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Green Adaptation Making use of ecosystem services for infrastructure solutions in developing countries

Green Adaptation Making use of ecosystem services for infrastructure solutions in developing countries

1204587-000 © Deltares, 2011

Helena Hulsman MSc. Myra van der Meulen MSc. dr. Bregje K. van Wesenbeeck

1204587-000-ZKS-0005, 23 November 2011, final

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Contents

1 Introduction 1 1.1 The need for Green Adaptation 1 1.2 Green Adaptation for developing countries 2 1.3 Scope 3

2 Green Adaptation – how does it work? 5 2.1 Building with Nature, Eco-engineering, Green Infrastructure and Green Adaptation 5 2.2 Available knowledge 6 2.3 Meeting infrastructural needs through ecosystem services 7

3 Green Adaptation approaches 9 3.1 The most promising Green Adaptation approaches 9

3.1.1 Green Adaptation approaches described 9

4 Lessons from the field 19 4.1 Generalizations on services and systems 19 4.2 From man-made to natural 23 4.3 Knowledge gaps in ecology 24

5 Conditions for successful Green Adaptation development 27 5.1 Factors influencing applicability and potential of Green Adaptation 27 5.2 Conditions for Green Adaptation development 28 5.3 Who to involve: key players 29 5.4 Where to start: the process 32

6 Conclusions and recommendations 35 6.1 Combining ecological and governance conditions 35 6.2 General recommendations 35 6.3 The way forward 36

6.3.1 Research and development 37 6.3.2 Project development 37 6.3.3 Raising awareness and knowledge dissemination 38

7 References 39


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1 Introduction

1.1 The need for Green Adaptation Human population growth places increasing demands on natural resources and on space. Suboptimal land-use practices and climate change impacts result in increased river runoff, sea level rise and desertification (MEA 2005). As a consequence there is less suitable land available to meet domestic, agricultural, industrial and natural needs. Thereby, large-scale infrastructural developments are required to adapt to these pressures, while supporting economic growth and for safe-keeping of the growing population. All over the world, we are in need of strongly developed, efficiently planned urban areas, safe coasts to protect us from sea level rise and storms, lush rivers full of fish to feed our populations and enough water to enable agriculture in large areas of land to secure food availability. In this paper, we argue that these needs can be met by making use of services that ecosystems provide. These services are specific ecosystem functions that can benefit humans, such as production of food and fire-wood, but also aiding in coastal defense by dampening waves and aiding in water sanitation by filtering fresh water and extracting nutrients. We can create Green Adaptation (GA) solutions by making these ecosystem services an integrated part of engineering designs. Working towards integrated and multifunctional solutions will aid in optimal use of available space and assuring good quality of living in densely populated areas. Further, it is thought that Green Adaptation can cost-effectively contribute to economic development, societal values, climate adaptation and nature conservation objectives. Finally, Green Adaptation might be a promising route for NGO’s that focus on nature conservation to link conservation directly to human needs and development. This paper attempts to support this process by linking Green Adaptation to the concept of ecosystem services, by distinguishing different types of Green Adaptation, by highlighting failures and success of application of Green Adaptation through giving examples and references and by suggesting a possible way forward with this approach for Conservation International. The World Bank also adopts ‘Green’ approaches more regularly for infrastructural projects. In World Bank reports it is stated that these approaches are considered complementary to traditional infrastructure developments in several ways. First, natural ecosystems are resistant and resilient. Second, they provide a full range of goods and services on which human livelihoods depend, such as water, timber, and food. Further, natural ecosystems provide protection against some of the threats that result from climate change and land-use change. For example, wetlands, mangroves, oyster reefs, barrier beaches, and sand dunes protect coasts from storms and flooding. Such ecosystem-based approaches can complement, or substitute for, more expensive infrastructure investments to protect coastal and riparian settlements (World Bank 2009). This way Green Adaptation may reduce traditional infrastructural demands on the long term by pursuing the following activities (Worldbank 2007):

Maintaining and restoring natural ecosystems and the goods and services they provide

Protecting and enhancing vital ecosystem services, such as water flows and water quality

Maintaining coastal barriers and natural mechanisms of flood control and pollution reduction

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Reducing land and water degradation by actively preventing, and controlling, the spread of invasive alien species

Managing habitats that maintain nursery, feeding, and breeding grounds for fisheries, wildlife, and other species on which human populations depend

Providing reservoirs for wild relatives of crops to increase genetic diversity and resilience.

1.2 Green Adaptation for developing countries Environmental and socio-economic impacts of climate change pose a serious threat to development and poverty reduction in developing countries (Pittock 2009). Effects of climate change and population growth are expected to have the largest societal impacts in the poorest countries and those in vulnerable areas, such as low lying deltas. This is not only due to the projected effects of climate change, which are thought to be most pronounced in developing countries, but also due to poor infrastructure in place and lack of monetary and institutional resources. Adaptation is required to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience and thus, this is becoming an increasingly important part of the development agenda. The Copenhagen Climate Change conference in March 2009 reported that ‘adaptation measures to lessen the impacts of climate change are urgently needed now. Given the considerable uncertainties around projections of climate impacts on water resources at local and regional scales, building resilience, managing risks, and employing adaptive management are likely to be the most effective adaptation strategies’ (Richardson, Steffen et al. 2009). In developing countries, climate change adaptation is best enhanced by concurrently acting to reduce poverty, enhancing livelihoods and managing biophysical vulnerability rather than favoring either response alone (Adger 2006). Climate change is not the only threat for developing countries; poorly planned and designed infrastructure as well as threats from degrading and destroying ecosystems are also relevant. In most developing countries large-scale extensive water management measures are scarce and generally issues, such as water management or agriculture, are approached from a responsive, de-centralized perspective. On one hand this offers opportunities for applying Green Adaptation methods, as systems are often more or less intact and de-centralization enables maintenance of Green Adaptation by local communities. Green Adaptation solutions can easily be applied in developing countries that are in transition, such as Brazil and China, where application is less troubled by infrastructure that is already in place. On the other hand, lack of overview may result in measures in one place that are detrimental to other areas. Simply, a dam upstream will affect water availability downstream. From this perspective a more centralized approach will avoid such undesired side-effects. Natural ecosystems in developing countries often are less anthropogenically affected than systems in highly developed countries. Rivers have not been completely dammed and canalized and forests occasionally still possess a more or less natural species assemblage. However, increased population growth results in increased pressure upon natural resources and ecosystems. Loss or deterioration of ecosystems implies loss of ecosystem services on which local populations depend. This may require shifts in traditional land-use practices, such as slash and burn agriculture or nomadic cattle grazing. Green Adaptation can potentially facilitate sustainable development in these areas, while assuring conservation and restoration of threatened ecosystems.


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Finally, developing countries are generally highly dependent on small-scale agricultural activities for their economic development. Yields from agriculture strongly depend on natural dynamics. For example, often irrigation is taken care of by natural flooding of land by river water. This implies strong linkage between economic revenues and natural ecosystems. Therefore, natural dynamics of water systems need to be kept intact to support local communities. This proves a challenge with regards to increasing urban development and measures to enhance safety and minimize environmental risk.

1.3 Scope This paper aims to provide ammunition for integrating nature conservation with large-scale economical developments. Therefore, it will make use of the concept of ecosystem services, with a focus on integrating services with infrastructural developments. The current state of research on ecosystem services with respect to applying services for Green Adaptation will be summarized. Then, an overview will be given of key-factors for success in application of Green Adaptation in projects in development and transitional countries. This is done by defining Green Adaptation and showing application of Green Adaptation in different programs and projects. A short review shows services from different ecosystems that can be included in Green Adaptation designs. In this review, we give summarized information on quantification of services and we shortly describe methods for restoration of these specific ecosystems. As conclusion, a general framework listing services for different ecosystems and for different Green Adaptation methods is provided. Further, key-factors for success for application of Green Adaptation approaches in development and transitional countries are discussed. We highlight most urgent and feasible questions to work with in the future and provide a first glance at successful pathways to work towards setting up several large-scale applications of Green Adaptation in the field. In the next chapters, the following questions will be addressed: Chapter 2: What is Green Adaptation and what are the key principles? Chapter 3: What are ecosystem services that can be implemented in Green Adaptation

designs? What knowledge do we posses about these services and about restoring the systems that provide these services?

