Grey Theurgy Philosophy and Magic in the Ancient World

Safari Grey Page 1 of 9

Connections Between Theurgy, Philosophy and Magic in the Ancient World. The source of Western theurgy (literally God-work; commonly defined as a kind of spiritual magic)

is found within the philosophical texts of Neoplatonism specifically the later philosophers Porphyry,

Iamblichus, and Proclus. The first recorded use of the term is found in a mid-second century text

dubbed The Chaldaean Oracles and runs as follows: For the theourgoi do not fall under the fate of

the governed herd.1 Yet the extent to which theurgic practice was involved with, or connected to,

magic is obscure. However, evidence does suggest that theurgy was primarily, if not exclusively, a

Neoplatonic practice and if it is indeed some form of spiritual magic then the connections between

theurgy and magic must begin with Neoplatonist philosophy. For this reason this paper shall focus

primarily on the connections between theurgy, philosophy, and magic within Neoplatonism, while

also briefly considering its relationship with both public religion (Oracle Sanctuaries) and secret

religion (Mithraism).

An analysis of theurgy, philosophy, and magic within Neoplatonism necessarily involves a definition

of the terms involved. It also necessarily incorporates an analysis of religion as theurgy, magic, and

even philosophy seem to have a role within the religious institutions of the ancient world, as will be

made clear toward the end of this paper. However, defining magic within the ancient world,

specifically in its relationship to philosophy or religion, is notoriously problematic. Robert Fowler

(2000) has provided a recent, in-depth examination of their relationship, and explains that any

attempt to distinguish magic from religion[] founders at once when approached from purely

anthropological, sociological, or semiotic grounds, as exceptions can always be found to counter

any formulation, making them wholly inadequate.2 It seems impossible to state where magic is

always opposed to religion, leaving us to conclude that: one mans magic is another mans

religion.3 This concession is fundamental to this exploration of magic, philosophy and religion in the

ancient world; and it is important to establish at the outset that this paper does not accept a strict

definition of magic, or religion. The essential interconnectedness of these terms becomes more

apparent when theurgy and philosophy are included into the mix as this essay will demonstrate.

In a similar vein, an in-depth understanding of what precisely theurgy was or entailed, as well as

how or if it was related to magic, has divided scholastic opinion. Theurgy itself has been variously

1 Fragment 153 c.f. Hans Lewy (1956) Chaldaean Oracles and Theurgy, Cairo: 421-466 (largely quoted from the revised

edition by Michel Tardieu, Revue des tudes Augustiniennes: 58 (1978)). 2 Robert L. Fowler (2000) Greek Magic, Greek Religion, in, Buxton, R. (ed.) Oxford Readings in Greek Religion:

Oxford: Oxford University Press: 322; 336. 3 Fowler: 340-341.


defined, and variously understood. Proclus Lycaeus (412CE-485CE) himself, one of the last major

Neoplatonist philosophers, described theurgy as: a power higher than all human wisdom embracing

the blessings of divination (), the purifying powers of initiation (), and all the operations

of divine possession ().4 While a more recent definition explains that: spiritual magic, or

theurgy, was based on the idea that one could reach God [or Godhood] in an ascent up the scale of

creation [the cosmic spheres] made possible by a rigorous course of prayer, fasting, and devotional

preparation.5 Here, Thomas suggests that the principles of theurgy were based upon Neoplatonic

metaphysics (the scale of creation), while its practice consisted of some kind of ritualistic, perhaps

even religious, acts (prayer, fasting and devotional preparation) which were intended to unite ones

soul with The One ( ) the primeval Source of Being. However, according to Proclus theurgic

practices also involved another dimension which involved initiation () and divine possession

(), hence Pierre Riffards definition that: Theurgy[] consists of a set of magical practices

performed to evoke beneficent spirits in order to[] animate a statue, to inhabit a human being

[], or to disclose mysteries [].6 In this way theurgy can be understood as being

bidirectional, the rituals and practices enabled both mans ascent to the divine in a spiritual form, as

well as divine descent to man for the purposes of communication, in a similarly spiritual manner. In

short, theurgy was twofold, concerned with both soteriology, and prophecy. First, a brief outline of

what precisely soteriological theurgic practice may have entailed will be provided, before exploring

how prophecy connected Neoplatonic philosophy to public and mystery religions.

