0071 2.15 0.85 5.29094 .0.015308 0.0098 2.72 1.43 2.47332 0.000808 0.0078 2.61 2.68 5.30182 .0.019793 0.0093 1.98 0.31 5.15345 .0.019692 0.0095 1.84 0.19 4.88244 .0.005680 0.0126 4.03 3.55 3.03461 0.000295 0.0020 3.08 3.11 5.89853 .0.007389 0.0091 4.66 4.04 1.00612 0.000685 0.0021 1.12 1.18 2.82273 0.000234 0.0006 2.66 2.88 5.61707 .0.012240 0.0051 3.56 2.53 3.83000 .0.032500 0.0692 1.63 -4.36 1.23995 0.001331 0.0020 1.46 1.57 2.91573 .0.000270 0.0037 2.87 2.85 2.33403 .0.014939 0.0191 .0.17 -1.43

150


TABLE 6.21: Predicted Forecasts for Water Table Levels of Alat Aquifer Boreholes with Respect to Time Based on Simple Regression Analysis

Bore· Intercept Slope Confidence Range Forecast (m above BNlD) hole on the Slope (m)

End 1993 End 2000

1102 2.83800 -0.005662 0.0011 1.89 1.41 1132 2.32826 -0.005612 0.0017 1.38 0.91 1134 2.48616 -0.005823 0.0023 1.51 1.02 1136 1.94558 -0.003920 0.0016 1.29 0.96 1142 2.70131 -0.007522 0.0024 1.44 0.80 1170 2.81463 -0.008119 0.0024 1.45 o.n 1176 1.64844 -0.003889 0.0015 0.99 0.67 1183 1.24216 -0.003463 0,.0011 0.66 0.37 1185 3.39378 0.005342 0.0010 4.29 4.74 1191 2.51628 -0.008170 0.0031 1.14 0.46 1197 2.51996 -0.006206 0.0016 1.48 0.96 1200 3.34753 -0.012109 0.0041 1.31 0.30 1204 3.03192 -0.010332 0.0026 1.30 0.43 1216 0.67341 0.004048 0.0027 1.35 1.69 1219 0.35087 -0.000937 0.0004 0.49 0.11 1247 2.12714 -0.004963 0.0020 1.29 0.88 1253~ 3.20148 -0.001846 0.0022 2.89 2.74 1263 3.96263 -0.015953 0.0043 1.28 -0.06

c) Khobar Aquifer

The only two boreholes. namely (1051) and (1103) are predicted to rise

respectively at a rate of +4 ± 1 mm per month and +0.2 ± 1 mm per month.

Regarding the other boreholes. the least fall is estimated to be an average of

-2 ± 1 mm per month. The extreme fall is foreseen to be an average of -10 ± .3 mm per month. Table 6.22 displays a summary of these forecasts.

151

-----------

Chapter 6: Data and Statistical AnalYSis

TABLE 6.22: Predicted Forecasts for the Water Table Levels of Khobar Aquifer Boreholes with Respect to Time Based on Simple Regression Analysis

Borehole Intercept Slope Confidence Range Forecast (m above 6NLD) on the Slope (m)

End 1993 End 2000

0107 0.96067 ·0.000459 0.0008 0.88 0.84 648A 1.73n1 -0.002808 0.0012 1.26 1.03 6486 1.51252 -0.002111 0.0007 1.16 0.98 1001 0.99296 -0.010010 0.0021 -0.69 -1.53 1004 2.54320 -0.009539 0.0015 0.94 0.14 1007 2.24481 -0.005111 0.0012 1.39 0.96 1011 0.74542 -0.009487 0.0021 -0.85 -1.64 1015 0.27250 -0.002597 ·0.0004 -0.16 -0.38 1018 2.18681 -0.004653 0.0028 1.40 1.01 1019 3.13515 -0.014326 0.0060 0.73 -0.47 1020 0.22135 0.003876 0.0017 0.97 1.20 1021 1.29064 -0.001208 0.0003 1.09 0.99 1022 1.00936 0.001621 0.0010 1.28 1.42 1023 1.14045 -0.003032 0.0012 0.63 0.38 1051 2.28734 0.004279 0.0008 3.01 3.36 1100 3.46294 -0.007401 0.0021 2.22 1.60 1103 1.73227 0.000262 0.0011 1.78 1.80 1121 0.49296 -0.000647 0.0003 0.38 0.33 1123 0.47105 -0.007592 0.0019 -0.80 -1.44 1124 0.75650 -0.003986 0.0014 0.09 -0.25 1128 1.30055 -0.000008 0.0020 1.30 1.30 1135 2.91231 -0.009096 0.0026 1.38 0.62 1138 2.21849 -0.005758 0.0021 1.25 o.n 1164 2.30507 -0.003398 0.0008 1.73 1.45 1171 3.19412 -0.010991 0.0024 1.35 0.42 1181 1.59357 -0.012807 0.0035 0.56 -1.63 1184 3.33014 -0.015886 0.0036 0.66 -0.67 1351 3.84432 -0.030227 0.1422 1.23 -2.96

d) The Rus

The piezometric levels are calculated to fall for Rus's only borehole (1002) at

a rate of -11 ± 1.5 mm per month.


The water table levels are expected to fall at a rate not less than -18 ± 0.9 mm

per month, but not more than -28 ± 1 mm per month. Table 6.23 displays these

forecasts along with the Rus Lens/Aquifer and Aruma Aquifer's results.

152


TABLE 6.23: Predicted Forecasts for Water Table Levels of the Rus, Umm-Er-Radhuma, and Aruma Aquifers' Boreholes with Respect to Time Based on Simple Regression Analysis

Borehole Intercept Slope Confidence Range Forecast (m above BNLO) on the Slope (m)

End 1993 End 2000

1002" 3.41075 ·0.011107 0.0015 1.54 0.61 1003 5.73049 -0.020122 0.0007 2.35 0.66 lOOS 6.10098 -0.022827 0.0007 2.27 0.35 1006 5.51858 -0.017818 0.0009 2.52 1.03 1008 5.29542 -0.019667 0.0010 1.99 0.34 1010 5.06509 -0.010969 0.0013 3.22 2.30 1012 6.17339 -0.024614 0.0008 2.04 -0.03 1013 6.03077 -0.023160 . 0.0008 2.14 0.19 1014 5.98628 -0.021575 . 0.0008 2.36 0.55 1016 6.18274 -0.025633 0.0008 1.88 -0.28 1017 6.12108 -0.023818 0.0008 2.12 0.12 1114 6.55087 -0.028394 0.0013 1.78 -0.60 1115 6.30583 -0.026282 0.0013 1.89 -0.32 1116 7.60106 -0.046160 0.0052 -0.15 -4.03 1118 5.89600 -0.023052 0.0013 2.02 0.09 1119 6.33270 -0.026331 0.0014 1.91 -0.30 1120 6.15848 -0.022285 0.0012 2.41 0.54 1125 2.97670 0.002635 0.0036 3.42 3.64 1126 3.81844 -0.017396 0.0020 0.89 -0.56 1143 6.31654 -0.025874 0.0013 1.97 -0.20 1144 6.14887 -0.026740 0.0015 1.66 -0.59 1207 5.82478 -0.020107 0.0008 2.45 0.76 1127" 6.12074 -0.024575 0.0012 1.99 -0.07

Notes:

a This borehole originates in the Rus Lens/Aquifer. b This borehole originates in the Aruma Aquifer.

f) Aruma Aquifer

The piezometric levels are expected to fall for Aruma's only borehole (1127) at

a rate of -25 ± 1_2 mm per month.

153


6.3 DISCUSSION

The time independent variable presents sounder results than the other

independent variables because it takes into account the direct causes as well

as the indirect causes that lead to the fluctuation of the piezometric levels. The

,direct causes involve influences by quantified sources such as the abstraction

rates, the evapotranspiration rates, and the rainfall rates. Since no precise

abstraction rates were found, they are not presented in the analysis. The

indirect causes involve influences by unquantified sources.

6.3.1 Sanad Aquifer

The . statistical analyses have presented evidence that the rate of

evapotranspiration and the rate of rainfall do not influence the movement of the

piezometric levels. These rates can cause variations in the water table,

depending on the seasonal climate.

The analyses have further proved that the piezometric levels are influenced by

the unquantified causes more than the quantified ones. High piezometric

gradients are found by the sea coast. They reduce inland where they start to

fall. This is understandable because the water table follows the lower geologic

elevation until it meets its natural level. On the newly reclaimed sea coast, the

gradient of the piezometric levels becomes steeper. This is caused by the

reclamation itself because it is thought to obstruct natural agricultural drainage

leading to the build up of the water table. The steep gradient is not only caused

by these unquantified variables, but it is also believed to be affected by the

excessive surface irrigation in order to beautify the seaside. Away from the

reclaimed coast, the area is affected by leakages from the piped water supply

network. However, these leakages are not as much as the undrained

excessive irrigation. The result is the expected rise of the capillary fringe

bringing up the unpleasant smell of the septiC tanks which are scattered along

the coast.

154

------- - --


Another leakage exists, but it is not man-made. It is an upward leakage from

the aquifer below. It is small; not more than half a million cubic metres per

annum (GDC, Vol 3, 1980). Hence, its effect is negligible in the long run.

These unquantified results have led to the fluctuation of the water table levels

as evidenced in the statistical analyses. Furthermore, the correlation matrix has

confirmed the above analysis. Strong correlation coefficients have appeared

with the standpipes which are located by the shore. Similarly, strong

relationships have occurred with the standpipes away from the shore. The

piezometric levels near the coast do not correlate with the ones away from the

coast. The conclusion relies on the geological formation and the unquantified

variables which influence the piezometric levels.

6.3.2 Alat Aquifer

The overall statistical trend shows that the water table levels are falling. This

is due to the progressive groundwater abstraction. The rate of evapo

transpiration and the rate of rainfall present evidence that they are affecting the

fluctuation of the piezometric levels in the long run. These fluctuations are

clearly seen in the cyclic trend of the bore holes' hydrographs in Appendix C

along with the tidal variations.

The only exception in the whole aquifer is borehole (1185) which experiences

a positive inclined gradient. Statistical analyses show that it forms a strong

positive linear relationship with the rate of rainfall but weak negative non-linear

relationship with the rate of evapotranspiration. Therefore, the former rate

influences its status in the long run but the latter does not influence it.

Borehole (1185) lies between the foot of Hamala Camp near the newly

developed Lawzi Lake which originally was a sand trap; as discussed in

Section 2.3.1.6(a). Being a depressed area, agricultural drainage as well as

155


unwanted water are discharged to the lake causing its level to increase.

Consequently, the surface water level is expected to rise leading to the rise of

the subsurface water table near borehole (1185) which additionally receives

most of the rainfall recharge because of its geographical location.

The results of the correlation matrix confirm the above analysis, as all the falling

piezometric levels are correlating strongly with each other. The correlation

coefficients of borehole (1253) are not as strong as the other falling ones, with

some boreholes, because they are located in areas near the seawater, where

their elevation is less than 2m above BNLD. The results of the correlation

coefficients for borehole (1185) confirm its status as they are behaving

differently than the other bore holes in the aquifer.

6.3.3 Khobar Aquifer

Similar to the Alat Aquifer, the general statistical trend shows that the

piezometric levels of Khobar Aquifer are also falling. Since the quality of

Khobar's water is better than the other aquifers, as has already been

discussed, continuous groundwater abstraction is the result which has led to the

reduction in the water's head. The aquifer is influenced by both the rates of

evapotranspiration and rainfall in the long run like the immediate overlying

aquifer.

The only exception is the presence of two bore holes which experience positive

gradients namely boreholes (1051) and (1103). Statistical analyses show that

the former borehole is not influenced by the evapotranspiration nor rainfall

unlike borehole (1103). However, borehole (1051) is influenced by at least one

unquantified cause because its levels develop a strong linear relationship with

time unlike borehole (1103).

Borehole (1051) lies east of A'ali village at an elevation about 15 metres above

BNLD. This location is near AIi-Salmabad where an upward leakage exists

feeding the aquifer as has been discussed in Section 2.5.3.1 (b). As a result,

156


borehole (1051) is expected to experience this unquantified cause. The other

unquantified causes which have been discussed in Section 6.3.1 are not

suitable. The water table level for this borehole is expected to be 3.01 m above

BNLD by the end of year 1993 which is about 12 metres below the ground

surface. Additionally, the geologic formations may hinder any downward water

movements.