Chapter 4: What is the common framework connecting ecosystem services and what are knowledge gaps?

Chapter 5: What are governance issues for application of Green Adaptation approaches in development countries?

Chapter 6: What is the most successful route towards application of Green Adaptation approaches in projects in development countries? What are the joint roles for Conservation International and Deltares along this route?


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2 Green Adaptation – how does it work?

2.1 Building with Nature, Eco-engineering, Green Infrastructure and Green Adaptation Traditionally, humanity has developed single-purpose infrastructure in the form of hard, solid structures. In the past few decades, many concepts - Green Adaptation, ecological engineering, Building with Nature, eco-technology and eco-dynamic design - were developed that focus on ‘soft’ solutions that combine multiple functions. These concepts are aimed at improving both the natural and the socio-economic value of an area by making effective use of natural processes and ecosystem services. Keywords within all concepts are multifunctional use, nature development, integrated approach, sustainability and ecosystem services. The concept of ecosystem services is a central principle in all these concepts. Ecosystem services are defined as the ecosystem functions that are of use to humans, such as food production, coastal protection, recreation and purification of water and air. • The concept ‘Building with Nature’ was first used by J.N. Svašek in 1979. This method

is based on morphological theories and uses ‘soft’ solutions for coastal defense, with a focus on using the materials and forces present in nature (Waterman, 1980-2008). Waterman defines the essence of the concept as: ‘Flexible integration of land-in-sea and water-in-the-new-land, using the materials, forces and interactions present in nature, where existing and potential nature values are included, as well the bio-geomorphology and geo-hydrology of the coast and seafloor.’ This concept therefore focuses mainly on coastal defense.

• ‘Ecological engineering’ or ‘Eco-engineering’ was designed by Howard T. Odum in 1962. The concept was then defined as ‘the cases in which the input delivered by humans is small in comparison to natural sources, but enough to produce big effects in the eventual patterns and processes.’ Mitsch & Jørgensen broadened this original definition in 2003 to ‘the design of sustainable ecosystems that integrate human society with its natural environmental to promote both’. The self-organizing principle of nature is essential in this concept.

• ’Green Infrastructure’ or ‘Natural Infrastructure’ can be defined as an interconnected network of green space that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits to human populations (Benedict 2002). The Green Infrastructure approach analyses the natural environment in a way that highlights its function and subsequently seeks to put in place, through regulatory or planning policy, mechanisms that safeguard critical natural areas.

• ‘Green adaptation’ is an application of eco-engineering and aims at adaptation to the pressures of climate change, population growth and economic development, making use of ecosystem services. Ecosystems are able to adapt to changing circumstances and therefore, might be more robust in the light of climate change. The approach has a strong connection to protection and support of local communities and their livelihoods (see Text Box 2.1).

Concluding, these different concepts are similar but the specific focus within the concepts is slightly different. In this paper, we aim to address the full scale of ecosystem-based approaches in which ecosystem services are an integrated part of the infrastructural solution to adapt to the variety of occurring pressures in developing regions. Here, we call this Green Adaptation approaches. Green Adaptation aims to embed natural functions in land and water use planning in order to not only strengthen livelihoods and support development, but also to enhance ecosystem health.

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Text Box 2.1 Overview of the key principles of Green Adaptation.

2.2 Available knowledge Knowledge and experience on application of Green Adaptation approaches is available, and various pilots, case studies and small-scale applications were successfully developed, especially in the developed world. The basic principles that underlie Green Adaptation applications can be applied all over the world, in developed and developing countries, and in any situation, from entirely natural to entirely man-made. However, its success depends on several factors. First, the applicability of solutions is highly site-specific; what works in the Netherlands might not work in Tanzania. This is caused by political stability, national awareness of climate or environmental risks, the state of present infrastructure and industry, and the available expertise and capacity. It is also very much dependent on the state and functioning of the ecosystem and the available time to meet infrastructural needs. Still, application of Green Adaptation is an innovative field and as a consequence several factors should be taken into consideration for large-scale application of Green Adaptation: • Awareness needs to be raised on the benefits of using ecosystem services instead of,

or in addition to, relying upon traditional infrastructure. • There should be sufficient knowledge of how to enhance or otherwise rely upon

ecosystem services for multiple benefits • New ways of working are required: multi-disciplinary approaches are needed that also

integrate different ecosystem dynamics and functions • Shifts in cost calculations and project planning must take place: project development

time depends upon the speed of natural processes–shifting costs away from construction and into maintenance activities.

By exploring the theory behind Green Adaptation, providing an overview of available knowledge and drawing lessons from experiences with Green Adaptation approaches in developed and developing countries, we try to assess what needs to be done, how and by whom, in order to enable large-scale application of Green Adaptation approaches in developing countries.

Key principles of Green Adaptation: • Making optimal use of the ecosystem and its functions: work with what you’ve

got - make nature work for you • Making multi-functional use of space: work to integrate all functions in an area • Meeting underlying societal goals: work with people’s needs! Make it a win-win

situation for all stakeholders • Multi-disciplinary cooperation among key players: work together with different

disciplines • Involving stakeholders in early stages of projects: work together from the start


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2.3 Meeting infrastructural needs through ecosystem services The need for infrastructural development is generally determined by population growth, economic growth, and environmental change. Infrastructural developments are mostly dictated by peoples’ need for safety, drinking water and food. These needs strongly depend on ecosystem services: safety is related to risk of flooding, drinking water is determined by freshwater quantity and quality and food is determined by ecosystem health and productivity. For ecosystems to provide these services, they need to be healthy: productive, bio-diverse and resilient. The development of Green Adaptation not only meets infrastructural, but also societal demands by combining existing infrastructure and ecosystem services. We can divide the infrastructural demands into four goals: - Flood protection in coastal and river areas - Freshwater quality and quantity - Food availability - Quality of living. In Text Box 2.2, these goals are further discussed, providing information on what determines the goal, how ecosystem services aid in meeting the demand, which considerations should be taken into account when making use of these ecosystem services and providing examples of Green Adaptation approaches. Following these principles, Green Adaptation can be a cost-efficient, low maintenance, no-regret solution to infrastructural needs that provides multiple benefits and is publicly supported.

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Text Box 2.2 Overview of the infrastructural demands divided over four different themes, on ecosystem services and considerations that should be taken into account when making use of these functions. Flood protection in coastal and river areas Determined by: wave loads, currents, river discharges, precipitation and erosion How ecosystem services aid: wave attenuation, current velocity reduction, sediment retention,

water retention. Example GA Approach: mangroves retain sediment thereby preventing erosion, and

reduce wave action thereby increasing flood protection. Considerations:: existing flood protection structures, natural materials/ecosystems

present in the area, judicial regulations, local communities and their livelihoods.

Fresh water quality and quantity Determined by: river discharges, precipitation, erosion of soils, salinity,

purification capacity. How ecosystem services aid: water retention and storage, soil and sediment retention, filtration

and oxygenation of water Example GA Approach: wetlands have a strong water retaining and filtration capacity,

thereby improving water quality, and influencing water quantity downstream.

Considerations: local hydrology and morphology, natural materials/ecosystem services present in the area, recreational planning, judicial regulations, sources of contaminants, local community and their livelihoods, energy demands?

Food availability Determined by: fresh water quality and quantity, fertility of soils, ecosystem

health, biodiversity, productivity How ecosystem services aid: improving ecosystem health, water purification, water retention,

strengthening biodiversity and productivity by maintaining and developing habitats.