*

Neoplatonic theurgy seemed to require the practice of magic, or ritual, in order to achieve the

desired outcome be it communication with the divine, or ascent to it. But what this magic or ritual

specifically entails is a matter of some obscurity. Anne Sheppard has provided an exploration of

what precisely theurgy entailed in her 1982 article: Proclus attitude to theurgy. Sheppards analysis

is built combines both the works of modern scholarship7 with an analysis of the texts of Hermias

(c.410CE c.450CE) and concludes that theurgy consisted of three levels of practice.8 According to

Sheppard, the three part theurgic ascent of the practitioner was also connected to the four types of

4 Proclus Platonic Theology: 1.26.63.

5 Keith Thomas (1971) Religion and the Decline of Magic, London: Penguin: 320-321.

6 Pierre A. Riffard (1983) Dictionnaire de lesoterisme, Paris: Payot: 340.

7 Hans Lewy (1956); L. J. Rosan (1949); and Andrew Smith (1974).

8 Anne Sheppard (1982) Proclus attitude to theurgy, in, The Classical Quarterly, New Series Vol.32 No.1: 217


as laid out in Platos Phaedrus.9 In short , the lowest form of inspiration, draws

the discordant parts of the soul together within the Body, while unifies the soul at the

level of the Mind, prophetic madness ( ) then brings the soul to the level of the One,

while finally joins the One in the soul to the divine One ( ).10 For Sheppard, the

ascent through the four types of is also connected to the distinction between the skilled and

inspired forms of prophecy, claiming that the lesser, merely skilled prophecy suggests white magic

while the truly inspired prophecy involved theurgic practice, until the practitioner reaches the level of

which makes possible the ascent[] to mystical union.11 Sheppard seems to suggest

that basic prophecy is akin to white magic both rather benign and unskilled, while the three higher

are operated through theurgy, an altogether more skilful practice. However the following

explanation, based on the twofold purpose of theurgy (soteriology and prophecy) suggests that

magic and theurgy were not so separable.

According to both Proclus and Riffard, theurgy evoked spirits to inhabit a human being, in other

words, to possess the practitioner () and enable prophecy (). Leaving prophecy aside

for one moment, ritual would be required in order to generate divine possession of the practitioner.

Such a ritual seems to have involved magic, as examples from the Greek Magical Papyri suggest

various rites and formulas used to evoke divine possession. Such as: O Helios BERBELOCH

CHTHOTHOMI ACH SANDOUM ECHNIN ZAGOUEL, bring me into union with you. Then anoint

yourself and you will have a direct vision.12 Other spells concerning direct vision, or requesting

(dream) oracles all seem to imply a visitation or possession by a deity. In these visitations the

various deities are said to reveal, answer, appear, come in, or show, though it is not specified

whether or not these visitations are within the mind, body or soul of the practitioner, or if indeed they

refer to a physical or material visitation. Given the incorporeal nature of the cosmic divinities, and the

state of unconscious required for a dream visitation, and what we understand of oracular visions, it

seems most likely to be the former that the deity in a sense possesses or enters the body/mind of

the practitioner, rather than physically manifesting. Hence, in the Pythagoras papyrus, the angel

enters in the form of your friend, presumably entering into the dream state that is the

unconscious mind within the body.13 These examples, when understood as possessive visitations,

9 Sheppard: 215; Plato Phaedrus 244a-245c.

10 Sheppard: 215; Hermias Commentary on the Phaedrus: 89.20 90.2 (all references to Hermias are page and line of the

edition by Couvreur, P. [1971] Hermias Alexandrinus. In Platonis Phaedrum scholia 2nd

Edn New York: Hildesheim.). 11

Sheppard: 219-220. 12

PGM Va.1-3 c.f. Hans Deiter Betz et al. (1986) The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation: Including the Demotic Texts

Vol.1 Second Edition Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 13

PGM VII.795-845.


are further suggested by the expression in PGM Va 1-3: bring me into union with you.14 In short,

theurgy seemed to rely upon magical rites and formulae in order to generate divine possession

().