Borehole (1103) lies south of AI-Nuwaydrat village at an elevation not more

than 5 metres above BNLD. Although its statistical slope (+ 0.00026) indicates

that its water table level is rising, the ·slope in fact is so small that it can be

considered flat. For this reason, a positive weak non-linear statistical

relationship exists between the piezometry of borehole (1103) and time. Since

the bore hole's piezometry lies about 3.2 metres below the ground surface on

the Coastal Zone where unconsolidated deposits are present, some water is

expected to seep to the ground but not to that depth unless a severe rainstorm

occurs or excessive irrigation takes place along with serious leakages in the

piped water supply.

The correlation coefficients between the boreholes prove that a strong

relationship exists throughout the falling piezometry. Borehole (1051) confirms

its status in the matrix as its correlation coefficients behave differently from the

other bore holes. Borehole (1103) confirms that its small positive slope is not

much different from the boreholes which experience declined piezometry.

6.3.4 The Rus Lens/Aquifer

Statistical evidence indicates that the piezometric levels for the Rus's only

borehole (1002) are falling. This is due to the abstraction of the Rus's

groundwater. Since its water head has become greater than the overlying

aquifer, the Rus's groundwater leaks upwards through the semi-aquiclude

reaching the Khobar Aquifer.

157

- ----------


The statistical analyses have also shown that both the rate of evapo

transpiration and the rate of rainfall influence the Rus's borehole (1002) in the

long run as evidenced on its hydrograph in Appendix C.

6.3.5 Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer

Being the largest aquifer, Umm-Er-Radhuma's groundwater is progressively

abstracted confirming the obtained negative statistical gradients. The head in

this aquifer is slightly higher than the Rus, so when it is in contact with the Rus,

the Umm-Er-Radhuma's head increases the upward leakage to the Khobar

Aquifer.

Being the deepest confined aquifer, Umm-Er-Radhuma's groundwater is not

affected by the rate of evapotranspiration nor the rate of rainfall. The statistical

results have presented this clearly.

The results of the correlation matrix have confirmed that the aquifer's

piezometric levels are falling because the boreholes' water table levels are

strongly correlating with one another.

6.3.6 Aruma Aquifer

Similarto Umm-Er-Radhuma's results, the statistical evidence indicates that the

piezometric levels for Aruma's only borehole (1127) are falling. This is believed

not due to groundwater abstraction because Aruma's groundwater quality is

much worse than the Umm-Er-Radhuma's sub-surface water. It is thought due

to the upward leakage to Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer.

Aruma's piezometric levels are not influenced by the rates of evapotranspiration

nor rainfall as the statistical analyses have shown earlier.

158


6.4 EPILOGUE

All the piezometric levels of the above aquifers are falling except the shallow

aquifer. Each aquifer has its own causes for producing a negative or positive

statistical gradient which in fact is a reflection of its own piezometric trend.

Applying the correlation analyses among all the bore holes which experience

positive gradients from all the aquifers, the piezometric levels have been found

not to produce strong correlation coefficients. Applying the same method for

the boreholes which encounter negative slopes, the water table levels have

been found to develop strong correlation coefficients with the deep aquifers, but

less strong coefficients with Sanad Aquifer bore holes. This analysis has proved

that Sanad Basin behaves differently than the other aquifers.

159

CHAPTER SEVEN

GEOTECHNICAL CONSEQUENCES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

A building foundation is designed to support the structural loads caused by the

self weight of the whole structure, being the dead loads, and the imposed

loadings during the serviceability of the building, being the live loads. It must

satisfy two fundamental requirements, being able to transmit the total loads to

the underlying soil without causing settlement and being able to withstand the

soil's shear failure by designing with a suitable factor of safety which is usually

2.5 to 3 (Craig, 1992). The allowable bearing capacity is defined as the

maximum pressure which may be applied to the soil such that the above two

fundamental requirements are satisfied. In general, however, settlement and not

shear failure are the limiting criterion for foundations constructed on

cohesionless soils.

The design of foundations on cohesionless soils is based on the correlation

between the in-situ tests and the value of the allowable pressure in order to

limit the settlement to a tolerable level. The presence of the water table may

affect the foundations depending on its location with respect to the latter. The

shallower the depth to the water table, the lower the value of the allowable

bearing pressure. Therefore, the design of the foundation can be modified by

the foundation width with reference to the depth to the water table.

7.1.1 Sub-Surface Investigations

The geological column, which describes the cross-section of the formation

starting at the ground level, to the total depth of the borehole, varies from one

location to another depending on the depth of the bedrock below the surface.

In the Coastal Zone, the bedrock appears not less than Sm below the ground.

It consists of rocks belonging to the Neogene Formation; refer to Section

2.3.1.4. The water table is shallow in this zone. It can be encountered as close

1S0

as 2m below the ground surface. In the inner areas, towards the dome, the

bedrock may appear less than half a metre below the ground. It consists of

rocks belonging to the Dammam and the Rus Group of Formations; refer to

Section 2.3.1.6. The water table is deeper in these zones, varying from one

location to another. It is usually present at depths greater than 5 metres.

Bahrain is covered by cohesionless soil which consists generally of dense,

poorly-graded, clean sand with some coarse silt (PWD, 1993). The soil is

occasionally cemented with sulphate and carbonate salts especially in the

southern part of Bahrain. The amount of clay is minute; its presence is

negligible in the design of foundations. The initial design value of the soil

varies with its formation. A typical average value is 300 kN/m2 (PWD, 1993).

7.2 CURRENT FOUNDATION DESIGN PRACTICE

Two types of foundation are used extensively in Bahrain; strip footings and pad

footings. These types are used for small residential and large industrial

buildings respectively (AI-Dawood Consultants and Construction, 1993). The

dimension of the footing varies depending on the design. The minimum

dimensions as specified by (MOH, 1993) are 600 mm wide by 300 mm deep

for strip footings and 600 mm by 600 mm by 300 mm deep for pad footings.

7.2.1 General Notes on Construction

Dewateringusing well points is the only method applied (if necessary) to reduce

the water table level in Bahrain (Dadabhai Construction, 1993 and AI-Dawood

Consultants and Construction, 1993). After concreting and compacting the

footing with Sulphate Resistant Concrete (SRC) having a minimum cement

content of 370 kg/m3 and characteristic strength of 45 N/mm2 as specified by

(MOH, 1993), blockwork and columns are erected to the Damp Proof Course

(DPC) level. The formed internal pit is filled with dredged sand passing a 5 mm

sieve; the material is free from silt and clay (CPMD, 1981 and MOH, 1987).

161

Chapter 7: Geotechnical Consequences

Desert fill is placed between the footings and the excavated area. This fill must

all pass a 100 mm sieve with up to 50% passing a 5 mm sieve and not more

than 20% passing a 75 micron sieve (CPMD, 1981). It must also be free from

clay. The floor slab is poured onto the previous internal pit thereafter.

7.3 FUTURE FOUNDATION STATE

7.3.1 Review of the Causes for the Water Table Movement

The water table would fall if the quantity of the pumped water exceeded the

amount of recharge over any given period. The quality of the groundwater

would deteriorate as the seawater intruded into the aquifers, forming lenses

under the fresh water. This theory would be true for the Alat and the underlying

aquifers.

The fall of the water table levels in Sanad Aquifer, the shallowest groundwater,

is thought to be influenced by the above theory but to a lesser degree. Since

the soil cannot retain any water, it percolates downwards meeting natural

drainage and flowing under gravity to the sea.

The rise of the piezometric levels in the Sanad Aquifer, shown in Figure 7.1, is

caused by the obstruction of natural drainage by the sea coast reclamation. In

this respect the rise differs from other countries lying in the arid region or the

countries experiencing the recovery of the water table due to cessation of the

groundwater abstraction as listed in Table 7.1.

162

TABLE 7.1: List of Cities which Experience the Rise of Water Table Levels

City, Country Cause(s) of the Rise of the Water Table Reference(s)

London, UK Recovery of water table levels due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction a) (Marsh and Davies, 1983) b) (Wilkinson, 1985)

Nottingham, UK Recovery of water table levels due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction (Reeds, 1989)

Liverpool, UK a) Recovery of water table levels due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction a) (Brassington and Rushton, 1987) b) Leakages from water main b) (Price and Reed, 1989)

Birmingham, UK Leakages from water main (Price and Reed, 1989)

Lyon, France Recovery of water table due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction used in water supply (Bergeron et aI., 1983)

Paris, France Recovery of water table due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction used in industry (Bergeron et aI., 1983)

Saint·Etienne, Recovery of water table due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction used in mine works (Bergeron et aI., 1983) France

No"h Jutland, Recovery of water table due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction (Anderson quoted in Brassington, 1990) Denmark

Brooklyn, NY: USA Recovery of water table due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction (Soren, 1976)

Louisville, KY: USA Recovery of water table due to reduction/cessation in groundwater abstraction (Kernodle and Wh~esides, 1977)

San Bernardino, Ca: a) Recovery of water table due to cessation in groundwater abstraction (Hard! and Hutchinson, t978) USA b) Urbanization on backfilled swampy land

West Nubarya, Irrigation on newly reclaimed land (Schulze and de Ridder, 1974) Egypt

Cairo, Egypt a) Seepage from the Nile River (Youssef, 1983) b) Increased leakages from water mains as well as sewerage network system

Jeddah, Kingdom of a) Inefficient sewerage system a) and b) (Abu Rizaiza et aI., 1989) Saudi Arabia b) Excessive irrigation

c) Low soil permeability (Abu Rizaiza quoted in George, 1992)

TABLE 7.2: Conceptual Chart Presenting the Causes and Effects of Rising Water Table Levels In Bahrain

t III e: III

(I ). Land Reclamation ( Backfilling the Sea Coasts)

(2). Extensive Usage of Corrugated and Surface Irrigation (3). Infiltration trom Septic Tanks

(4)' Seepage from the Network of Piped Services

(5). Rainfall Recharge

(6). Evaporation trom the Ground and Transpiration from the Plants (Evapotranspiration )

(7). Upward Leakage from Aquifers

~ ~ Permeable Sub - Sur fa ce Impermeable Sub - Surface

Strata J Strata

J,

1 Drainage

J I Groundwater Sea4 ,

RISING OF WATER TABLE

(I). Reducing of the Strength of the Soil

(2 >. Flooding

(3) . Concrete Deterioration and Steel Corrosion


"09:::;-0! se " 40 41 41 ... 44 45 48 47 "8 ... eo SI 52 ss 154 !IS se e ea

00

01

00 o 5KN.

00

04

o. BUDDAYYA ROAD

ISLAND 02

01

•• 0000oN ARABIAN

QULP' FALLING WATER TABLE

FIGURE 7.1: The Water Table Position in the Sanad Aquifer

The situation is worsened as other variables are input into the system. These

variables are shown in Table 7.2 as part of a chart presenting the causes and

effects of the rise of the water table. The Table has been further developed into

an isometric graphical model shown in Figure 7.2.

7.3.2

7.3.2.1

Geotechnical Effects Due to the Water Table Movement

Bearing Capacity and Settlement

If the minimum required width of the foundation which is 0.6m (MOH, 1993) is

applied, then the footing is expected not to be affected by the water table at

depths greater than 1.2m below the formation level. The rise of the water table

level in the Sanad Aquifer is expected to reduce this depth. It is calculated to

be 0.75m below the ground level slightly north of Buddayya Road and saturate

the ground near the coast by the end of year 2000. The rise, therefore, can

cause dampening of the formation level and the saturation of the footing. The

result is the reduction in the allowable bearing capacity of the soil which can be

as great as 25 to 50% (Chisholm, quoted in Wilkinson, 1985). This indicates

that the soil cannot withstand the applied structural force resulting in the

settlement of the building. This is expected on the reclaimed areas where the

165

Old Sea L .. el .>-=---- Ne. Sea Level

Unconfi.ed Aquif.r

Aquifer

LEGEND: D -DRAINAGE ET- EVAPOTRANSPlRATION G -IRRIGATION I -INfiLTRATION R - RAINfALL RECHARGE RWT - RISING WATER TABLE

<D- ORIGINAL WATER LEVEL (!j-NEWWATER LEVEL ,.. _ N EW WATER LEVEL DUE \i4f/ 101RRlGATI0N PRIMARILY

SE-SEWERAGE LINE SP-SEEPAGE ST - SEPTIC TANK W - WATER SUPPLY LINE

FIGURE 7.2: Isometric Graphical Model Showing the Causes for Rising Water Levels In Bahrain


soil consists of marine sand; refer to Section 2.4.2.3. On the original land

where the dense sand is present, the reduction in the allowable bearing

capacity of the soil may not be as great according to experiments conducted

by (Szechy and Varga, 1978).