Example GA Approach: coral reefs, salt marshes and sea grass beds function as nurseries thereby increasing fish stocks.

Considerations: local livelihoods, cultural aspects, habitat conditions for food production, influence of large-scale processes such as over-fishing

Quality of living Determined by: suitability of an area for living, tourism and recreation; ecosystem

health; water and air quality; biodiversity How ecosystem services aid: improving water and air quality, regulating temperature, improving

water run-off, creating possibilities for recreation and tourism, increasing water availability

Example GA Approach: Developing parks in urban areas to retain water, improve air quality, regulate temperature and improve spatial quality - multi-functional use of space; strengthening nature reserves to improve tourism and recreation function of an area;

Considerations: urban spatial planning, accessibility of area, basic infrastructure, recreational planning, judicial regulations, pressures of urban agglomerations.


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3 Green Adaptation approaches

3.1 The most promising Green Adaptation approaches

3.1.1 Green Adaptation approaches described The Green Adaptation approach uses ecosystem services for human benefits and engineering purposes. To generate a general and common framework, which will aid application of Green Adaptation approaches in projects, here we list ecosystems roughly based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) and summarize the services these systems can provide. We give a first overview of available quantitative information for different services and we pay attention to current knowledge on restoration of ecosystems, which is indispensable if we want to work towards more opportunistic use of ecosystem services for Green Adaptation applications.

3.1.1.1 Reefs Coral reefs Coral reefs are mainly found in tropical seas, and can occur in a variety of shapes. Reef building corals require suitable light conditions, high salinity and low sediment input. Worldwide, coral reefs are used for food production and coastal safety. Further, they attract a vast amount of tourists by providing excellent opportunities for snorkeling, diving, boating and fishing. Unfortunately, coral reefs are threatened by ocean acidification, increasing water temperatures that induce bleaching, water pollution, sedimentation, coastal development, over fishing and coral mining (Website Coral Reef Alliance http://www.coral.org/). Reef building corals are foundation species, implying that they create locally stable conditions for a cascade of other species (Dayton, Tegner et al. 1992). Odum & Odum (1955) (Odum 1955) demonstrated that coral reefs are highly productive due to their nutrient, zooplankton and possibly phytoplankton trapping capacity (Monismith 2007). Through this productivity, reefs support a range of functional groups of primary producers, herbivores and predators (Elmqvist, Folke et al. 2003). Coral reefs provide a myriad of services (Agardy, Restrepo et al. 2005). Their importance as a food source in tropical areas is substantial, with millions of people directly depending on the resources provided, and many more indirectly, through tourism for example (Sadovy 2005). Besides supporting local communities and biodiversity, coral reefs also play a key role in coastal safety by wave attenuation (Kench and Brander 2006) and reduction of current velocities (Harborne, Mumby et al. 2006). The property of organisms to create or modify habitats, such as corals do by attenuating waves, is also known as ecosystem engineering. Note that foundation species are generally ecosystem engineers, but that ecosystem engineers are not always foundation species. The role of coral reefs as submerged breakwaters is extensively studied (Möller, Spencer et al. 1999; Kench and Brander 2006). This research shows that reefs constrain ocean swells, thereby transforming wave characteristics and consequently attenuating wave energy. Data from Grand Cayman demonstrated that wave attenuation was reduced by 20% and tidal current speed was reduced by 30% by the reef (Harborne, Mumby et al. 2006). Furthermore, as water flows across the reef, water movement is changed significantly. Suhayda and Robers (1977) (Suhayda 1977; Harborne, Mumby et al. 2006) demonstrated that wave height and period were reduced by 50%. Exact numbers depend on local conditions, such as shape and size of the reef, water depth and wave characteristics.

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Construction and restoration of coral reefs is a popular field of research. For the construction of artificial reefs, hard structures are placed in the coastal zone. These hard structures can be specifically designed for colonization by corals (i.e. reef balls) or can be waste (i.e. car tyres). Baine (2001) reviewed methods for coral reef reconstruction by creating artificial reefs and concluded that the most commonly used materials for restoration are concrete and other rocky structures. Further, only 14% of the 249 papers that were reviewed paid specific attention to the detailed design of the reef by looking into configuration, size, volume and area (Baine 2001). About 50% of reviewed studies turned out to be successful in achieving restoration goals (Baine 2001). Additional to construction of artificial reefs, efforts to restore damaged reefs mainly focus on transplantation of corals. This method is mostly used in areas where there is acute damage of reefs from tsunamis or ship groundings, such as in South-East Asia (Bowden-Kerby 2008). However, this is a rather costly method, as the refastening of coral requires considerable time underwater (Bowden-Kerby 2008). Shellfish reefs In temperate areas similar services to coral reefs are provided by reef building shellfish species, such as mussels or oysters. These species are also clear examples of ecosystem engineers, in that they modify their local hydrodynamic and sedimentary surrounding (Folkard and Gascoigne 2009; van Leeuwen, Augustijn et al. 2010) and of foundation species, as they are able to construct hard substrate reefs in soft sediment areas. Reefs are soon colonized by anemones, sponges and algae that depend on hard substrate for settlement. Additionally, reefs offer refuge space for crabs, lobsters, shrimp and several fish species. Thus, shellfish reefs, similar to coral reefs, are an important source of marine food production by offering nesting and refuge area for mobile organisms. However, oysters and mussels themselves are of large importance for local food production as well. In many coastal areas communities have been building their livelihoods on mussel or oyster farming for decades. Another property that shellfish reefs have in common with coral reefs is their ability to reduce local hydrodynamics (Borsje, van Wesenbeeck et al. 2011). However, in general shellfish reefs are considerably lower in height than a full grown coral reef. As a result, effects on reducing current velocities and wave dampening are more modest. Borsje et al. (2011) show an example of reduction of wave heights over small oyster and mussel beds in a flume study. Oysters were shown to reduce wave heights with 50 % with low water levels (25 cm) and small waves (3.34 cm) (Borsje, van Wesenbeeck et al. 2011). Currently, field measurements of wave reduction over natural oyster beds are executed in the Oosterschelde (the Netherlands). Effects of shellfish reefs on their sedimentary surroundings seem more conspicuous and are surely more extensively studied. In northern parts of the US and in the Netherlands oysters are used to stabilize sediment of intertidal flats (Meyer and Townsend 2000; Piazza, Banks et al. 2005; Borsje, van Wesenbeeck et al. 2011). Moreover, studies on mussel beds showed that effects of a single bed on sediment composition can be detected at large distances from the bed (van Leeuwen et al 2010). Finally, mussels and oysters are so-called filter feeders. This implies that they obtain their food (algae) by filtering large amounts of water from the water column. During this filtering process they remove organic compounds and silty particles from the water column, which benefits water quality (Coen, Brumbaugh et al. 2007). Concluding, shellfish beds provide severable valuable services. Thus, good management of existing beds and restoration of beds in areas where they are diminished is of large importance. Although some shellfish species, such as the pacific oyster, are a plague in some areas where they invaded, on purpose creation of oysters beds is not always easy (Borsje, van Wesenbeeck et al. 2011). However, there are many successful efforts to reintroduce


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oysters for erosion control, especially in combination with wetlands such as in the Living shorelines program (Gedan, Kirwan et al. 2011).