As we have seen, according to Plato and later explained Neoplatonically by Hermias, there are four

types of which are increasingly inspired, increasingly powerful, and increasingly harder to

obtain. The least powerful poetic has been obtained by all the great poets who have been

inspired (that is possessed) by the Muses or Apollo, such as Homer or Hesiod. According to

Hermias, poetic draws the discordant parts of the soul together at its own level (89.20-22),

thus creating a unity of soul within the body. In order to achieve this divine inspiration/possession

the Muse, or deity chose their spokesperson and form a relationship with them, suggesting that it is

not entirely bidden. The second type of is which Hermias associates with

theurgy (89.22-31) so we can assume that; first, one needs to unite the discordant parts of the soul

via poetic which one presumably achieves through virtue and/or philosophical knowledge.

Secondly then, one has the spiritual power (due to the souls unity) required to practice the theurgic

or magical rites, such as those outlined within the PGM, in order to request or demand specific and

immediate visitation from a particular divinity. According to Hermias, this second type of

makes the soul intellectually active, or in terms of Neoplatonic metaphysics, at the level of Mind

(Nous). For Plotinus, the Nous is the highest sphere accessible to the human mind, whilst also in a

way being intellect personified.15 In accordance with Neoplatonian metaphysics, the ability to

summon a divinity through theurgy seems logically to rely on first being able to summon the World-

Soul - the gate-keeper between the phenomenal and hypercosmic worlds. In Pythagoras dream

oracle the holy angel ZIZAUBIO is summoned who rise[s] above the earth of the whole cosmic

region in the same way that the Platonic world-soul both permeates and surrounds the hypocosmic

realm (both also seem to be associated with fire-breathing).16 Thus, the ability to compel divine

possession at will accords the practitioner with the second type of and enables spiritual ascent

past the World-Soul to the Nous. This explains why the next type of prophetic allows

the practitioner to demand oracular or dream prophecies which will also allow them to disclose

mysteries in the words of Riffard (above). This suggests that any practitioner who is able to

prophecy is at a heightened spiritual level, able to access the Nous or the intellectual reflection of

. Finally then, the practitioner will reach the fourth type of known as which

14

Other spells include; PGM III.633-731; VII.319-334; VII.335-47; VII.795-845; XII.144-52; XII.153-60. 15

Plotinus Enneads III.7.10. 16

PGM VII.835-840; for a discussion of the Platonic World-Soul as a cosmic gatekeeper see: Safari Grey (2013) The

Mithraic Mysteries: a religious manifestation of Platonic soteriological cosmology.


allows the Soul of the practitioner to reach itself. According to all Platonic, and indeed all

ancient religious magic, like attracts like this is the main principle of . Therefore, once

the practitioner has achieved they have achieved the qualities of faith, truth, and love

(pistis, altheia, ros) which resonate directly with divine goodness (theourgik dunamis), divine

wisdom (theia philosophia), and divine love/beauty ( ) respectively. Which are the three

ways to mystical union with as outlined by Proclus.17

The Neoplatonic understanding of outlined above also resolves the apparent contradiction of

the term found within the Platonic corpus. Platos description of in the Phaedrus praises it as a

divine inspiration associated with philosophers as Socrates becomes increasingly inspired

throughout his speech (i.e. he ascends the four types of i in a similar manner to that explained

above). Suggesting that the true is a philosopher. Yet this seems to contradict his

treatment of in other dialogues which present philosophy as rational and as irrational.18

How can both classify the philosopher as mad, and yet avoid calling him irrational? This

apparent contradiction is immediately resolved when the Neoplatonic understanding of

(above) is taken into account, along with perhaps a more literal understanding of Platos

terminology. Plato describes poetic as a possession from the Muses who seize the soul of the

poet: And a third kind of possession and madness comes from the Muses. This takes hold upon a

gentle and pure soul, arouses it and inspires it.19 Similarly, in 250a the philosopher seized by

is described as , often translated as amazed or out of control. Later in

the Phaedrus Socrates again emphasises that is the (foolish) aspect of the Mind and

a kind of (madness).20 These all seem to suggest that the inspired person is mad or

irrational, a negative quality for any Platonist. Yet, when taken literally these terms assume a whole

new meaning. The philosopher is not amazed or out of control if is taken literally to

mean driven away from, or expelled from oneself.21 The literal translations of and

mean similarly out of ones mind or mindless. Taken in this manner the possessed

philosopher under quite literally leaves his body and his mind, and is literally without

reason because, in the Neoplatonic sense, he has achieved henosis mystical union. This literal

understanding of Platonic both escapes the apparent contradiction of an irrational philosopher,

17

Proclus Platonic Theology: 1.25. 18

For example; Plato Ion: 533d-536d; 536e-542a. 19

Plato Phaedrus: 245a. 20

Plato Phaedrus: 266a. 21

Plato Phaedrus: 250a. From drive away; be out of ones senses; amazed (James Morwood and John Taylor [eds.] [2002] Pocket Oxford Classical Greek Dictionary Oxford: Oxford University Press: 104).


while also bringing the Platonic concepts of soul and closer to the Neoplatonic understanding

of henosis and theurgy.