Despite the fact that no borehole information is available for the southern part

of the Coastal Zone, where the Military Base is located, settlement is expected

because gypsum, the soluble mineral, is highly present. The amount of

settlement may depend on the thickness of the gypsum (Cooke et aI., 1982).

7.3.2.2 Chemical Attack and Flooding

As the predicted piezometric level rises, the water would become saline

because it would bring up the soil's salts along with the seepages from the

septic tanks. This water could penetrate the underground structure through its

weak points such as through hairline cracks. It could reach the embedded steel

reinforcement within the concrete causing its corrosion (Fookes, quoted in

Cooke et aI., 1982).

As the water table progressively rises, it will be obstructed by the presence of

the floor slab. The water may find its way to seep into the building, creating a

damp surface. The pressure can be great enough to create a crack through the

floor slab as seen in Kuwait City and Riyadh (George, 1992). If the quantity of

the rising water is large, the ground floor can be flooded. The rising saline

water can seep into the internal walls resulting in internal damage.

7.3.3 Suggestions for Protecting the Foundations

Proper design for the agricultural drainage would be suggested. The designed

drainage would discharge the saline unwanted water through outfalls away from

the coast into the deep sea. This would elongate the service life of the existing

foundations and would protect future foundations.

167


The presence of the protective barrier, between the reclaimed land and the

stone pitched area by the sea, enhances the build-up of the water table.

Therefore, the placement of filter drainage fabric, better known as geotextile,

along the inside of the barrier facing the land, may reduce the rise in Bahrain.

Geotextiles as defined by (Ingold and Miller, p1, 1988) "are thin flexible,

permeable sheets of synthetic material". The geotextile fabric would filter the

unwanted water to a collective pipe, which would be attached to the fabric

forming what is better known as the fin drain type,and would dispose of the

water to the sea. Therefore, geotextiles would require proper design, as they

vary in types and properties, to accommodate the site needs.

Geotextiles have been successfully installed in Jubail Port in Saudi Arabia

protecting the wharfs' walls from the seabed (Clough, 1979) and in the Gulf of

Arabia protecting a marine causeway (Rankilor, 1982). Their installation does

not mean that preventive methods on the building foundations can be

neglected, such as protection with polythene sheets and application of

bituminous paint.

168

-------------------~-----------------------------------------

CHAPTER EIGHT

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 CONCLUSIONS

An evaluation has been carried out of the groundwater system in Bahrain. It

has involved the collection and analysis of data from all the water bearing

formations. The analyses have included studying the hydrogeochemical

condition of the sub-surface water and its hydrogeological position. The latter

analysis has incorporated the use of statistics. The following subheaded

conclusions refer to the set objectives aimed for in this study.

8.1.1 Simplified Hydrological Sequence

This has been simplified in this study by developing a new term for the inland

shallow groundwater, the Sanad Aquifer. This aquifer is part of the Neogene

Formation which extends from Saudi Arabia, outcrops in the sea near the

shores of Bahrain and re-outcrops in the land away from the shores. It re

appears on the eastern coast of Bahrain particularly in and near Sanad village,

the largest well-known populated town. It re-appears under the sea to the east

of Bahrain. Since the formation develops two separated aquifers each,

however, being an extension of the other, difficulty is foreseen in differentiating

between the inland and offshore aquifers. As a result, Sanad Aquifer is

denoted for the inland aquifer and the Neogene Aquifer is denoted for the

offshore one. It is underlain by the Alat, the Khobar, the Rus and the Umm-Er

Radhuma Aquifers.

8.1.2 Quality of the Groundwater

This is generally not acceptable following the Bahrain's Public Health

Guidelines, WHO Drinking Standards, and FAO irrigation water standards.

Sodium chloride is the water nature of all the water bearing formations. Some

169

of the exposed water bodies, especially near the eastern coast, seem to be

influenced by seawater intrusion as their chemical analyses appear similar to

Bahrain's seawater. The quality, in terms of total dissolved solids, varies from

greater than 500 ppm to greater than 5 000 ppm regarding the groundwaters

of Dammam Group of Formations. The difference in these results depends on

the samples' location. The water quality of the Rus Lens/Aquifer and the Umm

Er-Radhuma Aquifer is the worst as not only their total dissolved solids are

greater than 10 000 ppm but also they contain positive values of the toxic

hydrogen sulphide gas. Seawater encroachment is thought to be the cause of

their deterioration due to over-pumping. Despite these previous comments, all

the water bearing formations are found to be bacteriologically safe.

8.1.3 Present and Future Position of the Water Table Level

The piezometric levels of Sanad Aquifer have been rising, especially within the

reclaimed lands as well as along the previous shore. The amount of rise has

been reducing away from the original shore as far south as the Buddayya Road

where the piezometric levels have been falling. The positive change in these

levels is expected due to the obstruction of natural drainage in the original land

along with excessive surface (traditional) irrigation. The reduction in the levels'

rise is expected due to the possible leakages from the water supply pipes or

seepages from the septic tanks. The Sanad Aquifer's future piezometric levels

are predicted to follow the same present trend.

The water levels of the Alat Aquifer have been falling except for one borehole

which has shown a positive gradient. The fall of the levels is believed due to

excessive groundwater abstraction, whereas the rise of the sole bore hole is

thought due to the increased depth of the nearby Lawzi Lake. The water table

level of this aquifer is predicted to continue falling in the future provided that the

rates of abstraction stay at their present trend. The levels of the sole borehole

are estimated to rise if, and only if,'the lake's present surface does not fall.

170

Chapter 8: Conclusions and Recommendations

Similar to the immediate overlying aquifer, the piezometric levels of the Khobar

Aquifer have been falling except for two boreholes which have been rising. The

negative slope is thought due to over-pumping of the groundwater. An upward

leakage from the underlying aquifer is believed to be the cause which has led

one of Khobar Aquifer's boreholes to experience rising water table levels. The

other borehole is believed to have been influenced by near shore topography

being affected by excessive irrigation. The future levels are estimated to

continue falling only if the present rate of the groundwater abstraction stays as

it is. The water table levels are foreseen to rise for the other two bore holes.

Since only one borehole was drilled through the Rus Lens/Aquifer, the

conclusion drawn would refer to this particular borehole, not the whole aquifer.

The water table levels of this borehole have been falling which is believed to

be due to excessive groundwater abstraction. They are expected to continue

falling.

The piezometric levels of the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer have been showing a

steady fall. This is thought to be due to over-pumping of the groundwater along

with leaking to the overlying aquifers especially where this aquifer's head is

greater than the overlying ones. The gradient of this aquifer's water table levels

is calculated to continue falling following their present trend.

Like the Rus Lens/Aquifer, the Aruma Aquifer has only one borehole drilled.

Therefore, the drawn conclusion refers to the borehole itself. The water table

levels of this borehole have been falling which is not due to over-pumping, but

rather due to being a leaky aquifer seeping groundwater to Umm-Er-Radhuma

Aquifer. The future forecast for this borehole is expected to continue falling

following the present trend.

171


8.1.4 Geotechnical Effects

Since the Sanad Aquifer is the shallowest groundwater, the soil supporting

building foundations in this area is foreseen to be affected by this groundwater's

quality along with its water table changes which may accordingly influence any

concreted foundations. The rise of this aquifer's water table is expected to

reduce the bearing capacity of the soil and cause settlement of the building.

The rise is expected to cause the corrosion of the embedded steel if the

concrete is not compacted properly. It may further result in seeping into the

ground floor, causing damage to the floor slab and the internal walls. The fall

of the Sanad Aquifer's piezometric levels is not expected to cause settlement

to the buildings especially on the northern part of Bahrain because gypsum, the

soluble mineral, is not highly present.

8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

8.2.1 Recommendations for Upgrading of the Groundwater System

Since tertiary treated wastewater is applied in agriculture which indirectly

reaches the groundwater, then direct artificial recharge, through the boreholes,

is suggested. This recharge may prolong the usage of the sub-surface water

and may improve the groundwater's quality; especially as the abstraction rates

are always increasing.

Due to the increasing population on the small set of islands, the researcher

cannot propose the cessation of sea reclamation. One can only suggest that

the process of sea reclamation could be reduced and protective measures

should be applied before the new land is backfilled. These measures may

involve studying the effects of removing the existing seabed sand, whether on

the living organisms or on the underlying aquifer. Also they may include

considering the effects on both after reclamation.

172


8.2.2 Recommendations for Future Work

The available data and presented results may be used as a base for future

work. However, had the abstraction rates per aquifer per month been made

available, the data and accordingly the results could have been better

employed.

Apart from the Alat, the Khobar, and the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifers, the other

aquifers do not have enough observation wells. All of the Sanad Aquifer

standpipes appear on the northern coast of Bahrain. The Rus Lens/Aquifer and

the Aruma Aquifer each have one observation borehole. Therefore, more

monitoring standpipes should be drilled on the eastern and western coasts of

the Island for Sanad Aquifer and more observation wells should be drilled for

both the Rus Lens/Aquifer and the Aruma Aquifer. A minimum of 10 monitoring

standpipes would be recommended for the Sanad Aquifer on each side of the

coast. These standpipes should be drilled along the total length of the coast.

At least six observation boreholes would be recommended for the Rus Lens/

Aquifer, three of which should appear across the Interior Basin. Similarly

through the Aruma Aquifer, not more than three scattered boreholes would be

recommended around the Island. The water table levels of the observation

wells should be monitored on a monthly basis as the other existing bore holes

into the other aquifers. Better understanding of the Sanad, the Rus and the

Aruma Aquifers' behaviour could be interpreted following the ideas which

apPElared in this study.

Finally, the scattered water and wastewater departments have proved to cause

difficulty in obtaining the requested data. At present, the Water Supply

Directorate and the Wastewater Treatment Plant belong to the Ministry of Public

Works, Electricity, and Water. The Parks Directorate (utilising treated

wastewaterfor irrigation) belongs to the Central Municipality Council. The Water

Resources Directorate and the Agriculture Directorate (utilising groundwater for

173

- ----- .~


irrigation) belong to the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. The Water

Chemical and Bacteriological Laboratories belong to the Public Health

Directorate of the Ministry of Health. Although each of the above departments

has its own laboratory conducting specific analyses, each department still sends

its water samples to the latter Ministry for further checks. As a result, the

formation of a new Ministry/Department of Water encompassing all the water

sections in the different ministries is highly recommended .

. 174

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190

APPENDIX' A'

A.1 PREPARATION PROCEDURES

Each water sampling site needed six bottles; refer to Table 5.1. Glassware bottles were washed thoroughly with hot water. They were left to dry after which they were re·washed with distilled water to remove any clinging salts. A 0.5 ml of 10% sodium thiosulphate solution was added to the bottles which would be tested for coliforms. This amount would neutralise any chlorine present and would allow the bacteria to proceed with their duties naturally. The bacteriological bottles would be capped and placed along with the other uncapped glassware bottles on a different shelf in an oven at 170°C for an hour to sterilise them. Plastic bottles were obtained pre-sterilised forthey were used for "stool" testing.

The Public Health Directorate Laboratory performed most of the chemical and bacteriological testing. This laboratory is considered the best on the Island because it analyses water and food products for human consumption. It tested carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, fluoride, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, silica, pH, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids in the Water Chemistry Laboratory. It tested the total coliform and faecal coliform in the Bacteriological Laboratory. The Ministry of Works, Electricity and Water-Sewerage Section tested the samples for hydrogen sulphide, nitrite and the 5-day BOO test.

A.2 TESTING FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The first step the chemists undertake when they receive the sample is to measure its physical properties in this order: the pH value, the electrical conductivity (EC) in micromhos per centimetre, which is equivalent to ilS/cm, at 25°C, and the total dissolved solids (TOS) in parts per million.

A.2.1 Measurement of pH Value

1. The operation is conducted through the electrometric method because it is not affected by the other physical properties such as colour or turbidity of the sample. The instrument used was a Radiometer (1981) model PHM82 pH meter.