3.1.1.2 Sea grass beds Sea grass ecosystems are of vital importance in tidal and intertidal marine environments along temperate and tropical coastlines (Short, Carruthers et al. 2007). Sea grasses also are foundation species and ecosystem engineers. By reducing waves and currents and increasing precipitation of silt they create an environment that is favoured by several fish species, molluscs and in specific areas by dugongs. The latter makes these habitats attractive for controlled eco-tourism. Worldwide, sea grasses are threatened. Currently, 10 of the 72 species of sea grass are at risk of extinction, while 3 species are qualified as ‘endangered’ (Short, Carruthers et al. 2007). The main causes for this decline are poor water quality due to run-off from land, loss of area due to near-shore construction, increased sediment loads, unsustainable fishing practices and obstruction of freshwater flows and seepage to intertidal areas (Short, Carruthers et al. 2007; Grech 2011). Sea grass beds offer refuge and foraging opportunities for several fish species and play a role as nursery areas (Harborne, Mumby et al. 2006). In Zanzibar (Tanzania), juveniles of several commercially important fish species (Cheilo inermis, Hipposcarus harid, Leptoscarus vaigensis and Scolopsis ghanam) were shown to inhabit sea grass beds only (Lugendo, Pronker et al. 2005). A study on the socio-economic benefits of sea grass ecosystems in this area revealed that sea grass-associated fish was the primary source of animal protein for the local community and that revenues of fisherman were the highest from sea-grass associated fish (de la Torre-Castro and Ronnback 2004). This underlines the importance of sea grass beds as a food source for small coastal communities (Heck, Hays et al. 2003). Another important feature of sea grass beds is their ability to attenuate waves and reduce local current velocities (Fonseca and Cahalan 1992; Bouma, De Vries et al. 2005). This leads to precipitation of silty particles in the bed (van der Heide, van Nes et al. 2007; Hendriks, Sintes et al. 2008). In South-East Asia, for example, (Gacia, Duarte et al. 2003) found that during the dry season the total daily deposition of sediment in seagrass meadows varied from 18.8 g of dry weight per m2/day in the Phillipines to 681.1 g of dry weight per m2/day in Vietnam. Reduction of current velocities and wave height and precipitation of silt may aid in coastal defense. However, effects of sea grass on these parameters will depend strongly on the exact sea grass species as these vary largely in size. Restoration efforts in the Netherlands, the USA and Australia are multiple and mainly focused on reintroduction of sea grasses to areas where they disappeared. Reconstruction of sea grass meadows often takes place by transplanting flowering plants from a donor population. In the Dutch Wadden Sea this was done four times between 1991 and 2004 (van Katwijk, Bos et al. 2009). Transplantation however, is quite expensive due to the fact that plants have to be hand picked and planted, while success rates are low (van Katwijk, Bos et al. 2009). In the USA, experiments were conducted with a new form of reconstruction, focusing on seeding rather than transplantation. An example from Chesepeake Bay (Shafer and Bergstrom 2010) demonstrates that an average of 13.4 ha/year was planted with this new method, compared to an average rate of 3.6 ha/year during the two previous decades. Restoration in Australia mainly focuses on mechanical harvesting and planting with minimal disturbance (Paling, van Keulen et al. 2001). Success rates up to 70% were achieved with this method.

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3.1.1.3 Wetlands Wetlands are natural areas where soil is saturated with water, such as marshes, bogs and mangroves. Water can be fresh, salt or brackish. Wetlands belong to the most productive ecosystems in the world and, thus, are an important carbon sink. Deterioration of wetland area, such as peatland, forms a substantial contribution to CO2 emissions. Wetlands are severely threatened by draining for real estate or agricultural development, and by damming, which cuts off natural water flows, thereby stopping nutrient and sediment input (Dudgeon 2005). River floodplains/freshwater wetlands

Floodplains are areas near streams or rivers. These areas are mostly flat and cover the main floodway, but also the areas that flood only temporarily and therefore, are covered with riparian vegetation. Floodplain wetlands are among the most productive and diverse ecosystems in the world due to the regular deposition of nutrient rich sediments (Viers, Barroux et al. 2005; Rohde, Hostmann et al. 2006). Floodplains are often converted to arable land for food production and to protect crops and cattle from flooding, floodplains are then drained and rivers canalized and dammed (Posthumus, Rouquette et al.; Rohde, Hostmann et al. 2006). Recently, a trend towards restoring floodplains to achieve flood protection and regulate freshwater availability can be observed. Biodiversity in floodplain ecosystems is high. A study by (Hamilton, Kellndorfer et al. 2007) in Peru suggested that the rich biodiversity of the sub-Andean region can partly be attributed to the enhanced biodiversity connected to fluvial geomorphologic features, such as floodplains. This biodiversity not only plays a role in conservation, but also in food supply for local communities. In Cambodia for example approximately 87% of the households surveyed engaged in fishing on floodplains (Navy and Bhattarai 2009). Also in Bangladesh aquatic products from floodplains are of major importance for peoples livelihoods in both urban and rural areas (Sultana and Crow 2001). Floodplains and freshwater wetlands provide services for flood protection in terms of sediment capture and reduction of current velocities (Bullock and Acreman 2003). According to a study by (Saint-Laurent, Lavoie et al.) using radiocarbon data, average values of sedimentation in Quebec range from 1.0 mm per year to 10.7 mm per year. Flow and velocity are reduced by floodplains due to the presence of vegetation. Floodplains act as a storage reservoir during floods (Wyzga 1999), thereby regulating freshwater availability and avoiding flooding of urban areas elsewhere in the catchment (Posthumus, Rouquette et al.). Hollis (1990) (Bullock and Acreman 2003) who studied floodplains in Nigeria, found that these ecosystems store up to 1400 x 106 m3 of recharge of the Chad formation. Forests on floodplains, also called ‘floodplain woodlands’, reduce waves due to the roughness of the vegetation, delay the downstream progression of the flood peak by more than 2 hours and decrease mean water velocity over the floodplain by 50% (Thomas and Nisbet 2007). The availability of freshwater is regulated by wetlands due to their water retaining capacity (Verhoeven, Arheimer et al. 2006). Furthermore, wetlands purify water and fixate soils, thereby improving water quality (Baron, Poff et al. 2002). Wetlands serve as a source of water for farming, cattle, fishing and domestic uses in many rural communities (for example in Tanzani a, see (Kangalawe and Liwenga 2005)). This makes wetlands invaluable for local communities as a source of food and freshwater.


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Especially in rural areas where natural wetlands are lacking, constructed wetlands can be used for wastewater treatment (Tuladhar, Shrestha et al. 2007; Zhang, Wang et al. 2010). For example, in Sunga Tole (Nepal) up to 98% of organic pollutants were removed by a constructed wetland that was specifically created for wastewater treatment (Tuladhar, Shrestha et al. 2007). Examples of wetland construction in urban areas are also known. In Beijing for instance, (Jia, Ma et al. 2011) drafted a plan, determining the acreage and spatial location of different types of urban wetlands as well as the ecological water requirement and its deployment. As space is often restricted in urban areas instead of wetland or floodplain restoration, natural banks or floating islands are used against erosion and to enhance local biodiversity. Recently, management of rivers focuses on restoring floodplain ecosystems in order to benefit from the services this ecosystem provides (Rohde, Hostmann et al. 2006). In developed countries, the focus of restoration mainly lies on flood protection and in developing countries on food availability. Floodplain restoration sites are often selected on an ad hoc basis, rather than being based on a planning process (Rohde, Hostmann et al. 2006). In freshwater areas, current practices of wetland creation focus more on using nature’s self-designing capacity as well. This is done by diking and flooding a designated area (i.e. a grassland) (Shuwen, Pei et al. 2001). Sediments will eventually settle inside the encircled area, creating habitat which is colonized by reeds and other pioneer species. A project in a nature reserve in China using these self-designing capacities of a wetland ecosystem resulted in a wetland area of 240 ha in 4 years, providing habitat for rare waterfowl (Shuwen, Pei et al. 2001). If possible, freshwater wetlands can be restored by creating diversions of a river in order to increase the input of freshwater and sediment. To restore large areas of open water into wetland the area can be filled with dredged sediment, drifting platforms with vegetative units can be placed on the water surface, or a subsidence reversal technique can be applied, which is an enclosed and drained area in a lake in which active soil or peat formation is stimulated (DHV, Deltares et al. 2009). Reconstructing wetlands by making diversions of river water or by using dredged materials to increase the elevation of marsh platforms is successful. However, these methods are costly and rigid in that they do not allow adjustments once a certain strategy has been adopted (DHV, Deltares et al. 2009). Salt marshes