In short, theurgy can be defined as the magical rites and formulae (such as those found in PGM)

used by the Neoplatonist practitioner or initiate in order to instigate divine possession or . The

purpose beingto unify the soul and ascend to , which enables henosis with .

Theurgy then is quite literally god-work the work required to access the One within and achieve

godhood (the equivalent of union with god; ). It would seem however that the first

involves an unbidden possession by a god of a poet (or philosopher), yet it is not clear how precisely

a state worthy of possession is achieved. However, the fact that such people are often described as

excel[ing] in intellectual prudence, and in an accurate knowledge of every virtue suggests that they

must first be educated in philosophical practice, and actively live virtuous and pious lives.22 This then

ties philosophy intuitively with theurgic, that is magic, practices as only a philosopher can be

possessed and thus begin theurgic ascent. But the connection between theurgy (as spiritual magic

used to induce ) and philosophy runs deeper than this, while also playing on the relationship

between philosophy and religion as this final section shows.

*

This final section will briefly consider the relationship between theurgy, philosophy and religion. As

we have seen the relationship between magic and religion in the ancient world was complicated,

and in many ways paralleled to the relationship between theurgy and philosophy. In other words,

none of the terms are entirely inclusive nor are they mutually exclusive. This section will show the

role theurgy had to play in religion through a brief exploration of the mystery cult Mithraism and the

practice of state Oracles. In the earlier study of and the prophetic element of divine

inspiration was overlooked, it is here that it gains relevance. Theurgy was primarily a tool to aid

henosis, yet this divine possession also involved a prophetic element inasmuch as the salvation of

the soul consists of becoming like the divine[and] oracles[] could assist in the salvation of the

soul, since the philosopher sees the oracles as the words of the gods.23 In the ancient world,

prophecy was also publically institutionalised in the Oracle Sanctuaries such as those at Didyma,

Delphi, and Claros.24 While one might claim that public Oracles were religious, while private oracles

22

Porphyry De Antro Nympharum: 18. 23

Crystal Addey (forthcoming) (2014) Divination and Theurgy in Neoplatonism: Oracles of the Gods, Farnham:

Ashgate, chapter 2: 8. 24

Capitalised Oracle refers to publically established institutions, while oracle refers to any privately induced prophecy.


were magical or philosophical, such a strict definition does not entirely fit the evidence. Instead, the

evidence suggests that public Oracles, while religious, had much in common with mystery cults (at

least one of which was based on Neoplatonic metaphysics and philosophy). Inscriptions at Apollos

Oracle at Didyma suggest that mystery rituals and initiations () formed an element of the

cult.25 Similarly, epigraphic evidence at Claros suggests that the visitors to the Oracle were initiated

into mystery rites: a citizen from Charax in Asia Minor gathered in the oracles and was initiated

while the delegates of Neocaesarea consulted the oracle after having been initiated.26 In the

opening of Porphyrys Philosophy of Oracles, knowledge gained from Oracles is described as

unutterable secrets.27 This is the same language used to describe mystery

cults whose rites were not only clandestine, but also so esoteric as to be unutterable.28 While this

may connect religious Oracles to mystery cults, it does not necessarily connect them to philosophy.

However, Porphyry was a Neoplatonist who wrote an allegorical treatise concerning the Mithraic

Mysteries, De Antro Nympharum, a cult which was also built on . The

connection to Mithraism is important when one considers that it was a mystery, or religious, cult built

upon Neoplatonic philosophy and metaphysics. While Neoplatonic theurgy was concerned with

spiritual ascension to the divine, members [of Mithraism] sought their salvation in a manner of

spiritual ascension through the planetary spheres until they reached the World-Soul guardian who

could escort them across the eighth gate into the realm of the Demiurge beyond.29 There may even

be a parallel here between the Mithraic klimax heptapylos and the labyrinth underneath the

sanctuary of Claros which consisted of seven turns.30 It seems therefore that there is little difference

between the religion of mystery cults or public Oracles, and the theurgic practices of the

Neoplatonist philosophers.