2. Standard buffer solutions of known pH value are prepared of pH 5, 4.008, 6.865 and 9.180.

3. The electrode is filled with saturated potassium chloride. 4. The electrode is washed with distilled water and wiped gently. 5. It is placed in one of the buffer solutions being stirred and the

temperature gauge is set at 25°C until the known pH value of the standard appears.

A.l

6. The calibration button is pressed on the instrument setting the electrometer.

7. The electrode is re-washed and re-wiped. 8. The pH button is pressed and the electrode is immersed into the beaker

containing the 50 ml sample where a magnetic tablet is stirred slowly. 9. The reading is obtained when the needle stops on a fixed value to the

nearest 0.1. 10. If the gauge's needle stops at either end of the meter, another buffer

solution is utilised and re-calibrated according to the manual. 11. The electrode is removed, re-washed, re-wiped and re-immersed in the

distilled water cup for the next sample.

A.2.2 Measurement of Electrical Conductivity

1. The operation is conducted through the electrometric method using the (HACH, 1989a) model 44600.

2. The instrument is set to a specific conductivity range while the temperature is set at 25°C.

3. The electrode is washed with distilled water and wiped dry gently. 4. It is immersed into the beaker containing the 50 ml sample while the

gauge is turned to conductivity measurement. 5. The needle measures the (EC) to the nearest 1.0 micromhos/cm. 6. If the needle stops at either end, then the range must be reset. 7. The electrode is removed, re-washed, re-wiped, and replaced in the

distilled water cup.

A.2.3 Measurement of Total Dissolved Solids

1. The operation is conducted manually. 2. Three clean stainless steel dishes are kept in a drying oven at 103°C to

105°C for one hour. 3. They are cooled in the desiccator for 10 minutes. 4. Each dish is weighed in milligrammes making sure that only tongs are

used. 5. A sample of 50 ml is pi petted on each dish which is placed on a steam

bath until it evaporates. 6. The dishes are placed in a drying oven for an hour at 103°C to 105°C

after which they are cooled in the desiccator. 7. Each dish is weighed and the average is reported. 8. The whole cycle is repeated and the dishes are re-weighed until an

unvarying value is determined. 9. The dishes are cleaned and washed. 10. The difference between the weight of each dish after heating the sample

and before adding the sample is multiplied by 1000 and divided by the sample size in millilitres. The result is the TDS in ppm.

11. Note: This procedure was not used until the beginning of 1991. Previously, the TDS was determined\ by dividing the electrical conductivity value by 2 because the TDS Ivalue is known to be in the range of 0.5 to 0.65 of the EC value.

A.2

A.2.4 Determination of Turbidity

The laboratory performed visual turbidity tests only.

A.3 TESTING FOR CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

The Public Health Directorate's Laboratory does not follow a specific order in determining the chemical constituents. It starts with the elements which follow the titration methods.

A.3.1 Determination of Alkalinity. Carbonates and Bicarbonates

1. The operation is conducted using pH indicators and titration with sulphuriC acid.

2. A 50 ml sample is poured into a 250 ml erlenmeyer flask. 3. Six drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added and mixed together

with the sample. 4. If the colour does not change, then the phenolphthalein alkalinity is zero. 5. If the colour changes to pink, its alkalinity is determined by titrating the

sample with 0.020N of sulphuric acid - volume (A) until it becomes colourless.

6. The phenolphthalein alkalinity (as mg/I CaC03) =

Volume (A) x 0.02 x 50000 ml of sample

7. Six drops of methyl orange indicator are added and swirled in the above solution while its phenolphthalein alkalinity is measured.

8. If the colour of the sample changes immediately to orange, then the total alkalinity is zero.

9.. If it does not change, then titration to a volume (B) with 0.020N of sulphuric acid is performed until the water sample colour changes to orange from yellow.

10. Total alkalinity (as mg/l CaC03) =

(A + B) x 0.02 x 50000 ml of sample

11. The hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate alkalinities as CaC03, are determined from Table (A. 1 ).

12. . The bicarbonate concentration as mg HC03-/I is obtained by multiplying the result from Table (A.1) by 1.22.

A.3

TABLE (A.1): Alkalinity Relationships; After (APHA et al., 1985)

Result of Hydroxide Carbonate Titration Alkalinity Alkalinity

All as mg/l CaC02

P=O 0 0 P < 1/2 T 0 2P P = 1/2 T 0 2P P> 1/2 T 2 P-T 2(T-P) P=T T 0

where P = phenolphthalein alkalinity = volume (A) and T = total alkalinity = volumes (A + B)

A.3.2 Determination of Calcium

Bicarbonate Alkalinity

T T-2P

0 0 0

1. The operation is conducted using HACH Chemical Company (1989b) solution titrant 'TitraVere- which is 0.02N of EDTA (Ethylene Diamino Tetra Acid) and the 'CaIVe~ 11 Calcium Reagent' in the titrimetric method.

2. A 50 ml sample is placed in a conical flask. 3. A volume of 2.0 ml of one normal sodium hydroxide is added and mixed. 4. One to two drops of 'CaIVe~ 11 Calcium Reagent' indicator are added to

the solution. 5. Titration with TitraVere- of 0.02N EDTA is performed while the solutio'n

in the conical flask is under continuous spinning until the colour changes from red to pure blue.

6. Titration is stopped immediately and the volume of the titrant used in titrating the sample is reported.

7. The value of the calcium hardness as mg CaCO:/l =

Volume in step (6) x factor x 1000 ml of sample

where the factor is the milligrammes CaC03 of the EDTA; it is normally 1.00.

8. The value of the calcium as CaH in mg/l is equal to the value obtained in step (7) multiplied by 0.4.

A.3.3 Determination of Magnesium

1. The operation is conducted by subtracting the calcium hardness test appearing in step (7) of Section A.3.2 from the total hardness test.

2. A 50 ml sample is poured into a 250 ml erlenmeyer flask.

A.4

3. One gramme of HACH Chemical Company (1989b) hardness reagent powder 'UniVer® 11' is added and mixed with the sample.

4. The same procedure appearing in steps (5) and (6) of Section A.3.2 is performed.

5. The value of the total hardness as mg CaCOJl follows the exact same equation appearing in step (7) in Section A.3.2.

6. Magnesium hardness = total hardness - calcium hardness, all in milligrammes CaC03 per litre.

7. The value of the magnesium as Mg++ in mg/l is equal to the value obtained in the previous step multiplied by 0.2435.

A.3.4 Determination of Chloride

1. The operation is conducted using mercuric nitrate as a titrant. 2. . A 100 ml sample is poured into a 250 ml erlenmeyer flask. 3. A portion of HACH Chemical Company (1989b) reagent powder pillow,

known as diphenylcarbazone, is added and mixed. 4. Titration with 0.0141 N of mercuric nitrate standard solution is performed

as the flask is being stirred until the colour changes from yellow to light pink.

5. The value of chloride as cr in mg/l is equal to the volume of the titrant used for the sample from step (4), multiplied by the normality of mercuric nitrate (0.0141 N), multiplied by 35500, and divided by the volume of the sample.

A.3.S Determination of Sodium

1. The operation is conducted using the Flame Photometric Method. The Flame Photometer was bought from Coming Company; model 410.

2. The Flame Photometer is switched on and its filter control is gauged to sodium.

3. It is set to zero by immersing its needle in de-ionised water. 4. Standard solution calibrators containing sodium of 100 and 200 mg/l are

prepared. 5. The Flame Photometer's needle is immersed in the highest calibrator

solution while the coarse control is set to a reading between 70 to 80 appearing on the digitised instrument. The fine control is set thereafter to a reading between 95 to 100.

6. The instrument is rechecked for zero by re-immersing in deionised water and readjusting it if necessary.

7. If the electrical conductivity of the sample is high, then dilution is performed and the dilution ratio (D) is calculated as

ml of sample + ml of distilled water ml of sample

A.5

8. The sample requiring the test is diluted 25 times with double deionised water before it is brought and immersed under the needle. A value is obtained. The needle is re-washed with deionised water and steps (5) to (8) are repeated inclusively for each of the solution calibrators. Step (7) is only performed once at the beginning of the test.

9. A calibration graph is prepared from the values in step (8) corresponding to each solution calibrator.

10. The value for sodium as Na+ in mg/l is obtained from the maximum peak of the calibration curve multiplied by the dilution ratio if any.

A.3.6 Determination of Potassium

1. If follows the same method appearing in Section A.3.5. 2. The Flame Photometer is switched on and its filter control is gauged to

potassium. 3. Steps (3) to (9) are all performed inclusively. The standard solution

calibrators containing potassium are used. They have 100 and 200 mg/I concentrations.

4. The value for potassium as K+ in mg/I is obtained from the peak of the calibration curve and multiplied by the dilution ratio if any.

A.3.7 Determination of Iron

1. The operation is conducted using HACH Chemical Company (1989b) iron reagent powder pillows ·FerroVef'll' in the 1, 10-phenanthroline method by the Spectrophotometer.

2. This instrument stores reference numbers for all the elements it detects. These numbers are printed inside the top cover of the instrument along with the wavelength of each element. Therefore for iron, the number 265 is pressed and entered. The instrument will display "DIAL nm TO 510" (HACH Chemical Company, 1989b).

3. The wavelength dial is rotated to 510 nm and the value is entered. 4. A 25 ml sample of deionised water is filled in one of the clean cells

accompanying the instrument. 5. The content of one ·FerroVef'll' iron reagent powder pillow is added to

the sample and mixed. If iron is present, an orange colour will form. 6. The (shift-timer) buttons on the instrument are pressed together after the

sample cell is rubbed free of any fingerprints, placed inside the cell holder, and covered with the instrument's shield.

7. The timer within the instrument will automatically display the result of total iron in mg/l after a reaction period of three minutes. This step adjusts the meter to zero mg/l.

8. Steps (4) and (7) are repeated inclusively with the requested water sample to obtain the total iron.

A.6

A.3.S Determination of Sulphate

1. The operation is conducted using HACH Chemical Company (1989b) sulphate reagent 'SulfaVe,'l" IV' in the turbidimetric method by the Spectrophotometer.

2. The numbers 680 are pressed and entered. The instrument will display "DIAL nm TO 450" (HACH Chemical Company, 1989b).

3. Steps (3) to (6) of Section A.3.7 are performed inclusively. The chemist uses different wavelengths, adds the content of one 'SulfaVe,'l" IV' sulphate reagent powder pillow, and agitates them. If sulphate is present, a white turbid colour is formed.

4. Like steps (7) and (8) in the previous section, the instrument will automatically print out the sulphate in mg/l after a reaction period of three minutes.

A.3.9 Determination of Nitrate

1. The operation is conducted using HACH Chemical Company (1989b) nitrate reagent 'NitraVe,'l" V' in the cadmium reduction method by the Spectrophotometer.

2. The numbers 355 are entered and the instrument will display "DIAL nm to SOO" (HACH Chemical Company, 1989b).

3. Steps (3) to (6) of Section A.3.7 are performed inclusively except that the wavelength and the reagent are different. Mixing of reagent and sample must be done forcefully for not more than one minute. If nitrate nitrogen is present, a brownish-yellow colour will form.

4. Steps (7) and (8) of Section A.3.7 are also performed inclusively. The value of nitrate nitrogen is displayed in mgll after a reaction period of five minutes.

A.3.10 Determination of Silica

1. The operation is conducted using the silicomolybdate method by the Spectrophotometer.

2. The numbers 655 are entered. The instrument will point out "DIAL nm to 410" (HACH Chemical Company, 1989b).

3. Steps (3) to (6) of Section A.3.7 are repeated inclusively except that the wavelength is 410 nm and the first reagent is the content of one molybdate reagent powder pillow which is mixed before the second reagent, one acid powder pillow, is added. If silica or phosphate is present, a yellow colour will form.

4. The solution is left upstanding for ten minutes after which the content of one oxalic acid powder pillow is added and mixed. The yellow colour which is caused by the phosphate will disappear.

5. The solution is left further for two minutes. It is placed in the Spectrophotometer covering its light shield for three minutes.

6. The instrument will display the silica value in mg/l.

A.7

A.3.11 Determination of Fluoride

1. The operation is conducted using the HACH DRl2 method by the Spectrophotometer.

2. The reference numbers for this anion are 190. As they are entered, the instrument will display "DIAL nm TO 580" (HACH Chemical Company, 1989b).