Salt marshes are crucial for production of marine food resources, and play an important role in the food-web, providing nutrition for coastal birds and other higher organisms. Due to their high productivity, salt-marsh areas are attractive habitat for a range of organisms, including fish, shellfish and birds (Agardy, Restrepo et al. 2005). An analysis of the productivity of these ecosystems, expressed in monetary values, demonstrated that salt marshes have an annual marginal asset value of $338 per acre per year (Johnston et al., 2002 from (Agardy, Restrepo et al. 2005)). This includes revenues from tourism in terms of hunting and viewing of waterfowl. The main threats to salt marsh ecosystems are climate change (mainly sea level rise), fragmentation, invasive species, pollution and subsidence. These phenomena have, and are affecting, salt marsh productivity and functioning (Agardy, Restrepo et al. 2005). In Louisiana for example, the effects of sea level rise and subsidence exceed the rate of marsh growth, resulting in loss of marsh area (Agardy, Restrepo et al. 2005). Salt-marsh ecosystems protect the coastal zone against flooding through wave attenuation and sediment fixation. Recently, this role is gaining more interest (Barbier, Koch et al. 2008; Feagin 2008; Gedan, Kirwan et al. 2011). Reduction in wave height over a marsh surface was measured to be the strongest in the first few meters (Möller and Spencer 2002).

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More than 50% of the wave energy is attenuated within the first 2.5 m of the marsh (Kennedy and Mayer 2002) and wave attenuation averaged 2.1% and 1.1% per meter at a shallow sloping and a cliffed site respectively (Möller and Spencer 2002). Furthermore, reduction of near-bed current velocities (Neumeier and Ciavola 2004) results in increased sedimentation and decreased erosion rates (Leonard and Luther 1995). To enhance salt-marsh formation, planting of cord grass species has been widely applied (van Proosdij, Lundholm et al.; Bakker, Esselink et al. 2002; Chung, Zhuo et al. 2004; Zhi, Li et al. 2007). However, in certain areas cord grasses (Spartina spec.) turn out to be extremely invasive taking over complete mudflats and thereby exhibiting harmful effects on shellfish habitat and on several bird species that forage on intertidal flats (Zedler and Kercher 2004). Other methods for reconstruction include nourishments (Garbisch 2005) and de-embankments (Bakker, Esselink et al. 2002; Wolters, Bakker et al. 2005). Traditional methods for gaining land in the Netherlands induce salt-marsh formation by creating suitable conditions for vegetation establishment. This is done by construction of groins, which mediate hydrodynamics and wave impact. Digging of draining channels speeds up water run off. This way, the high areas become rapidly fit for vegetation growth.

3.1.1.4 Mangroves Mangroves are saline woodlands with medium height trees and shrubs along tropical and subtropical coastlines. Mangroves flourish by a depositional regime of fine silty sediments. Mangrove plants are adapted to stressful conditions, such as large fluctuations in salinity and the lack of gas exchange by their root systems due to daily submergence. Worldwide, mangroves provide services in terms of coastal protection (Gedan, Kirwan et al. 2011), biodiversity (Gopal and Chauhan 2006; Heads 2006), food (Nagelkerken, Blaber et al. 2008), carbon dioxide fixation, and freshwater availability (Wattayakorn, Wolanski et al. 1990). The high biodiversity and unique features of mangroves in terms of adaptation to inundation make these ecosystems attractive to tourists. In many countries mangrove walking or boating tours and crocodile spotting are arranged. Mangrove lodgings are popular sleeping facilities for tourists. The last decades over half of the worlds mangroves were removed due to coastal developments. Moreover, mangroves are threatened by climate change (Gilman, Ellison et al. 2008), pollution (Lewis et al., 2011), deforestation (Yap 2000) and changes in water regime (Ruiz-Luna, Acosta-Velazquez et al. 2008). Mangrove ecosystems support biodiversity by providing habitat, diversifying habitat and increasing connectivity. The roots of mangroves provide substratum for many plants and animals whereas the trunks and branches provide habitat for birds, insects, mammals and reptiles. Furthermore, mangroves provide a sheltered environment with low predation pressure, thereby functioning as a nursery habitat for crab and fish species (Nagelkerken, Blaber et al. 2008). These supporting and provisioning services of mangroves makes them invaluable for aquaculture, agriculture and forestry (Walters, Ronnback et al. 2008), relating directly to food availability for local communities. Coastal protection by mangrove ecosystems is extensively studied (see (Gedan, Kirwan et al. 2011) for a review). Mangroves attenuate waves, capture sediment, reduce erosion and decrease current velocities. Wave reduction in mangrove forests was found to be much higher compared to a bare sandy surface (Quartel, Kroon et al. 2007); see (Alongi and Robertson 1995) for a review). Furthermore, mangroves on the edge of muddy open water can trap up to 1000 tons sediment per km2 per year by generating stagnation zones behind them (Ellison 2000). This prevents erosion of sediments, thereby strengthening the coastal zone.


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Historically, mangrove restoration and construction has mainly been used for coastal protection and biodiversity. However, mangroves also contribute to mitigation of climate change, due its uptake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. A case study in Kenya, where 2000 mangrove trees were planted in Gazi Bay, produced conservative estimates that 180 tons of carbon could be absorbed over 25 years of mangrove growth (Huxham and Kairo 2008). Further, in the light of climate change, and the projected decreasing availability of clean drinking water, the ability of mangroves to retain and filter water is increasingly acknowledged. In terms of freshwater availability, mangroves play a role in retaining freshwater resources inland. According to (Wolanski, Mazda et al. 1990) who studied hydrodynamics in mangroves in Australia, flushing of the fringing mangrove swamps is slow, with a residence time of about 54 days. Data from (Wattayakorn, Wolanski et al. 1990) in Thailand suggest that freshwater from upstream is trapped in the upper reaches of the mangroves, and is released in a creek at low tides. This means that mangroves play an important role in regulating freshwater in- and outflow between upstream and coastal areas. Mangrove restoration is increasingly applied worldwide (Ellison 2000; Kairo, Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2001). A substantial number of restoration initiatives are based on planting mangrove trees on intertidal mudflats. The goals for mangrove restoration in the 1990s mainly focused on silviculture, coastal stabilization and environmental mitigation or restoration, whereas ecosystem functioning was only a goal for restoration projects in the Neotropics (Ellison 2000). In restoration attention should be given to the fact that restoring a specific habitat inevitably results in disappearance of the present habitat. In this respect, mangrove restoration may have potential negative social and environmental impacts when restoring mangroves at the expense of intertidal mudflats or seagrass beds. On intertidal mudflats for example, restoration efforts have relatively low success rates and as intertidal flats constitute an important habitat themselves, several services of intertidal flats disappear once the mangrove forest is constructed (Erftemeijer and Lewis 1999). The success of restoration through replanting seems to depend largely on availability of suitable sites and species and the involvement of the local community (Walters, Ronnback et al. 2008).

