14
1 : 1 N UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE Abstract In this paper I present three experiments that suggest that Generalised Conversational Implicatures (GCIs) are not inferences that are generated by default. In theoretical pragmatics Levinson (e.g. 2000) has claimed that GCIs are such inferences that are drawn at an initial stage regardless of contextual assumptions (who may play an important role at a later stage of the process). On the contrary, according to conservative pragmatics (e.g. Grice 1975; Relevance Theory, Sperber & Wilson 1995) all pragmatic processes are performed at every stage against a global context and GCIs are drawn only when warranted by contextual assumptions. This study is motivated by Levinson s and Sperber & Wilson s explicit claims that their predictions should hold for both the off-line and the on-line processing of GCIs. , , , (on-line), 1.1 Gazdar (1979) Levinson (2000) (Generalised Conversational Implicatures ( )) « » (default inferences). Levinson , , , . o « » « » , « » (on-line) . 1.2 Grice (1975) ( . . 1) . (1) . .

Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

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Page 1: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

1

: 1

N

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

Abstract In this paper I present three experiments that suggest that Generalised Conversational Implicatures (GCIs) are not inferences that are generated by default. In theoretical pragmatics Levinson (e.g. 2000) has claimed that GCIs are such inferences that are drawn at an initial stage regard less of contextual assumptions (who may play an important role at a later stage of the process). On the contrary, according to conservative pragmatics (e.g. Grice 1975; Relevance Theory, Sperber & Wilson 1995) all pragmatic processes are performed at every stage against a global context and GCIs are drawn only when warranted by contextual assumptions. This study is motivated by Levinson s and Sperber & Wilson s explicit claims that their pred ictions should hold for both the off-line and the on-line processing of GCIs.

, , ,

(on-line),

1.1

Gazdar (1979)

Levinson (2000) (Generalised

Conversational Implicatures ( )) « » (default

inferences). Levinson ,

, ,

. o

« » « » ,

« » (on-line)

.

1.2

Grice (1975) ( . . 1)

.

(1) .

.

Page 2: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

2

Grice

(2 ) :

(2) : ;

:

( )

( )

Grice (2)

-

.

(Grice 1975).

(2 ),

.

Grice (1 - & 2 )

(Horn 1984). ,

(1 - & 2 ) (2 ). (2 ), ,

. , ,

« »,

, « »2.

, Grice (1975)

(2 ) : ,

.

Grice

« », « »

. , « »

« ».

, (Grice 2001), Grice

(habituation),

.

1.3 « » « »

Grice, « »

, Gazdar (1979). Levinson (2000)

« »

Page 3: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

3

: «

»

.

Levinson

(

« »

(presuppositions)). , (scalar

implicature) > ,

(downward entailment)

(antecedent of a conditional). (3),

.

:

(3) :

, .

: , , .

, «

», .

(3) :

, « - » ,

3.

, Levinson

« » , « »

« » « » (

Levinson (2000: 52 . .)

). ,

« » ,

, «

» .

2.1 (on-line)

Levinson Sperber & Wilson,

( . Levinson (2000:370), Sperber & Wilson 1995).

/ (« », «on-line»): ,

Katsos (2003)

(entailments) (presuppositions).

« » « »

Bezuidenhout & Cutting (2002, B&C). B&C

. , ,

Page 4: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

4

, ,

. ,

« » « »,

, «

» (4 ), , ,

« » (4 ).

(4) .

.

.

.

. .

.

.

Levinson ,

(4 ), «

» « + » ( « »

« » ).

, « »

(4 ) « + + » ( « »

). ,

,

. (4 )

« + »,

(4 ) « ». 1. :

1.

:

:

< ( )

>

&C

(4 ), «

».

,

. O

. ,

( . Carston 2002

Papafragou & Musolino 2003 ). , Levinson

«

»

Page 5: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

5

(2000:90, ).

. , « »

« ( ) » «

».

.

4.

B&C ,

.

2.2 B&C

,

B&C

. ,

,

, « »,

« » «

». B&C,

(5 & 5 ).

(5) .

. ,

.

. O

.

.

B&C

1. 32

( 18-26 ). 2 & .

2 & :

1140

1160

1180

1200

1220

1240

1260

1280

( )

Page 6: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

6

:

1275

1189

( 2 ( ) 2 ( ) Anova)

: F(1,30)=4.74, p<.037 sig.

B&C .

B&C ,

.

3.1

,

«

> ».

, , « »

, , .

, (6),

« » -

(

,

, . Philippaki-Warburton 1987 i.a.).

« » «

».

(bridging inference) « /

» « / ».

(on-line)

« ».

(6) . .

.

. .

..

(6 ) ,

« ».

( . . (6 ).

Page 7: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

7

,

« ;». «

»

(contrastive topic). Grice, «

» « » ( van

Rooy, ).