3. Steps (3) to (6) of Section A.3.7 are further inclusively followed. An exact amount of 5 ml of reagent is pi petted into the requested sample and the de-ionised water sample. Each is mixed.

4. Both of the samples are left for one minute after which the de-ionised water is placed in the Spectrophotometer to obtain zero mg/1.

5. The value of fluoride as F in mg/l is obtained directly from the instrument when the requested sample is placed in the cell holder.

A.3.12 Determination of Manganese

1. The operation is conducted using the Flameless Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, from Pye Unicam; model SP9.

2. A 40 ml sample is pi petted into a 50 ml graduated flask. 3. A volume of 1.0 ml of 5M of hydrochloric acid is added to the sample. 4. A volume of 5.0 ml of mixed reagents is added and mixed. These

reagents are ascorbic acid in ethanolamine buffer and formaldoxime solution.

5. The solution is left upstanding for a minimum of two minutes after which 2.0 ml of EDTAlhydroxyl ammonium chloride reagent are added and swirled.

6. Distilled water is added to the solution until it reaches the 50 ml line of the graduated flask. The solution is mixed thoroughly. It is left for a maximum period of 20 minutes.

7. The same is performed for another sample of distilled water only as a blank solution.

8. The instrument must be set before the following steps are taken. The wavelength and the band base must each be set to 279.5 nm and 0.5 nm respectively. The instrument's ashing and atomisation temperatures must be set to 1000°C and 2500°C respectively (Baig, 1991).

9. The absorbance of both solutions is measured against distilled water in 40 mm cells.

10. The difference in absorbance between the requested water sample and the blank solution is plotted on a calibration graph to obtain the value of manganese in microgrammesll which is converted to mg/l.

11. Note: Upon sampling some of Bahrain's water, it has been found that the manganese value does not reach 0.005 mg/l. The researcher requested the suspension of this test not only because the obtained values were small, but also because the test was time consuming.

A.8

A.3.13 Determination of Nitrite

1. The operation is conducted using the Spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 543 nm with one centimetre cell path.

2. A set of known nitrite solutions is prepared by placing 1 ml, 2 ml, 4 ml, 6 ml, 8 ml and 10 ml of standard solution in a 50 ml tall tube and filling it with distilled water. Each volume corresponds to 0.5 119, 1.0 119, 2.0 119, 3.0 119, 4.0 I1g and 5.0 I1g nitrite-nitrogen in a 50 ml volume. The notation (11) means it is micro.

3. Each sample is mixed after which one millilitre of sulphanilamide reagent is added.

4. It is left for a minimum period of 2 minutes after which a volume of 1.0 ml NED dihydrochloride solution is added and mixed.

5. The solution is left for a minimum period of 10 minutes. 6. Each solution is placed in the Spectrophotometer at 543 nm to obtain

the absorbance value. . 7. The obtained results are plotted in a calibration graph where the known

nitrite-nitrogen value in microgrammes appears on the x-axis and the instrument's absorbance value appears on the y-axis.

8. Steps (3) to (5) are repeated inclusively for the blank sample. 9. A 50 ml of the unknown required sample is pipetted into a 50 ml tall

tube. 10. Steps (3) to (5) are repeated inclusively for the unknown sample. A

reddish purple colour will appear. 11. Step (6) is repeated; once for the unknown sample and the other for the

blank. 12. The value of the nitrite-nitrogen in milligrammes in the required sample

is measured from the calibration graph in step (7). It is divided by the new volume of the sample which is 52 ml to obtain the quantity of nitritenitrogen in milligrammes per litre.

13. The nitrite volume in mg N02'/I is equal to the mg/l of nitrite-nitrogen multiplied by 3.29. Note: The standard solution is prepared daily according to the (APHA et al., p.242, 1971).

A.3.14 Determination of Hydrogen Sulphide

1. The operation is conducted using a digitised ion meter which measures the concentration of the sulphide directly as the sulphide ion analyser electrode is immersed into the sample.

2. The reagent ·sulphide anti-oxidant buffer (SAOS)" (ASTM, 1992) is prepared before testing the sample to make certain that the sulphide will stay as S- ion and not oxidise.

3. The SAOS is prepared by placing 600 ml of distilled water in a litre-size beaker to which 200 ml of 10 N of sodium hydroxide, 35 grammes of ascorbic acid, and 67 grammes of disodium EDTA are also added and mixed until a uniform solution appears.

4. The solution is then placed into a 1000 ml volumetric flask and diluted with distilled water to the top mark.

A.9

5. A volume of 50 ml of de-ionised water is pipetted into a 50 ml of SAOB and mixed; this is the blank sample.

6. The above solution in step (5) is left for a period not less than 3 minutes, but not more than 5 minutes.

7. Steps (5) and (6) are repeated for the requested pre-treated sample on site.

8. The electrode is washed with distilled water and dried gently before it is immersed into the blank sample.

9. The electrode is then placed into the unknown sample. The meter displays the result directly in mgll.

10. Step (8) is repeated until another sample is ready for testing.

A.4 TESTING FOR BIOLOGICAL ORGANISMS

A.4.1 Detection of Total Coliform Bacteria

1. The operation is conducted using the membrane filtration method. 2. Two samples of 100 ml each are poured over a sterilised filter into the

flask through a clamped funnel. 3. Each funnel is loosened and the filters are removed. 4. A sterilised cellulose ester filter of 55 mm diameter and a grid opening

of 0.45 mm is placed, grid size upwards, where the previous sterilised filter was using sterilised forceps.

5~ The funnel's ring is clamped tightly. As vacuuming is applied, the volume of the sample is sucked through the filter.

6. The filter is placed, grid side upwards, on a sterilised disposable watertight plastic MacConkey plate of 55 mm x 15 mm which contains the agar medium. The laboratory used MacConkey membrane agar.

7. When placing the filtered sample on the plates, care must be experienced so as to not entrap any air bubbles.

8. The two dishes are incubated invertedly for 24 hours at a temperature between 35° to 3rC.

9. After incubation, the coliform colonies appear as minute dots sometimes clustered on the filter which have a pinkish-red colour. Being' small, the colonies are counted using a good source of lighting and a stereoscope microscope to magnify them 10 to 15 times. The stereoscope is aCari Zeiss (1989) model CITROVAL 11.

10. The reported number is in coliform colonies per 100 ml. 11. Whether the test results in positive or negative colonies, another test is

performed in the same tested filter. It is the most probable number test (MPN). Three tubes of 10 ml of MacConkey broth are introduced on the growth of the coliform colonies from the membrane filter.

12. After an incubation period of 48 hours, at 3rC, the colonies will ferment causing CO2 to produce and a yellow colour to appear. This test

, confirms the presence of the total coliform bacteria.

A.10

-- -------

A.4.2 Detection of Faecal Coliform Bacteria

1. The operation if conducted using the membrane filtration method. 2. Steps (2) to (10) of the previous Section, A.4.1, are repeated inclusively

except that the temperature during the incubation period of 24 hours is increased to 45°C. If any faecal coliforms, which are a result of animal or human faecal pollution are present, they will appear in blue over the yellowish creamish blue treated membrane. If non·faecal coliforms are present, they will appear in grey to cream.

3. Like steps (11) and (12) of the previous section, the same test is performed. Only one exception arises, the treated plates are placed in a water bath at 45°C.

4. If the result in the above step (3) is positive, then the indole test is performed to check the presence of E.Coli bacteria which are a result of human faecal pollution. The plate containing the culture in the above step experiences two different sets of incubations. The first incubation· is for 24 hours at 37"C inoculating 1 0 ml of urea agar with some of the results. The other incubation is for 24 hours at 45°C in a water bath but inoculating 5 ml of tryptone with the rest of the results.

5. If negative results are observed on the first incubation, then E.Coli is present and the second inoculated sample will confirm it. A volume of 0.2 to 0.3 ml of 'Kovacs' reagent (MacConkey, Undated) is added to the latter sample and it is shaken.

6. The formation of a deep red colour appears towards the top of the solution confirming the presence of the E.Coli bacteria.

A.4.3 Detection of Micro-Organisms

1. The operation is conducted using the 5 day Biochemical Oxygen Demand Test (BOOs).

2. A BOO bottle, of 250 ml, is filled totally with the sample making sure that no air bubbles are formed. The bottle is closed using its stopper so any excess can recede outside it.

3. A volume of 2.0 ml of manganese sulphate solution is pipetted into the sample just below its surface as its stopper is unplugged.

4. Another volume of 2.0 ml of alkaline oxide iodine solution is pipetted into the bottle but over the surface of the sample.

5. The stopper is replaced ensuring no air bubbles are entrapped. 6. The bottle is inverted gently several times so both of the solutions will

mix with the sample. 7. The bottle is left upstanding to allow the precipitate to settle. It is re·

mixed thereafter. 8. Step (7) is repeated so the precipitate sinks down totally. It is not re·

mixed. 9. A volume of 4 ml 1:1 sulphuric acid is added to the solution and is re·

mixed until all the precipitate disappears. 10. A volume of 200 ml is taken from the solution into a conical flask. It is

titrated with 0.025N of sodium thiosulphate until the colour of the solution becomes pale yellow.

A.11

11. A starch indicator is then added which will change the colour of the solution to blue. Titration is further continued until the solution becomes colour1ess.

12. The volume of the titrant, sodium thiosulphate, is the dissolved oxygen of the sample in mg 0/1.

13. The rest of the original sample is shaken vigorously to allow the air to escape.

14. For each one litre of the sample, a volume of 1.0 ml of 0.05% of allylthiourea is added to the volume appearing in step (13) above. It is then mixed.

15. The mixed sample is poured into another clean BOO bottle avoiding any air entrapment.

16. Steps (2) to (15) are repeated inclusively for the blank sample . . 17. The samples of steps (15) and (16) are incubated in the dark at 20·C for

five days. 18. Steps (3) to (11) are repeated inclusively for the incubated two samples. 19. The BOO result is the difference between the volume of the titrant before

the sample has been incubated and after the sample has been incubated. The result is adjusted by dividing the difference over the difference in the blank sample before and after incubation.

A.12

REFERENCES

. AL-ARADI, Amal. Undated. Testing Procedures for Nitrite, Hydrogen Sulphide, and the 5-day BOD Test. Unpublished. Ministry of Works, Power and Water. Sewerage Section - Tubli Wastewater Treatment Plant Laboratory. Bahrain.

APHA, AWWA, and WPCF. 1985. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 16th Ed. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation. Washington DC: USA.

ASTM. 1992. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Section 11. Volume 11.01: Water (I). pp 606-9. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: USA.

BAIG, Badr AI-Hassan. 1990. Head of Public Health Laboratory. Personal communication in his office on 17 July at 0900 hours.

CARLZEISS. 1989. Stereoscope Microscope. Model CITOVAL 11. Germany.

CORNING Company. 1990. Flame Photometer. Model 410. UK.

HACH CHEMICAL COMPANY. 1989a. Testing for conductivity electrometrically through model 44600.

HACH CHEMICAL COMPANY. 1989b. DR2000 Spectrophotometer Handbook. All chemical reagents for testing of Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, Iron, Sulphate, Nitrate, Silica, and Fluoride are bought from this company; copies of the above tests are sent upon request. HACH. Denver, Colorado: USA.

MACCONKEY. Undated. All the required materials for testing for coliforms are bought from this company on an annual basis from Difco, Michigan: USA.

PUBLIC HEALTH DIRECTORATE. Undated. Testing Procedures for pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Alkalinity, Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Chloride, Sodium, Potassium, Manganese, Total Coliform., Bacteria, and Faecal Coliform Bacteria. Unpublished. Received upon request. . Public Health Laboratory. Bahrain.

PYE UNICAM. 1984. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Model SP9. UK.

RADIOMETER. 1981. Model PHM82. Denmark.

A.13

APPENDIX B

All the analysed data computer printout results for all the aquifers along with

some miscellaneous ones are shown on the microfiche jackets. The new

reference is printed on the top right corner of each computer printout slip. It

replaces the old reference and the laboratory number. It is used on all the A 1

sheets in the Piper Diagram. The first letter refers to the sector where the

sample was collected.