3.1.1.5 Forest Forests are defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment as ecosystems “with a canopy cover of at least 40% by woody plants taller than 5 meters” (Shvidenko 2005). These ecosystems are mainly known for their high biodiversity, food provisioning services, and their role in the global carbon cycle. Especially tropical forests contribute significantly to global biodiversity. Even though this ecosystem covers less then 10% of the Earth’s service, it contains between 50 and 90% of the species known to date (WRI et al., 1992 from (Shvidenko 2005). Temperate and boreal forests also have a high diversity at the ecosystem level, even though the number of indigenous tree species is lower than in the tropical equivalent (Atrokhin et al., 1982 from (Shvidenko 2005). The main threat to forest ecosystems is land use change. This is executed on a large scale at an annual rate of 10 million hectares per year (Shvidenko 2005). Other threats to forests worldwide are unsustainable timber extraction, forest fires, insect and disease outbreaks, climate change and the invasion of alien species (Logan, Regniere et al. 2003; Breshears, Cobb et al. 2005; Dymond, Wulder et al. 2006). Forests are of great importance to local communities, offering a range of benefits, especially to the lowest social classes that do not own land (Kamanga, Vedeld et al. 2009). An example from South Africa (Shackleton, Shackleton et al. 2007) demonstrated that many of the inhabitants make use of forests and their resources, which prevents them from getting. Food

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resources are mainly obtained by hunting and gathering forest flora and fauna (Sunderlin, Angelsen et al. 2005). However, in terms of energy, transferring from hunter and gatherer to farmer is beneficial; it leads to a change in energy intake from 5,000 to 26,000 kcal per day (Bennett, 1976 from (Sunderlin, Angelsen et al. 2005). Forest are important in buffering rainwater and preventing erosion, as deforested areas suffer from increased flooding and landslides (Shvidenko 2005). In terms of freshwater availability, forests are capable of retaining and purifying water as well as fixating soils. The services provided differ between boreal, temperate and tropical forests. Tropical forests for instance are thought to be less effective in water retention than temperate forests, since tropical forests rapidly become saturated during tropical rainstorms. In contrast, some studies conclude that forests aid in the regulation of flow, particularly in the dry season (Shvidenko 2005). An example from soil fixation by a tropical forest stems from Jamaica (McDonald, Healey et al. 2002) where the ecosystem prevented surface runoff and resulted in a loss of soil of less than 500 kg/ha/year. Restoration and construction of forests to compensate for loss of area are undertaken both in temperate and tropical countries. In order to restore forest ecosystems, both passive (native recolonization) and active (reforestation) methods have been developed. Due to the difficulties with the short life time of tropical forest seeds, active methods are more commonly used than native recolonization in these areas. In Laos for example, the major approach to reforestation was based on planting seedlings, however, direct seeding is also thought to be an option for forest restoration (Sovu, Savadogo et al.). Success in restoration of forests is largely determined by knowledge of the local ecosystem. Information on ecological aspects of the species used, such as seed germination and seedling growth, combined with knowledge of the a-biotic factors in place is paramount in restoring and establishing forested areas (Khurana and Singh 2001). Agroforestry (rural) (Sidle, Ziegler et al. 2006) and parks (urban) provide similar services as forests, and can be used as intermediate solution to achieve infrastructure goals in these areas, such as water retention and temperature regulation. However, in general these man-made systems do not provide the same services in terms of conservation goals. It can be argued though that in the absence of natural systems, these intermediate solutions are ‘better than nothing’.

3.1.1.6 Grassland Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses, including temperate grasslands, tropical and sub-tropical grasses and savannas (Safriel, Adeel et al. 2005). These ecosystems make up approximately 40% of the Earth’s surface (Wang and Fang 2009) and are primarily known for their conservational and food producing services. Grasslands worldwide harbor 28% of the global terrestrial vertebrate fauna (Safriel, Adeel et al. 2005) and they play a vital role in food webs due to their primary producing capacity (Bowker, Maestre et al.). Since approximately 14% of the world’s population inhabits grassland areas (Safriel, Adeel et al. 2005), many people depend on this ecosystem for their livelihoods. Cattle is the main source of income in countries such as Bhutan, where it accounts for up to 84% of the income of a gross annual household (Moktan, Norbu et al. 2008). Grasslands are increasingly converted to arable land in order to support food supply for cattle and humans. In China grasslands account for more than 40% of land cover (Kang, Han et al. 2011). In order to meet the food demand of the growing population, both through agriculture and cattle herding, large areas such as the Inner Mongolia grassland, are degrading (Jiang, Han et al. 2006). This leads to a desertification and degradation of water and air quality (Jiang, Han et al. 2006).


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High mountainous grasslands, such as the Andean paramo’s, play an important role in fresh water regulation (Buytaert, Iniguezz et al. 2006). Regulation of freshwater in grasslands takes place by the fixation of soil and retention of water. Paramo’s retain large amounts of water which is essential for down hill water availability. In general loss of vegetation contributes to flooding and erosion since these plants regulate the run-off from land (Xu, Ye et al.). This was demonstrated for grasslands near the Yangtze river. There, depending on the slope of the area, soil erosion in grassland was less compared to in farmed and agricultural land (Long, Heilig et al. 2006). Finally, grasslands are important carbon fixing ecosystems. A study in Swiss grasslands demonstrated that these ecosystems act as a carbon sink, taking up between 25 and 150 g Cm-2yr-1 (Luscher, Hendrey et al. 1998). Agricultural land for grass/hay production provides similar services in terms of groundwater and soil stabilization. However, these systems contribute to a lesser extent to biodiversity. Productivity is probably higher than in ‘natural’ systems though, but this is partly due to fertilizers. Restoration of grasslands takes place worldwide. In Europe, many projects of grassland restoration focus on compensation of negative impacts of traditional infrastructural designs (Conrad and Tischew 2011). A number of methods for grassland restoration in Europe can be distinguished (see (Hedberg and Kotowski 2010) for a review): direct seeding, diaspore transfer, slot seeding, plug planting, hay spread and brush harvesting. Grassland restoration is most successful when seeds, plant material containing seeds or soil are spread on bare soil after tilling or top soil removal in ex-arable fields, or on raw soils such as mined areas (Kiehl, Kirmer et al. 2010). In China, the ‘Sloping Land Conversion Program’ has been set up to restore natural forests and grasslands in order to reduce erosion (Xu, Yin et al. 2006). Restoration in China mainly takes place by altering grazing management (Jiang, Han et al. 2006).


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4 Lessons from the field

4.1 Generalizations on services and systems The concept of ecosystem services became increasingly popular as a research topic over the past ten years. Popularity of the concept is still rising. In a world with a rapidly rising population, with a heavy pressure on natural resources and with a changing climate nature conservation is under constant pressure. The concept of ecosystem services expresses value of ecosystems to humans, thereby justifying conservation of these systems. It proves more successful in doing this than previous attempts to quantify ecosystem benefits in economic value. Possibly because it emphasizes functions of ecosystems that directly benefit humans instead of trying to express these functions directly into dollars. These attempts often turn out to be rather ambiguous, which makes it easy to refute them, while it cannot be argued that ecosystems deliver services to humans, such as food and coastal safety that we cannot do without.

Originally, ecological research focused on understanding of ecosystem structure, population dynamics and on conservation and restoration. The new work on ecosystem services can profit from the more process based research. Especially, quantification of processes now proves useful. However, this research was often done with another purpose and therefore, mostly does not offer the precise quantitative knowledge that would help application of ecosystem services into the field. Services for several ecosystems are listed in table 4.1. It is apparent that ecosystems provide multiple services, aiding in the achievement of multiple Green Adaptation goals. Several ecosystems obtain the same service. All ecosystems provide services for flood protection. However, ecosystems differ in effectiveness. Mangroves for example, are among the best wave absorbers, but are less efficient in reducing current velocities.

Ecosystems, such as forests and grasslands, regulate fresh water availability, whereas wetlands mostly aid in water purification (Table 4.1). Water availability is largely regulated upstream (or uphill in mountainous areas) and purification happens along the way and close to sea. This illustrates that also with respect to ecosystem services, ecosystems do not function as independent units. For downstream purification by wetlands, regulation of water flows upstream is essential. Similarly, there are several marine and intertidal systems that attenuate waves. In undisturbed environments these systems are often bordering each other, which would result in waves being dampened by a shellfish reef first, then by the seagrass bed behind the reef and finally by the adjacent salt marsh. A parallel can be drawn for silt precipitation. The shellfish bed reduces hydrodynamics allowing silt to precipitate behind the bed where it is trapped by sea grass or by salt-marsh vegetation. Not much is known about these ‘service cascades’. They may even be more efficient than the sum of their individual services, or these adjacent ecosystems may protect each other and decrease chances on deterioration during extreme events. In that case, restoring a gradient of systems needs to be considered when applying these systems for Green Adaptation purposes.

