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Soil & Ground Water DistributionEastern USA
Soil Moisture BeltSoil Moisture Belt
Unsaturated (Unsaturated (VadoseVadose = = Aeration) ZoneAeration) Zone
Capillary FringeWater TableWater Table
Saturated Saturated ((PhreaticPhreatic) Zone) Zone
Ground-Water Flow through Porous Medium
Water Wells
= Head
Darcy's LawApplied to movement of water through
a permeable substance
V = K h/l
K = hydraulic conductivity in gal/day-ft2
h/l = hydraulic gradient
Darcy's Law
V = K h/l
K = hydraulic conductivity in gal/day-ft2
since Q = A V
then Q = A K h/l
Darcy “Constants”
Material clean clean sand vfsd silt unweatheredgravel sandy gvl loams clays
Aquifer GOOD POOR IMPERVIOUS
Darcy K 106 103 20 1 .002
Darcy's Law Example
Given: pond with surface area of 1000 ft2
and hydraulic gradient of 100 ft of rise in 100 ft of horizontal distance.
Calculate the amount of water that would leak out of the pond if the bottom is
(A) gravel with K = 106 or (B) clay with K = 10-3.
Q = A K h/l
Darcy's Law ExamplePond
1000 ft2
gravel K = 106
clay K = 10-3
Q = A K h/l
100 ft
100
ft
Stream
Add Ohio Outwash Terrace Flow Net map, Show effects of well
field for 2001
Ground-Water Flow
Ground-Water Discharging into Stream
Aquifer System
Aquifer SystemPerched Aquifers
OilWell
Influent Stream Recharging Aquifer
Kite Stream, Antarctic Polar Desert
Steve Kite Photo
Artesian Aquifer
HotHot GroundGround--Water: 2 MethodsWater: 2 Methods
• Bring Heat Source near the Surface: Super-Heating and Boiling!– Iceland, Yellowstone, etc.
• Take Water Deep below the Surface, Followed by Rapid Rise & Discharge– Thermal Springs in the Virginias
Old Faithful Geyser, Yellowstone NP
Pool in Upper Geyser Basin, Yellowstone
Siliceous Sinter Deposit @ Fishing Cone Hot Spring, Yellowstone NP
Minerva Travertine Terrace, Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone NP
TYPICAL GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
• 16.5oC/km 48oF/mi • Average Worldwide
Slow Deep Infiltration Slow Deep Infiltration + Rapid Rise & Discharge+ Rapid Rise & Discharge
HotHot Springs, VirginiaSprings, Virginia
• Average Air Temp. = ~52oF • Average Water Temp = ~106oF• How Far Down to Raise Water ~54oF • ~54oF / (48oF/mi) = 1.1 mile deep• Water Must Rise to Surface Rapidly,
or It Will CoolCool on Way to Surface
Geology of White SulphurSprings, WV
Fault
SulphurSulphur--Rich Black Shale
Rich Black ShaleLimestoneLimestone
RechargeRecharge
Geology of White SulphurSprings, WV
Fault
SulphurSulphur--Rich Black Shale
Rich Black ShaleLimestoneLimestone
GeothermalGeothermalHeatingHeating
Geology of White SulphurSprings, WV
Fault
SulphurSulphur--Rich Black Shale
Rich Black ShaleLimestoneLimestone
Geology of White SulphurSprings, WV
Fault
SulphurSulphur--Rich Black Shale
Rich Black ShaleLimestoneLimestone
Geology of White SulphurSprings, WV
Fault
SulphurSulphur--Rich Black Shale
Rich Black ShaleLimestoneLimestone
Geology of White SulphurSprings, WV
Fault
SulphurSulphur--Rich Black Shale
Rich Black ShaleLimestoneLimestone
Nasty-Smelling,Hard, Warm Spring
Geology of White SulphurSprings, WV
Fault
SulphurSulphur--Rich Black Shale
Rich Black ShaleLimestoneLimestone
$$$$
Karst & Caves
The Rock OrganOrgan Cave,
Greenbrier Co., WV
Carbonate Dissolution CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 =
CaCO3 + H2CO3 = Ca2+ + 2 HCO3
-
(Dissolved Ions)
Conditions Favoring Karst:
1. Lithology
>60 % calcite, best if > 90 % calcite
Best If Massive, Xline, Hard, Pure Limestone
Shale in Thin Bedded Limestone = Ground-water Flow Barrier
Rock Needs Strength to Support Karst Features
Conditions Favoring Karst:
1. Lithology
2. Available relief:permits vertical drainage component
3. Well-developed bedding or fractures
Conditions Favoring Karst:
1. Lithology
2. Available relief
3. Well-developed bedding or fractures
4. >100m unit thickness
5. Humid, warm climatehigh CO2 content (vegetation decomposition) rapid reactions (kinetics)
Typical Limestone Outcrops in Karst Landscape
http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/
ch_l/gif/L082.GIF
Variable Depth to
Bedrock & Well
Prospects
Sinkhole (Doline) near Mammoth Cave NP, KY
Trout Pond: Sinkhole Exposed in Hardy Co., WV during August 2002
Pre-Draining vs. Post-Draining
Photo: Lee Avery, WVGESUSFS Photo
Water Levels Dropped Several ft/day ~ 3 to 5 August 2002
Blue Ridge
FoothillsKarst
Elevator!