So BR refers to Buddayya Road Sector

E refers to Inner Sector

M refers to Muharraq Island and its surrounding Sector

N refers to Manama Sector

S refers to Sitrah and Nabih Salih Island Sector

T refers to Coastal Sector

but a refers to the samples which had an ionic balance of greater than ± 10%.

The first number after these figures is the serial number within that particular

location in the particular aquifer. The first letter appearing after the number

refers to the months. So 'J' stands for January, 'F' stands for February, 'M'

stands for March, 'A' stands for April, 'V' stands for May, 'E' stands for June,

'L' stands for July, 'G' stands for August, 'P' stands for September, '0' stands

for October, 'V' stands for November, and '0' stands for December. Since most

of the data were collected during 1991, the year identification number does not

appear. If the samples were sampled in 1990 or 1992, then the numbers '0'

and '2' will appear after the months. The last letter on the right refers to the

geographical location of that particular sample with respect to the sector itself.

'N, S, E and W' refer to north, south, east and west respectively. These

references are also shown in Table (B.1) along with the samples' UTM

coordinates. Their location is displayed in Figure (B.1). Following this set,

Table (B.2) and Figure (B.2) present the coordinates and the locations of the

observation wells. This appendix ends with a presentation of all the chemical

results including the water table levels on microfiche jackets.

B.1

TABLE (B.1): The Grid Coordinates for All the Collected and Analysed Samples

Ser- UTM-Coordinates Lab New Aqui- Location ial No' Old ReI' Ref' fer"

No' Northing Easting

1 2900728 456606 233/9t UM-SAWALI M1Y A Between Muharraq Is. and ASRY 2 2895970 458650 241191 M'dM SIEE B Nabih Salih Is. 3 2895880 458700 51519t ASHK S2VE B Nabih Salih Is. 4 2896040 458760 516191 AAS S3VN B Nabih Salih Is. 5 2892810 458565 519191 AASS TtVE B E. Bah.ls: Sanad 6 2892570 458990 520/91 ASG T2VE B E.Bah.ls: Sanad 7 2891000 459340 521191 ADB T3VE B E.Bah.ls: A1-Nuwaydrat 8 2897660 456220 525/91 ABSH T4VE B E.Bah.ls: A1-Kawara 9 2895250 445300 205/91 MA.) T5YW B W.Bah.ls: AI-Jasra 10 2890500 448360 528/91 LLN T6VW B W.Bah.ls: Lawzi Lake 11 2890500 448360 574191 LLN OT7DW B W.Bah.ls: Lawzi Lake 12 2890500 448360 008192 LLN T8J2W B W.Bah.ls: Lawzi Lake 13 2899040 448470 200191 SA BRtY C' Near Sarr Village 14 2800080 455105 330191 S. HAMZA BR2G C Jid Halls 15 2800550 456790 332/91 AL·BASSAM BR3G C End 01 Buddayya Rd: Manama 16 2898960 448670 204/91 SKK OBR1Y C Near Sarr Village 17 2800080 447020 199191 DORAZ OBR2Y C Doraz 18 2899640 448215 219191 AMK OBR3Y C Near Sarr Village 19 2800030 450025 222/91 MM OBR4Y C A1-Shakhoora 20 2800080 447020 221191 DORAZ OBR5Y C Doraz 21 2899080 449110 284/91 SH.MONEERA OBRSL C Maqaba 22 2899575 451930 282/91 S. JAWAD OBR7L C A1.Qadam 23 2899200 448725 283/91 FAHDA. G. OBRSL C Maqaba 24 2900030 450025 315191 MM OBR9G C A1-Shakhoora 25 2899670 453130 321191 MA OBR10G C Jiblal HibshalAl-Sehla A1-Fawqiyah 26 2800080 447020 319191 DORAZ OBRllG C Doraz 27 2898960 449670 317191 SKK OBR12G C Near Sarr Village 28 2899640 448215 320/91 AMK OBR13G C Near Sarr Village 28 2900560 456130 333/91 AL-BASTANA OBR14G C End of Buddayya Rd: Manama 30 2800090 454760 331193 AR MADANI OBR15G C End of Jidhafs Village 31 2899845 453110 328191 AMJH OBR16G C Jiblat Hibshi 32 2800050 447875 327191 AG OBR17G C Near Bart>ar Village 33 2800220 447995' 422/91 A OBR18P C Near Barbar Village 34 2893510 451350 360191 MH E1G C A'ali 35 2876375 451260 338/90 AL-AREEN E2GO C A1-Markh (A1-Areen Sanctuary) 36 2892030 449505 395/91 BSS OE1G C Buri 37 2891920 449500 394/91 ABBASA H OE2G C Buri 38 2803720 463400 214191 ARAD MtY C Arad: Muharraq Is. 39 2897270 466400 213/91 ASRY M2Y C ASRY 40 2802845 460905 215191 MP M3Y C A1-Muhanaq: Muharraq Is. 41 2803790 460660 212/91 HO M4Y C A1-Muhanaq: Muharraq Is. 42 2906700 463300 231191 KSM MaY C Near Samahij Village: Muharraq Is. 43 2806300 464200 232/91 MCA-M MaY C Near Samaihij Village: Muharraq Is. 44 2802845 460905 234/91 MP M7Y C A1-Muharraq: Muharraq Is. 45 2899855 456310 186/91 KKGP N1A C SUburbs of Manarna 46 2899710 456380 185/91 KKGI N2A C SUburbs of Manarna 47 2899480 457520 344/91 SS N3A C Salmaniya: Manama 48 2899650 457380 345191 SHWP N4G C Salmaniya: Manarna 49 2897755 460475 349191 HHP N5G C Near Mina Salman: Manama 50 2898180 461010 351191 MSN N6G C Mina Salman: Manama 51 2899250 459610 352/91 WPCO N7G C Manama 52 2898575 459360 350191 ZT N8G C A1-Mahooz: Manarna 53 2899065 458705 354/91 ASWP N9G C A1-Mahooz: Manarna 54 2802000 459175 353/91 HT N10G C A1-Hoora: Manarna 55 2898920 456360 355/91 RZ NllG C Zinj Jadida: Manama 56 2898160 455410 356/91 AL-GASAB NI2G C Bilad Al.Qadeem 57 2808080 455140 357191 SH.ISA NI3G C Bilad Al.Qadeem 58 2808480 457990 359191 MSS N14G C Near Umm-A1-Hassarn: Manama 59 2899335 458250 358/91 HA NI5G C Bu'Ashira: Manama 60 2899540 456370 418/91 FAKHRO N16P C A1-Sa1ihiya: SUburbs of Manarna

B.2

5er· TM·Coordinates Lab New Aqui· Location ial No· Old ReF Re" fer" No' Northing Easting

61 2898920 456360 420191 RZ NI7P C' Zinj Jadida: Manama 62 2899335 458250 419191 HA N18P C Bu'Ashirah: Manama 63 2900220 455910 423191 SH.S N19P C A1·Burhama: Suburbs of Manama 64 2899710 456380 529191 KKGI N20V C Suburbs of Manama 65 2895720 458nO 243191 IM SIE C Nabih Salih Is. 66 2896070 458790 240191 AAM S2E C Nabih Salih Is. 67 2896170 458350 242191 HM S3E C Nabih Salih Is. 68 2894090 461090 348191 SITRA S4G C A1.Qaryah: Silrah Island 69 2893210 460570 424191 FEK S5P C Wadiyan: Sitrah Island 70 2888880 460545 533190 BAPCO-Wl0 nVOE C Facing Sitrah Island 71 2878405 447650 546190 WASMIYA T2VOW C W.Bah.ls: Wasmiya 72 2871550 445660 547190 JAZA'IR T3VOW C W.Bah.ls: Jaza'ir 73 2689010 460390 632190 BAPCO-W42 T4DOE C Facing Sitrah Island 74 2894160 45nso 187191 KMKG TSAE C E.Bah.ls: JUrdab 75 2895250 445300 202191 BJ T6YW C W.Bah.ls: AhJasra 76 2895100 445900 203191 KSJ T7YW C W.Bah.ls: AhJasra 77 2901025 446560 220191 ARK TSYN C N.Bah.ls: Ras A1-Shuraybah 78 2897830 445930 248191 HAY T9EW C W.Bah.ls: Near AI-Ourayyah Village 79 2899400 445740 249191 AR Tl0EW C W.Bah.ls: Near Buddayya 80 2898390 445490 345191 AB TllEW C W.Bah.ls: Near Buddayya 81 2901365 450310 257191 SA T12EN C N.Bah.ls: Jid·Alhaj 82 2901140 449nO 256191 AZ·II T13EN C N.Bah.ls: Janussan 83 2900650 454170 297191 AK T14LN C N.Bah.ls: SanabislOaih 94 2901080 450880 300191 SH.MOH·O T15LN C N.Bah.ls: Nomt Karbabad Village 85 2901210 452nO 296191 MANSOORI T16LN C N.Bah.ls: Karbabad 86 2901835 450870 299191 ASN T17LN C N.Bah.ls: AI-Oala'a 87 2891290 461030 347191 AN T18GE C Facing Silrh island 88 2894160 45nso 362191 KMKG T19GE C E. Bah.ls: Jurdab 89 2894590 457570 361191 HAGI.H. T20GE C E.Bah.ls: JUrdab 90 2875600 461970 400191 SH.J T21GE C E.Bah.ls: Ja_ 91 2891870 458860 401191 MSR T22GE C E.Bah.ls: Sanad 92 2891615 448060 396191 S.MOH·O T23GW C W.Bah.ls: Near Oumistan Village 93 2890909 445965 393191 FAHO GA. T24GN C W.Bah.ls: Al-Hamala 94 2888530 447565 398191 5H.lSA·K T25GW C W.Bah.ls: Karzakan 95 2887120 448610 397191 AMA T26GW C W.Bah.ls: Karzakan Al-Malikiya 96 2886420 448150 399191 ABN T27GW C W.Bah.ls: Al-Malikiya 97 2894590 . 457570 524191 HAGI H. T28VE C E.Bah.ls: JUrdab 98 2897985 445680 247191 AKM T29EW C W.Bah.ls: Near Buddayya 99 2898260 445710 246191 AWZ T30EW C W.Bah.ls: Near Buddayya 100 2901800 449610 253191 AIK on EN C N.Bah.ls: North Janussan Village 101 2901550 449610 254191 MY OT2EN C N.Bah.ls. North Janussan Village 102 2900825 449860 255191 AZ OT3EN C N.Bah.ls:Janussan 103 2901400 452740 298191 HBJ OT4LN C N.Bah.ls: South Karbabad Village 104 2901800 449610 318191 AIK OTSGN C N.Bah.ls: North Janussan Village 105 2900825 449860 316191 AZ OTOON C N.Bah.ls: Janussan 106 2901740 449945 328191 SKKJ OT7GN C N.Bah.ls: Jid-Alhaj 107 2894590 457570 421191 HAGI H. OT8PE C E. Bah.ls: Jurdab 108 2898910 458570 509191 AOS NWK C AI·Mahooz: Manama 109 2897940 454465 508191 AOH N2VK C AI-Sahla A1·Hadriyah 110 2885705 452345 479191 RACECOURSE·Wl El00 0 AI-Sakhir 111 2885705 452345 492190 RACECOURSE·Wl E2VO 0 AI-Sakhir 112 2885705 452345 548190 RACECOURSE·Wl E3VO 0 AI-Sakhir 113 2885705 452345 566190 RACECOURSE·Wl E4DO 0 AI-Sakhir 114 2885705 452345 599190 RACECOURSE·Wl E5DO 0 AI-Sakhir 115 2885705 452345 126191 RACECOURSE·Wl E6M 0 AI-Sakhir 116 2885705 452345 224191 RACECOURSE·Wl E7Y 0 AI-Sakhir 117 2885705 452345 235191 RACECOURSE·Wl E8Y 0 AI-Sakhir 118 2885705 452345 537191 RACECOURSE·Wl E9V 0 AI-Sakhir 119 2885670 452395 480190 RACECOURSE·W2 El 000 0 AI-Sakhir 120 2885670 452395 493190 RACECOURSE·W2 E1WO 0 AI-Sakhir 121 2885670 452395 549190 RACECOURSE·W2 E12VO 0 AI-Sakhir 122 2885670 452395 567190 RACECOURSE·W2 E13DO 0 AI-Sakhir 123 2885670 452395 600190 RACECOURSE·W2 E14DO 0 AI-Sakhir 124 2885670 452395 127191 RACECOURSE·W2 E15M 0 AI-Sakh~