All ecosystems reduce changes on landslides and erosion by the presence of vegetation (Table 4.1). Even crops in rural areas provide this service by protecting soil against direct effects of precipitation with their above-ground biomass and by stabilizing soils with their root system. Although it can be argued that monocultures might be less effective for erosion protection than more diverse or natural vegetation. Similarly, ecosystems along river banks and ecosystems along the coast reduce chances of erosion. Thus, this service is so general that there almost seems no point in mentioning it. However, in practice erosion is mostly

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battled by constructing hard structures instead of reconstructing previously present vegetation.

Table 4.1. Overview of the services provided by different ecosystems in terms of flood protection, freshwater

availability, food availability and rural & urban economic development


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To give examples of the range of executed Green Adaptation approaches internationally and the ecosystem services they provide, table 4.2 provides an overview of such pilots and projects, and gives an indication of their effectiveness.

Pilot description

Pilot purpose Additional services / benefits

Success Reference

Coral reefs Coral reef

protection in

Grand Cayman

Coastal protection:

wave attenuation

Biodiversity, food

production (fisheries),

sediment fixation

20% wave attenuation Harborne et al. 2006

Minahasa reefball

project, Indonesia

Enhance overall

marine habitat,

improve biodiversity

Food production, velocity

reduction, support local

livelihoods, scuba tourism

After 5 years, high biodiversity

and productivity found on

reefballs: 84 fish species, 44

coral species. Substrate found

suitable for coral growth

www.reefballs.comwww.

artificialreefs.org

http://www.artificialreefs.

org/Articles/VirtualExhibit

ionPTnewmount.htm

Coral restoration

to restore

damaged reefs

after tsunami in

SEAsia

Coastal protection:

wave attenuation,

flow reduction

Biodiversity, food

production, sediment

fixation (erosion

prevention), support

livelihoods

Coral restoration slow process,

but effective in MPAs, with

community-based efforts

Bowden-Kerby 2008

Shellfish reefs

Artificial oyster

reefs in

Oosterschelde,

Netherlands

Sediment fixation

(erosion prevention)

Bioproductivity, food

production, wave

attenuation, velocity

reduction

Wave attenuation 20% leads

to reduction of erosion

Ecoshape, Borsje et al.

2011

Living Shorelines

program: salt

marshes and

oyster domes

combined

Coastal protection,

sediment fixation

Biodiversity, good

production, water quality

High effectiveness of

combination, but wetlands

cannot protect shorelines in all

locations

or scenarios

Gedan et al. 2011

Sea grass Wadden sea

seagrass

restoration

project,

Netherlands

Biodiversity, coastal

defense

Sediment fixation, wave

attenuation, food

production

Success rate of transplantation

rather low

Van Katwijk et al. 2009

Australia

seagrass

restoration,

Reintroducing

seagrass into former

seagrass areas,

biodiversity

Coastal defense, sediment

fixation, wave attenuation,

food production

Success rates up to 70% Paling et al. 2001

Mangroves Gazi Bay

Mangrove

restoration

project, Kenya

Coastal protection,

biodiversity

Sediment fixation,

freshwater regulation, food

production, carbon fixation

Estimates indicated 180 tons

of carbon could be absorbed

over 25 years of mangrove

growth

Huxham and Kairo 2008

Restoration

projects in the

Neotropics:

replanting

Ecosystem

functioning

Coastal protection: erosion

reduction, sediment

fixation, wave attenuation,

support livelihoods

On intertidal mudflats, success

rate is relatively low, success

depends on location criteria

and community involvement

Ellison 2000, Erftemeijer

and Lewis 1999

Table 4.1 Overview of international Green Adaptation projects and pilots, and their effectiveness.

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(cont.) Pilot

description Pilot purpose Additional

services / benefits

Success Reference

River floodplains/ freshwater wetlands

Constructed

wetland in Sunga

Tole (Nepal)

Wastewater

treatment, water

quality

Carbon fixation, air quality

improvement, productivity

98% of organic pollutants were

removed

Tuladhar et al. 2007

Tanzania wetland

conservation:

IWRM for poverty

reduction

Nature conservation

and poverty reduction

Water availability, food

production, support

livelihoods

Conflicting interest between

environmental conservation

versus

livelihoods of local

communities

Kangalawe and Liwenga

2005

Artificial floating

wetlands,

Netherlands

Erosion reduction Enhance biodiversity,

carbon fixation, water

quality improvement

Increases sedimentation,

effective wave attenuation.

Effectiveness depends on

location and design

De Vries 2010

Salt marshes

Artificial salt-

marsh formation

by nourishments

Coastal protection:

wave attenuation and

sediment fixation

Water quality improvement,

enhance biodiversity,

carbon fixation

Nourishments costly, can be

effective, combined with

drainage canals

Garbisch 2005

Reforestation

projects in Laos

Compensate for lost

ecosystem,

bioproductivity,

biodiversity

Soil fixation, groundwater

retention, water quality,

carbon fixation, flow

regulation

Active reforestation methods

more effective than native

recolonization, success

depends on ecosystem

knowledge

Sovu et al. 2006 Forest

Parks in urban

areas

Recreation Water retention, water

quality, carbon fixation,

wave attenuation,

temperature regulation

Less effective than natural or

reconstructed forests, do not

similarly serve conservation

goals

Sidle et al. 2006

Green eco-dike,

Netherlands: a

dike wrapped in a

willow forest

Wave reduction to

reduce required dike

height

Bioproductivity, recreation,

water retention, carbon

fixation

Willow forest can create 80%

wave reduction, enabling

cheaper construction of the

dike. Required forest

management reduces ‘natural’

values

De Vries et al. 2009

Grassland Grassland

restoration

projects in Europe

Compensate

negative impacts of

infrastructural

designs, ecosystem

health

Water retention, carbon

fixation, soil fixation,

Can effectively enable water

retention and prevent erosion,

but has limited contribution to

biodiversity

Conrad and Tischew

2011

Sloping Land

conversion

program, China

Restore natural

forests and

grasslands to reduce

erosion

Water retention, carbon

fixation, biodiversity

Most successful when seeds,

plant material or soil are

spread on bare soil

Xu et al. 2006


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4.2 From man-made to natural Possibly, ecology always benefits from a Green Adaptation approach independent of background and boundary conditions. However, the effectiveness of the obtained services and the resemblance to a natural system will differ largely. Boundary conditions for application of Green Adaptation are set by the environment and by space (and by governance factors that are dealt with in chapter 5). In cases where a natural ecosystem is still present only small efforts may suffice for successful management and maintenance. However, in rural or urban environments where space is limiting it will be considerably harder to adopt a Green Adaptation solution without disturbing the primary function of the area. Therefore, methods have been developed to restore or (re-)construct ecosystems. These methods range from small adaptations for ecological optimization of land-use for human benefits, to efforts for protection and conservation of existing ecosystems (Figure 4.1). We distinguish between four categories of Green Adaptation methods (see Figure 4.1). Along this range, the effectiveness of the method in achieving, not only infrastructural, but also conservation and development goals, will differ. This difference is non-linear and depends on the situation in place. The general assumption is that the more the method makes use of the ecosystem and its self-designing and self-sustaining capacity, the more effective the method will be. In the most ideal case the present ecosystem only needs to be strengthened. This requires a moderate investment, while chances on success are relatively large. Most likely, costs for management and maintenance will be relatively low and yields from provided services are as optimal as can be expected from natural systems. The restoration of a mangrove forest, for example in Kenya (Huxam & Kairo, 2008), aids in the conservation of a unique ecosystem that provides food and resources for local communities. Furthermore, healthy ecosystems such as mangroves and coral reefs are attractive for tourists, generating revenues that favor development.