Depth to Bedrock may be >200 m
http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/
ch_l/gif/L081.GIF
Grote, T.G., 2006, WVU PhD
Qaf2 Qaf1
Pit 3Pit 2
Pit 1
Cumberland Valley Sequence carbonate rocks
Chi
lhow
ee G
roup
met
ased
imen
tary
roc
ks
colluvium
karst featurescarbonate residuum
Qaf3
West East
Qaf2 Qaf1
Pit 3Pit 2
Pit 1
Cumberland Valley Sequence carbonate rocks
Chi
lhow
ee G
roup
met
ased
imen
tary
roc
ks
colluvium
karst featurescarbonate residuum
Qaf3
West East
Florida Aquifer
Miller, James A., 1990, GROUND WATER ATLAS of the UNITED STATES: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina,USGS HA 730-G
capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ ch_g/G-text6.html
Doline = Sinkhole near
Echo River Spring, FL
http://www.aristov.com/photo/natu/mamc/sinkhole.htm
Florida Sinkholes
http://www.gcn.ou.edu/~jahern/dynamic/groundwater/groundw
ater.html
Raders Valley, Greenbrier Co., WVa
Rders Valley Greenbrier Co, WV Detail
Clastic
Rx
Where are Carbonate Rx? Where are Clastic Rx?
Winterpark, Florida Sinkhole Swallows Porsche Dealership
Miller, 1990,USGS HA 730-G
Not for Web Reproduction
Guatemala City Sinkhole, 23 Feb 2007
LLORCA, JUAN CARLOS, Associated Press http://www.ordena.com/digg/sinkhole.html
Groundwater, Karst, and
Caves
LLORCA, JUAN CARLOS, Associated Press http://www.ordena.com/digg/sinkhole.html
Guatemala City Sinkhole, 2007
Not for Web Reproduction
Tower Karst & Karren - China
http://www.gcn.ou.edu/~jahern/dynamic/groundwater/groundwater.html
Tower Karst - China
Cave Passages
• Record History of Cave Development
Styx River Resurgence Mammoth Cave NP, KY
River Resurgence in Wyoming
http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_l/gif/L083.GIF
Break Down, Mammoth Cave
Mammoth Cave Elliptical Tube
http://www.gcn.ou.edu/~jahern/dynamic/groundwater/groundwater.html
Buckeye Cave, Greenbrier Co., WV, Greg Springer WebsiteElliptical Tube Partly Filled with Alluvial Sediments
Photo © 2001 by Ed McCarthy
& Carl Samples.
Vadose Tube: Looking Down, Mammoth Cave
Vadose Tube: Looking Up, Mammoth Cave
Mammoth Cave Web Sites• http://www.iddr.ie.psu.edu/~wdm8/trips/mammoth/mammoth1.html• http://www.earthwatch.org/p/Pcrothers.GIF
Cass Cave,photo by Tom Hay
VadoseCanyon
Leads into PhreaticTube
Carbonate Dissolution CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 =
CaCO3 + H2CO3 = Ca2+ + 2 HCO3
-
(Dissolved Ions)
Carbonate Precipitation Ca2+ + 2 HCO3
- = CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Travertine, Tufa, Marl
Falling Spring Marl-Travertine Deposit, Rt. 220, Near Covington,
Virginia
Virginia Division of Mineral Resources Photo
www.mme.state.va.us/Dmr/GALLERY/historic/
Images/BWMORP/bwcov.jpg
Falling Spring Marl-Travertine Deposit, Rt. 220, Near Covington,
Virginia
S. Kite Photo
http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/stalmite/stalmite.
html
Stalactites and Stalagmites
Travertine Precipitation
Ca2+ + 2 HCO3- =
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Degassingof CO2
Stalactites
• Ornamentation
Popcorn
• Ornamentation
Popcorn
Aragonite Xls• Ornamentation
Stalagmites
Columns
Columns
Rim Stone
Rim Stone, Stalactites, Stalagmites, Columns
• Ornamentation
Speleothem Web Sites:• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/sodastw/sodastw.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/spar/spar.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/rimstone/rimstone.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/aragonit/aragonit.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/staltite/staltite.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/shield/shield.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/popcorn/popcorn.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/clouds/clouds.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/stalmite/stalmite.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/column/column.html• http://www.goodearth.com/virtcave/shelfst/shelf.html
Rock Shelter in Baja
Claifornia
Meadowcroft Rock Shelter,
Avella, PA
http://members.delphi.com/MCCONAUGHY/web/Meadowcroft/meadcr07.htm
April 1975 photo by Mark McConaughy
Meadowcroft Rock Shelter TodayWQED Pittsburgh History Series
http://www.wqed.org/erc/pghist/units/WPAhist/wpa1.html
Meadowcroft Rock Shelter Roof-Fall BreakdownWQED Pittsburgh History Series
http://www.wqed.org/erc/pghist/units/WPAhist/wpa1.html
Meadowcroft Rock ShelterStratigraphy
Sediment Sources:Rock Fall BlocksGrain Fall “Rain”Slopewash from AboveColluvium from MarginsAnthropogenic Deposits
For More on Meadowcroft and other Important Archeological Sites:
http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/archaeology/sites/northamerica/meadowcroft.html