125 2885670 452395 225191 RACECOURSE·W2 E16Y 0 AI-Sakhir 126 2885670 452395 236191 RACECOURSE·W2 EI7Y 0 AI-Sakhir 127 2885670 452395 538191 RACECOURSE·W2 E18V 0 AI-Sakh~ 128 2883570 460300 527190 RA.r·Wl EWO E Nr Earth Station by Ras Abu Ja~ur 129 2883570 460300 584190 RAJ.Wl E2DO E Nr Earth Station by Ras Abu Ja~ur

8.3

Ser- UTM-Coordinates Lab New Aqui- Location iaJ No· Old ReF Ref' le"

No' Northing Easting

130 2883570 460300 142191 RAJ..Wl E3M E Nr Earth Station by Ras Abu Ja~ur t31 2883570 460300 tmel RAJ-Wl E4A E Nr Earth Station by Ras Abu ~ur 132 2883570 460300 267191 RAJ-Wl E5E E Nr Earth Station by Ras Abu Ja~ur 133 2883340 460365 528191 RAJ..W2 E6VO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 134 2883340 460365 612190 RAJ-W2 E7DO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 135 2883340 460365 625190 RAJ..W2 E8DO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 136 2883340 460365 143/91 RAJ..W2 E9M E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 137 2883340 460365 268191 RAJ..W2 EtOE E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 138 2883170 460435 509190 RAJ..W3 El tVO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 139 2883170 460435 529190 RAJ-W3 E12VO E Near Ras Abu Jarjur 140 2883170 460435 580190 RAJ..W3 E13DO E Near Ras Abu Jarjur 141 2883170 460435 613190 RAJ..W3 E14DO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 142 2883170 460435 283191 RAJ-W3 E15l E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 143 2882870 460500 510190 RAJ-W4 E16VO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 144 2882870 460500 530190 RAJ-W4 El7VO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 145 2882870 460500 614190 RAJ-W4 E18DO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 146 2882870 460500 626190 RAJ-W4 E19DO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 147 2883870 460500 500191 RAJ-W4 E20V E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 148 2882610 460550 511190 RAJ-W5 E21VO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 149 2882610 460550 615190 RAJ..W5 E22DO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 150 2882610 460550 283191 RAJ-W5 E23l E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 151 2882610 460550 302191 RAJ-W5 E24l E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 152 2882610 460550 501191 RAJ-W5 E25V E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 153 2882380 460590 512190 RAJ..W6 E26VO E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 154 2882380 460590 531190 RAJ..W6 E27V0 E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 155 2882110 460650 513190 RAJ..W7 E28VO E Behind Askar village 156 2882110 460650 616190 RAJ-W7 E29DO E Behind Askar village 157 2882110 460650 26519t RAJ-W7 E30E E Behind Askar village 158 2882110 460650 285191 RAJ-W7 E31l E Behind Askar village 159 2881875 460695 514190 RAJ-W8 E32VO E Behind Askar village 160 2881875 460695 269191 RAJ-W6 E33E E Behind Askar village 161 2881625 460750 532190 RAJ-W9 E34VO E Behind Askar valage 162 288 t 625 460750 146191 RAJ-W9 E35M E Behind Askar village 163 2881625 460750 175/91 RAJ-W9A E36A E Behind Askar village 164 2881625 460750 176191 RAJ-W9B E37A E Behind Askar village 165 2881625 460750 264191 RAJ-W9 E38E E Behind Askar village 166 2881410 460790 583190 RAJ..Wl0 E39DO E Behind Askar village 167 2881410 460790 557191 RAJ-Wl0 E40V E Behind Askar village 168 2881410 460790 561191 RAJ-Wl0 E41D E Behind Askar village 169 2881410 460790 018192 RAJ-Wl0 E42J2 E Behind Askar village 170 2881150 460840 617190 RAJ-Wll E43DO E Near Ras Hayyan 171 2881150 460840 t72191 RAJ-Wll E44A E Near Ras Hayyan t72 2881150 460840 286191 RAJ..Wll E45l E Near Ras Hayyan 173 2881150 460840 303/91 RAJ-Wll E46l E Near Ras Hayyan 174 2881150 460840 555191 RAJ-Wll E47V E Near Ras Hayyan t75 2880900 460900 515190 RAJ..W12 E48VO E Near Ras Hayyan 176 2880900 460900 582190 RAJ..W12 E49DO E Near Ras Hayyan In 2880900 460900 270/91 RAJ..W12 E50E E Near Ras Hayyan 178 2880900 460900 304191 RAJ..W12 E51l E Near Ras Hayyan 179 2880900 460900 502191 RAJ..W12 E52V E Near Ras Hayyan 160 2880650 460925 516190 RAJ..W13 E53VO E Near Ras Hayyan 181 2880650 460925 271191 RAJ..W13 E54E E Near Ras Hayyan 182 2880400 461000 517190 RAJ..W14 E65VO E Near Ras Hayyan 183 2880400 461000 627190 RAJ..W14 E56DO E Near Ras Hayyan 184 2880400 461000 147191 RAJ..W14 E57M E Near Ras Hayyan 185 2880400 461000 272191 RAJ..W14 E58E E Near Ras Hayyan 186 2880400 461000 305/91 RAJ..W14 E59l E Near Ras Hayyan 187 2880400 461000 503191 RAJ..W14 E60V E Near Ras Hayyan 188 2880175 461050 626190 RAJ..W15 E6100 E Near Ras Hayyan 189 2880175 461050 171191 RAJ..W15 E62A E Near Ras Hayyan 190 2880175 461050 263191 RAJ..W15 E63E E Near Ras Hayyan 191 2880175 461050 281191 RAJ..W15 E64l E Near Ras Hayyan 192 2880175 461050 306191 RAJ..W15 E85l E Near Ras Hayyan 193 2880175 461050 504191 RAJ..W15 E86V E Near Ras Hayyan 194 2882610 460550 144191 RAJ..W5 OE1M E Near Ras Abu JaJjur 195 2881875 460695 145191 RAJ..W8 OE2M E Behind Askar village 196 2888405 460505 535190 BAPCO-W26 TlVO E Facing Sitrah Island 197 2888405 460505 156191 BAPCO-W26 T2A E Facing Sitrah Island 198 2888950 460790 534190 BAPCO-W45 T3VO E Facing Sitrah Island

B.4

Sar- UnA-Coordinates Lab Old Raf Naw Aqui- Location iaJ No' Ra" far" No' Northing Easting

199 2888950 4&)790 631190 BAPCO-W45 T4DO E Facing Sitrah Island 200 2888950 4&)790 157191 BAPCO-W45 TSA E Facing Sitrah Island 201 2888825 460845 630/90 BAPCO-W46 T6DO E E.Bah.ls: Near Ras Zuwayyid 202 2885460 460875 561190 ALBA T7DO E E.Bah.ls: Near Ras Zuwayyid 203 2885500 461000 526/90 HHBF T8VO E E.Bah.ls: Near Ras Zuwayyid 204 2885500 461000 565/90 HHBF T9DO E E.Bah.ls: Near Ras Zuwayyid 206 2885500 461000 155191 HHBF Tl0A E E.Bah.ls: Near Ras Zuwayyid 206 2885500 461000 173191 HHBF TllA E E.Bah.ls: Near Ras Zuwayyid 207 2885500 461000 017192 HHBF T12J2 E E.Bah.ls: Near Ras Zuwayyid 208 2883085 458075 573191 RAJ-OBWELL- - E Behind (RAJ) Wellfield

50m DEEP - 2896125 456930 346/91 SEAWATER - - Near entrance of Nabih Salih Island

Notes:

a Serial Number is the serial number which appears on the map shown in Figure (B.1).

b Lab Number is the laboratory number of each sample collected and tested. The first three numbers refer to the laboratory's reference number and the last two numbers refer to the year.

c Old Ref refers to the old reference which is recorded on-site for each sample.

d New Ref refers to the new reference number.

e Aquifer corresponds to the groundwater system from which the water is extracted.

A refers to the Neogene Aquifer, B refers to the Alat Aquifer, C refers to the Khobar Aquifer, D refers to the Rus Lens/Aquifer, and E refers to the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer.

f All these samples are extracted from Khobar Aquifer. AI-Noaimi (1990) reported that some of the Alat Aquifer might have been intervened in some of Khobar Aquifer boreholes.

B.5

'31000E 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 4~ 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 nO'::lOOONI ' "'" I 62 63 64 "'5 66 67 '6ROOO[

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AL- aAYNAH AS- SAGHIRAH IS.

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LEGEND:

.N - 5AI.V>tm FROM THE NEOC[NE

• - SAMPlED fAN.t 'HE AlAr AQUifER

• - SAWUD fROM THE KtlOOAR AWFER

• R - SAMfUO FJO,t TilE RUS AQUIFER

.. - SAf.'l'Lro fROM \..MM.£R.RAOH..u.A AQUIFER

5 km

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FIGURE (8.1):

49 50 51 ~z ~3 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 ., 62 63 64 65 66

1I50000PJ 67 .6BOo0E

Location of the Sampled Groundwater and their Sub-Grouping

B.6

TABLE (B.2): The GrId CoordInates for All the ObservatIon Wells

SIP UTM-Coordinatesb Aqui-. Location Remarks' BM fer"

Northing Easting

01B 2901200 452640 A Karranah 01C 2901000 452540 A Karranah 01F 2900900 452360 A Karranah 01G 2900000 452170 A Jiblat Hibshi 01H 2902200 453020 A Sanabis lA2 2901440 452920 A Karrbabad 102 2901660 452870 A Karrbabad lE2 2901960 452990 A Sanabis 02F 2899950 453140 A Jiblat Hibshi 02G 2902100 453820 A Sanabis 2A2 2900990 453350 A AI-Bida'a 2C2 2900560 453140 A Marwazan 202 2901300 453450 A Sanabis 2E2 2901580 453630 A Sanabis 03A 2900680 454140 A AI-Bida'a O3G 2899240 454010 A AI-Mussalla O3H 2901880 454320 A Sanabis 3B2 2900420 454080 A Jid-Haffs 3C2 2900200 454000 A Jid-Haffs 302 2901010 454270 A Sanabis 3E2 2901420 454220 A Sanabis 3F2 2899880 454300 A Jid-Haffs 04A 2901000 454900 A Sanabis 04B 2900400 455100 A Burhamah 04C 2900100 455100 A Salihiyah 04E 2899000 455100 A Tashan 04F 2899200 455000 A Tashan 402 2901200 454900 A Sanabis 05A 2900540 455600 A Burhamah 05E 2901150 455650 A Pearl Roundabout 05F 2899300 455900 A Bilad Oadeem 5B2 2900350 455620 A Salihiyah 5C2 2899040 455650 A Bilad Oadeem 502 2901000 455680 A Pearl Roundabout 06A 2901680 451710 A Karranah 06B 2901140 451480 A Karranah 06C 2900960 451300 A Karranah 060 2900400 451000 A Abu Sayba'a 07A 2901283 450897 A Karranah 07B 2900757 450807 A Karranah 07C 2900211 450341 A Jannussan 08A 2901351 449933 A Jannusssan 08B 2900641 449757 A Jannussan 09A 2901253 448990 A Barbar 09B 2900596 448m A Barbar 09C 2899987 448861 A Maqaba lOA 2901142 448191 A Barbar l1A 2901273 447321 A Doraz lIB 2900501 447348 A Doraz 12A 2900918 446398 A Ras Abu Subh 12B 2900351 446616 A Ooraz 12C 2899588 446561 A Doraz 13A 2900287 445844 A Buddayya 13B 2899917 445987 A Buddayya 13C 2899537 446013 A Bani Jamra 14A 2899442 445203 A Buddayya

B.7

SIP UTt.4-Coordinates" Aqui- Location Remarks' B/H' fer

Northing Easting

0846 ? ? B AI-Baynah Island H is not under operation yet (AI-Noaim i, 1992)

1055 ? ? B Fasht AI-Deebal It is not under operation yet (AI-Noaim i, 1992)