, ,

,

« ».

, «

»,

« ». , - , « >

» . «

»,

.

, « »,

,

« > » .

« »

.

3.2

(7 - ) (

). 4 : ( )

( - ) ( « ») (

« »).

, (7 & ) « »

« »,

«

» . ,

(7 &

). « »

,

.

,

.

.

, « »

(2 3 ) - ( ),

. ,

Page 8: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

8

( ), -

( ). ,

.

(7) . - / / /

./ / / .

. - / / /

./ / / .

. - / / /

./ / / ./

. - / / /

./ / / ./

3.3

3:

3:

:

« »

7 -

=

- 7 -

>

7 -

=

- 7 -

=

3.4

-

(

)

SuperLab Pro.

4 , 6 ,

4 (7 - ). 85

. 23

2

(

).

« »,

. , « »

« ». ,

Page 9: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

9

. . . «

»

« ».

3.5

52 ,

( 18-26 )

.

2 20%

. 4 & :

4 & : « »

:

( )

- 7

613.35 (125)

7

610.51 (110)

- 7

627.92 (137)

- 7

586.23 (112)

2 (

) 2 (

) 2 (

)

Anovas, ( )

( ). (

-

) (

), F

(1,44)=4.42, p<0.045 sig., F

(1,20)=5.29, p<0.035

sig. - t

(47) = 2.828, p<0.01 sig., t

(23)=2.276, p<0.035 sig., t (47)=0.261, n.s.;

t (23)=0.03, n.s.

, « »

( ) . , -

( ),

, .

.

560

570

580

590

600

610

620

630

-

Page 10: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

10

3.6

- . ,

, ,

.

4.1. -

« »

( )

(

(presuppositions)). , - «

» (

). , , ,

. - 5

. ,

,

- .

-

, «

».

,

. ,

(8 ), ,

(8 ).

- (8 ).

:

(8) . .

.

.

. .

.

.

. .

.

.

Page 11: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

11

4.2

(8 )

(8 ).

(maxim of Relation, Grice (1975))

( (8 )

)6.

« »

, -

. 5:

5:

:

« »

=

>

>

>

4.3

32

( 18-

26 ). 3 , 6

, 3 (8 - ). 42

. 20 (

).

3.4.

6 & .

6 & : « »

550560570580590600610620630640650

( )

Page 12: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

12

:

(8 )

589

(8 )

649

(8 )

598

H Anova (main effect of condition):

F(2,24)=5.027, p=0.015 sig.

t(14)=0.498 n.s.

t(14)=2.34, p=0.034 sig.

t(14)2.69, p=0.017 sig.

.

- ,

.

4.4

«

» ( - )

. ,

.

5.

: « »,

( . .Grice, ),

« » ( . . Levinson),

,

« » , .

,

,

,

. ,

,

-

.

Page 13: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

13

1

John Williams, Richard Breheny, Gillian Brown, Deirdre

Wilson, Robyn Carston, Larry Horn, Ming Wei Lee

Ira Noveck

. ,

, Gates Cambridge Trust Economic and Social Sciences Research Council. 2 Grice (1975) (2 ) ( )

(2 ) .

3 (Relevance theory, Sperber & Wilson 1995) ,

(optimally relevant), .

(3), ( )

, .

4 «slot filling». 5 .

6 (Sperber & Wilson 1995), (8 )

( ). (8 ) ,

.

Bezuidenhout, Anne & Cooper Cutting 2002. Literal Meaning, minimal propositions, and

pragmatic processing . Journal of Pragmatics 34: 433-456.

Carston, Robyn. 2002. Thoughts and Utterances. Oxford: Blackwells.

Gazdar, Gerald . 1979. Pragmatics: Implicature, Presupposition and Logical Form. New York:

Academic Press.

Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation . In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics

3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58.

Grice, Paul. 2001. Aspects of Reason. Oxford: Clarendon.

Horn, Larry. 1984. Toward a new taxonomy for pragmatic inference . In D. Schiffrin (ed)

Proceedings of GURT. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 11-42.

Levinson, Stephen. 2000. Presumptive Meanings. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Katsos, Napoleon. 2003. An Experimental Study on Processing Pragmatic Inferences . Working

Papers in English and Applied Linguistics. Volume 9, RCEAL: Cambridge

Philippaki-Warburton, Irene. 1987. The theory of empty categories and the pro-drop parameter

in Modern Greek . Journal of Linguistics 23: 289-318.

van Rooy, Robert. (

) Relevance and bi-directional OT . To appear in Blutner

(ed) OT Pragmatics. London: Palgrave.

Sperber, Dan & Deirdre. Wilson 1986/ 1995. Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford :

Blackwell.

Page 14: Grice - UoC.Philology · Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41 - 58

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