In conclusion, Neoplatonic theurgy was a form of magic associated with spiritual henosis, and

divinely inspired prophecy. This philosophy was actively practiced with tenable, achievable,

soteriological goals in mind. In this manner it was similar to the public Oracles, which also utilised

divine possession, and possibly theurgic rites. These Oracles were themselves very similar to the

more clandestine religious practices of the mystery cults, one of which was intimately connected to

Neoplatonic philosophy and metaphysics. Like Neoplatonic theurgy, the Mithraic Mysteries were

also soteriological and sought to unite souls with the Platonic One. In short, the theurgy of

25

Addey: ch2.14. 26

C.f. Addey: ch2.14-15. 27

Porphyry Philosophy of Oracles: 305F. 28

For a further discussion of Oracles and Mystery Cults see Addey, chapter 2. 29

Grey, The Mithraic Mysteries: a religious manifestation of Platonic soteriological cosmology. 30

Aude Busine (2005) Paroles dApollon: Pratiques et traditions oraculaires dans lAntiquit tardive Leiden: Brill: 194.


Neoplatonic philosophy utilised magic primarily to achieve henosis, like the Mithraic/Platonic mystery

cult, and secondly to generate prophecy, like the public Oracles; while both Oracles and Mystery

Cults themselves also consisted of secrets ( ), rites, and mysteries ()

which had a distinctly metaphysical, Neoplatonic air.

WORD COUNT: 2959


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hermias Commentary on the Phaedrus, in, Couvreur, P. (trans) (1971) Hermias Alexandrinus. In Platonis Phaedrum scholia, Second Edition, New York: Hildesheim. Plato, Ion (trans. Lamb, W. R. M. 1925) http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Ion+530a Plato, Phaedrus (trans. Fowler, H. N. 1925) http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0174%3Atext%3DPhaedrus%3Asection%3D227a Plotinus, Enneads, in, MacKenna, S. (trans) (1991) Plotinus: The Enneads, London: Penguin. Porphyry, De Antro Nympharum http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/porphyry_cave_of_nymphs_02_translation.htm Porphyry, De Philosophia ex oraculis haurienda librorum reliquiae, in, Wolff, G. (ed.) (1962 reprint) Berlin: Hildesheim. Proclus, Platonic Theology (trans. Taylor, T. 1816) http://ia600404.us.archive.org/24/items/ProclusOnTheTheologyOfPlato-ElectronicEdition/ProclusPlatoTheologyCOMPLEET.pdf Addey, C. (forthcoming) (2014) Divination and Theurgy in Neoplatonism: Oracles of the gods, Ashgate Studies in Philosophy and Theology in Late Antiquity Farnham: Ashgate. Busine, A. (2005), Paroles dApollon: Pratiques et traditions oraculaires dans lAntiquit tardive (II VI sicles), Religions in the Graeco-Roman World Leiden: Brill. Fowler, R. L. (2000) Greek Magic, Greek Religion, in, Buxton, R. (ed.) Oxford Readings in Greek Religion Oxford: Oxford University Press. Grey, S. (2013) The Mithraic Mysteries: a religious manifestation of Platonic soteriological cosmology http://somewatcheroftheskies.wordpress.com/2013/06/19/mithraism_conferencepaper/ Lewy, H. (1956) Chaldaean Oracles and Theurgy Cairo [revised edition by Tardieu, M. (1978) Revue des tudes Augustiniennes, Paris]. Morwood, J. and Taylor, J. (eds.) (2002) Pocket Oxford Classical Greek Dictionary Oxford: Oxford University Press. Riffard, P. A. (1983) Dictionnaire de lesoterisme Paris: Payot. Rosan, L. J. (1949) The Philosophy of Proclus New York: Porcupine Press Inc. Thomas, K. (1971) Religion and the Decline of Magi, London: Penguin. Sheppard, A. (1982) Proclus attitude to theurgy, in, The Classical Quarterly, New Series Vol.32 No.1: 212-224. Smith, A. (1974) Porphyry's Place in the Neoplatonic Tradition: A Study in Post-Plotinian Neoplatonism The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Documents

Grey Theurgy Philosophy and Magic in the Ancient World