1102 2899495 445320 B Buddayya 1132 2899725 465545 B W. Umm AI-Shujayrah Is. 1134 2900770 455360 B E. of Sanabis 1136 2896260 461150 B N. AI.Qaryah: S~rah 1142 2898900 457620 B BU'Ashira: Manama 1170 2906835 462100 B AI-Dair: Muharraq Is. 1176 2893400 461850 B Wadiyan: S~rah Is. 1180 2890935 447373 B Hamala His backlilled (AI-Noaimi, 1992) 1183 2890400 462780 B BAPCO 1185 2891040 447365 B Hamala 1191 2893820 445650 B W. Bahrain Is: AI.Jasra 1197 2896750 466545 B ASRY 1200 2895030 448200 B Bet. WS. Sarr & NR Jasra 1204 2904870 465620 B Qalali: Muharraq 1216 2899970 453470 B Jid Hafts 1219 2887880 462140 B Facing S. S~rah Is. 1247 2896010 458900 B E. of Nabih Salih Is. 1253 2897810 448600 B Sarr 1263 2896150 432850 B AI-Baynah Is. Coordinates are estimated from

1:100000 map (Mojica, 1992) 0107 2890275 461510 C AI-Ma'amir: Facing S~rah Is. 648A 2894580 460730 C AI.Qaryah: S~rah Is. Levels are measured w~h

automatic recorder. H is one metre away from 648B (Mojica, 1992)

648B 2894580 460730 C AI.Qaryah: S~rah Is. Levels are measured normally. 0848 ? ? C AI-Baynah Is. H is not regularly mon~ored

(Mojica, 1992) 1000 2885475 448645 C Bet. Sadad and AI-Malikiya It is open, bu1 ~ is not mon~ored

because it is near WRD 1001 (Mojica, 1992)

1001 2885470 448685 C Bet. Sadad and AI-Malikiya 1004 2894873 448157 C Bet. SW. Sarr and NE. Jasra 1007 2897290 454895 C Tubli 1009 2878390 448305 C W. 01 Bahrain Is: Wasmiyah It is open, but ~ is not mon~ored

because it is near WRD 1011 (Mojica, 1992)

1011 2878330 448305 C W. 01 Bahrain Is: Wasmiyah 1015 2866360 452180 C S. of AI-Mumattallah 1018 2894200 448543 C Bet. SW. Sarr and NE. Jasra It is in Sh. Mohammad bin Salman

AI-Khalffa's garden. WRD 1019 was drilled to replace ~ (Mojica, 1992)

1019 2894760 448425 C Bet. SW. Sarr and NE. Jasra 1020 2887890 462170 C Facing S. S~rah Is. 1021 2890400 462780 C BAPCO 1022 2893400 461840 C Wadiyan: S~rah Is. 1023 2895790 462470 C N. AI.Qaryah: S~rah Is. 1051 2893865 452350 C E. A'ali village 1056 ? ? C Fasht AI-Deebal H is not under operation (AI-

Noaimi, 1992) 1058 2896930 446510 C Hidd H is abandoned (AI-Noaimi, 1992) 1100 2899495 445300 C Buddayya 1103 2889515 459390 C S. AI-Nuwaydrat 1117 2896200 461100 C N. AI.Qaryah: S~rah Is. H was drilled as a mon~oring well

bu1 ~ was never checked (Mojica, 1992)

1121 2884115 462290 C Ras Abu Jarjur

B,8

SIP UTM-Coordinalesb Aqui- Localion Remarks' BIH' fe"

Northing Easling

1122 2884070 246228 C Ras Abu Jarjur I1 is open, but ~ is nol used 10 monilor waler level (Mojica. 1992)

1123 2879965 463135 C Ras Hayyah 1124 2896825 466470 C ASRY 1128 2899950 465685 C W. Umm-AI-Shujayrah Is. 1135 2900735 455360 C E. of Sanabis

2893615 445530 C W. Bahrain Is: AI.Jasra I1 is nol usad as an observalion well 1137 (Mojica, 1992) 1138 2897405 459220 C Umm-AI-Hassam: Manama 1164 2893610 456480 C lsa Town 1171 2906840 462110 C AI-Oair: Muha"aq Is. 1181 2890960 447370 C Hamala 1184 2893780 445820 C W. Bahrain Is. AI.Jasra 1333 2904850 465620 C Qalali I1 is backfilled 10 87.4m from bottom

(AI-Noaimi, 1992). Seawaler encroachment is suspected (Mojica, 1992)

1351 2882210 450550 C S. Oar-Kulaib village 1366 2882310 450615 C S. Oar-Kulaib village It is used as a recharge well bUllhe

waler level is nol checked yel (Mojica, 1992)

1417 2882310 450700 C S. Oar-Kulaib village I1 was drilled in 1992. I1 will be monilored soon (Mojica 1992)

1421 2898760 449639 C Maqaba I1 is in a private garden, bul ~ will be used 10 mon~or Ihe waler level (Mojica, 1992)

1002 2885480 448705 0 Bet. Sadad and AI-Malikiya 1003 2894865 448165 E Bet. SW. Sa" and NE. Jasra 1005 2894855 448180 E Bet. SW. Sa" and NE. Jasra 1006 2894857 448159 E Bet. SW. Sa" and NE. Jasra 1008 2897290 454900 E Tubli 1010 2878350 448305 E W. Bahrain Is: Wasmiyah 1012 2883940 453530 E AI-Sakhir 1013 2889340 453560 E AI-Sakhir 1014 2866350 452180 E S. 10 SE. AI-Mumattallah 1016 2871900 459040 E SW. of AI-Our 1017 2893890 452420 E E. A'ali village 1114 2883085 458075 E Behind (RAJ) welHield I1 is open, bul ~ is nol checked (Ihe

resaarcher) 1115 2882830 459233 E W. of WRO (1116) 1116 2882593 460330 E+F NW. of Askar It is drilled Ihrough Umm-Er-

Radhuma and Aruma Aqu~ers (AI-Noaim i, 1992)

1118 2882580 460345 E NW. of Askar 1119 2880313 459245 E Bet. WRO (1143 & 1120) 1120 2879825 460515 E W. Ras Hayyan 1125 2890470 462740 E BAPCO 1126 2891350 445725 E Hamala 1143 2880095 456905 E W. Jabal-Ad-Oukhan 1144 2882001 460800 E W. of Askar 1207 2893230 456060 E SW. of WRO (1164) 1127 2881020 455880 F NW. of Jabal-Ad-Oukhan 1129 28n465 457420 F NW. of Ja_ village It requires further cleaning before

mon®ring is commenced (Mojica, 1992)

B.9

Notes:

a SIP or B/H refers to the standpipe in aquifer 'A' or the borehole in the other aquifers. All the standpipe or borehole reference numbers are from Watson-Khonji (1992) for aquifer 'A' and Water Resources Directorate (1992b) for the other aquifers.

b These coordinates are obtained from (Watson-Khonji, 1992) for aquifer 'A' and (AI-Noaimi, 1992) as well as (Mojica, 1992) for the other aquifers.

c Aquifer corresponds to the groundwater system from which the water is extracted.

A refers to the Sanad Basin, B refers to the Alat Aquifer, C refers to the Khobar Aquifer, D refers to the Rus Lens/Aquifer, E refers to the Umm-Er-Radhuma Aquifer, and F refers to the non-utilisable Aruma Aquifer.

d Remarks are the notes which (AI-Noaimi, 1992) and (Mojica, 1992) mentioned along with the data.

? Indicates that the observation well exists, but the coordinates are not recorded in WRD's file.

B.10

',lGa GE 38 33 40 4' <42 43 44 45 "6 41 48 49 !IQ '1 '2 '3 ,.. " '6 " '0 '9 61 • 2 63 •• •• •• ., '60-°1. nogollKltl

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BAHRAIN IS.

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Al.-SAYNAH AS·SAGHIAAH IS .

UGIENO:

o

• - B<R:tKllE ,., ALAr AQUifER

• - 00REHCl..[ ,. to-«)8AR AQUIFER

AA - 8CR)o..[ N THE RUS AQUIfER

.. - OOJ~JQ..£ N tt4A ER·AAQHNA AOlIf£R

11\0 - eoREH::t..£ IN ARUMA AQUifER

• - 80REHCt.f m SJANOPIP[ IN NEOGEN[ AQUIfER I SAt'AD HAS'"

5 km

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QU1O. Il1Ie

Mina Salmon

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1128 1132

FIGURE (B.2): Location of the Observation Boreholes and the Monitoring Standpipes

8.11

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5.

THE MICROFICHED RESULTS

, ,j

.'

I . 1

·1

! I

8.12

APPENDIX C

The hydrographs of all the standpipes and boreholes are

presented in the following pages.

C.1

o ...J Z OJ

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(/)

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L1J ...J OJ

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4

3

2

0

01180

HYDROGRAPHS FOR SANAD AQUIFER STANDPIPES

LEVEL 018 LEVEL ole LEVEL OIF LEVEL OIG LEVEL OIH LEVEL IA2 LEVEL ID 2 LEVEL l E 2

01/83

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01/86 01/89

MONTH I YEAR

C.2

01/92

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LEVEL 02F LEVEL 02G LEVEL 03A LEVEL 03G LEVEL 03H LEVEL 382 LEVEL 3C2 LEVEL 302 LEVEL 3E2 LEVEL 3F2

01/83

. I ,

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MONTH IYEAR

C.3

01/92


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APPENDIX D

REVIEW OF EXPERTS' REPORTS

0.1 G.E. Pilgrim (1904): He gave an account of the topography of the

Islands. He noted that recent deposits laid surrounding the oval shaped

dome. They consisted of "shelly conglomerate containing recent species

of mollusca". They are underlain by deposits belonging "probably" to the

Pleistocene Epoch consisting of miliolites. He defined them as

"foraminiferal [deposits] encnusted with calcite along with a few sand

grains". He noted that no deposits existed from the Miocene nor the

Pliocene Epochs leading him to note that the oldest rocks dated to the

Eocene Epoch. These rocks consist of marl and limestone. He briefly

mentioned that Bahrain has many land and offshore springs.

0.2 P. Hurry (1940): He presented the hydrology of Bahrain and set the

aquifers to zones. He also reported on their water quality.

0 .3 R.E. de Mestre and PAT. Haines (1958): They reported that Bahrain's

rocks were founded folded on elongated domes trending north to south.

They noted that recent deposits consisted of "loose, unconsolidated

sands, shelly limestone and coral .. ." towards the coast changing to

"unconsolidated foraminiferal limestones" away from the coasts. The

deposits were underlain by the Miocene Formation consisting of shale

and foraminifera in poorly consolidated form. The authors dated the

oldest rocks to the Eocene Epoch. They divided the Epoch into six

formations which are, from top to bottom, White Limestone, Orange

Marl, Brown Crystalline Limestone, Sharks Tooth Shale Series, Chalky

Zone, and Lower Eocene. They determined through which formation the

aquifers flowed. They touched briefly on the geomorphology of Bahrain.

0.1

0.4 R.P. Willis (1967) : His work is considered the reference base for all

future studies. He noted the formation of salt flats by the coasts along

with "unconsolidated surfacial deposits". Miocene rocks consisting of

"sequence of clay, mart, shale, and sandy limestone" appear mainly to

the east of Bahrain. The Eocene rocks, he noted, were the oldest

outcropping rocks. He followed the same structure as the previous

reference. He noted that limestone, dolomitic limestone, chalk, along

with mart and shale, were the most abundant rocks on the island.

0.5 E.P. Wright (1967) : His work involved hydrogeology particularty the

hydrology aspect. He recommended de Mestre and Haines' report as

a reference. He modified the Miocene Formation to the "Neogene

Formations". In his report, he dwelled on the hydrochemistry of Alat and

Khobar Aquifers. He reckoned that their groundwater quality was

experiencing horizontal or vertical leakage causing deterioration of their

water. He also suggested that these aquifers had been encountering

seawater intrusion especially by the coasts.

0.6 Italconsult (1971 ): Their work involved in dividing the geologic history of

Bahrain into two sedimentary cycles. The older cycle goes from the

Upper Cretaceous Period to the Middle Eocene Epoch consisting of

"marine sedimentary carbonate sequence with lagoonal evaporites". The

younger cycle starts from the Miocene to Recent Epochs consisting of

"clastic and carbonate sequence deposited in a marine and lagoon

environment" (quoted from Messrs Sandberg, 1975).

0 .2

Documents

Groundwater chemistry and water table variations in Bahrain...2.12 The Geomorphology of Howar Islands 2.13 The Geological Formations of Bahrain 2.14 East to North-West Geological and