Figure 4.1 Overview of the different categories of Green Adaptation methods. The development of desired ecosystems in areas where they are not present, but where there is sufficient space and mostly favourable environmental conditions, is best done by slight modifications to physical factors that might inhibit establishment of foundation species or of successful ecosystem engineers. The presence of these species can induce rapid ecosystem

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formation. Instead of creating favourable conditions for settlement one can turn to actively planting species, or in other ways helping colonization. For example, in areas where agricultural land is turned into grassland again first the top soil is removed. However, if no natural grasslands are in the vicinity, seeds of natural grasslands may have trouble reaching isolated new grassland patches. To secure seed availability, and prevent weeds from taking over, hay from other natural grasslands (containing seeds) is spread over the bare soil. Finally, in marine environment restoration of hard substrate habitats can be facilitated by providing hard substrate, such as reef balls or waste materials. Optimization of conditions for ecosystem development creates benefits in terms of obtained services for Green Adaptation goals, but it also largely contributes to conservation goals. Especially, creation of favorable conditions for ecosystem development may in the end result in a system that is comparable to a natural system. Until now, results that were obtained with providing artificial structures were less optimal. In situations where space or physical parameters are limited for ecosystem development, one can turn to designing artificial ecosystems. This can be an engineering design of an artificial system, based on ecological principles and using organisms to provide services. Helophyte filters that are used for sanitary treatment of sewage water are good examples of artificial systems. The filters are condensed wetlands, with a simplified species assemblage, and are used to filter and thereby purify water, which is done for example in households in Nepal (Tuladhar et al., 2008). The benefits of designing artificial ecosystem are, next to the achievement of infrastructural goals such as rural and urban development, mainly economic development. Conservation goals in terms of protecting or restoring an ecosystem are often not met here. However, artificial ecosystems can still contribute to creating new habitat, diversifying habitat and connectivity. Therefore, it could be argued that this approach has an added value for conservation, compared to traditional hard engineering designs. Even if the designated area is completely man-made, additional benefits can be generated by ecologically optimizing land use. Agro-forestry for example, has a strong connection to local livelihoods and thus provides services in terms of food production and rural and urban development. This land use can provide additional benefits in terms of flood protection since trees and other vegetation provide services, such as wave attenuation and soil fixation preventing erosion (Sidle et al., 2006). Ecologically optimizing land use is mainly beneficial for food production, leading to economic development. The contribution of this method to achieving conservational goals is limited, since the system is cultivated and therefore far from representing a natural ecosystem. It can be stated that, in absence of a natural system, the application of integrated solutions that create multiple benefits is desirable.

4.3 Knowledge gaps in ecology Whereas the engineering community has been gathering knowledge on engineering processes and technology for hundreds of years and is actually able to apply their knowledge in large-scale projects, the field of using ecosystem services to fulfil similar purposes is just arising. Therefore, it is not surprising that the application of ecosystem services for large-scale infrastructural purposes is still hampered by a lack of knowledge. This gap will not be filled within a decade. However, to start acquiring more insight in how we can make use of ecosystem services to our own benefit application of concepts in large projects is required. These projects will allow obtaining more knowledge on how to manage, construct and test natural structures as opposed to engineered structures.


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There are several specific knowledge gaps that can be identified. First, it can be concluded that for many ecosystem services detailed and accurate process knowledge and dose effect relationships are lacking. For actual application of ecosystem services for infrastructural goals this knowledge will be indispensable. For example, although oyster beds were shown to attenuate waves in flume experiments, studies were executed with low water levels and low significant wave heights (Borsje 2011). Results of these studies can currently not be translated to field conditions. This implies that effects of shellfish reefs on engineering functions, such as stabilizing the foreshore, increasing sedimentation, and reducing wave heights, can not be quantified yet. This will impede application of these structures as elements for coastal defence. Second, the application of ecosystem services for Green Adaptation is obstructed by uncertainties concerning creation of natural elements and resilience to catastrophic events. Third, protocols and manuals need to be developed that will help testing of natural structures in a way that is acceptable for both engineers and ecologists. These manuals should be designed to provide guidance to managers, constructers and policy makers. Key lessons from this chapter are summarized in Text Box 4.1. Text Box 4.1 Summary of the key lessons from this chapter

Key lessons:

• Ecosystems provide multiple services, aiding in the achievement of multiple goals;

• There are four categories of approaches for Green Adaptation ranging from natural to man-made;

• In all systems, there are opportunities for making use of natural functions; • There are some conditions for successful application of these approaches; • All approaches contribute to some extent to meeting infrastructural, conservational

and development goals; • There are still knowledge gaps on ecosystem services, mainly in quantification. • Further knowledge on uncertainties, protocols and manuals is required.


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5 Conditions for successful Green Adaptation development

The above chapters have indicated the need for Green Adaptation and showed the potential to develop an array of green, ecosystem based infrastructure solutions in a variety of environments and areas. Knowledge on the underlying principles of making optimal use of ecosystem services is available but should be extended. Applicability and effectiveness of Green Adaptation approaches depend strongly on the occurring environment. With natural dynamics of their ecosystems predominantly still intact, developing countries have large potential to effectively make use of ecosystem services. Here, we discuss which aspects should be taken into account when applying this knowledge in developing countries.

5.1 Factors influencing applicability and potential of Green Adaptation Besides the state of the environment and the availability of ecosystem services, applicability and effectiveness are also strongly influenced by government structure, economic development and availability of knowledge in developing countries. Government structure: Governmental bodies are important facilitators and financers of large-scale infrastructural developments. Involvement of governments from the early stages of new project development is therefore vital for large-scale application of Green Adaptation measures. Infrastructural developments are strongly influenced by the level of government awareness on occurring pressures from climate change or population pressure. The extent to which governments aim at developing integrated infrastructure solutions also depends on the effectiveness and openness of policy infrastructure, governance, and the level of community and stakeholder involvement. To make a transition from traditional infrastructure to Green Adaptation, governments need to understand and rely on ecosystem services to effectively work in their benefit. Economic development: The opportunities for Green Adaptation development are much dependent on the occurring state of infrastructure and industry in an area. The economic state of an area is also of great influence to the prioritization of infrastructural needs and demands; a developing country will give more priority to infrastructural development for the benefit of economical development (harbors, roads, industry) than to infrastructure for the benefit of nature development or social connectivity. However, as infrastructure in developing countries is not as much developed or set in stone as in developed countries, developments are usually of a larger scale and could be approached more holistically. This creates opportunities to develop large scale Green Adaptation measures. Availability of knowledge: The extent to which a country can make effective use of ecosystem services to meet infrastructural demands depends strongly on the availability of knowledge and expertise, and the level of training in governmental institutions, knowledge institutions, commercial institutions and within the community. The factors mentioned above are not easily influenced by individual parties such as NGOs or knowledge institutes. It is however possible to identify practical conditions for success that can indeed be taken into account by various parties when developing Green Adaptation solutions.

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5.2 Conditions for Green Adaptation development Besides lessons on how to efficiently use ecosystem services, chapter 4 also provides some lessons concerning governance. Governance key conditions for Green Adaptation development can be summarized as follows: • Creating a sense of urgency for Green Adaptation • Relying on ecosystem services for Green Adaptation • Willingness to work multi-disciplinary and develop multi-functional solutions • Local availability of capacity and skills • Availability of funding • Courage! The following table (Table 5.1) briefly describes these conditions, and indicates what is necessary to create these conditions.


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Table 5.1 Summary of the key conditions for Green Adaptation and how to achieve these. Key conditions for Green Adaptation How to get there Creating a sense of urgency This is crucial. The need for multifunctional solutions that incorporate ecosystem services has to be recognized by decision makers to ensure application and funding.

Raising awareness with governments, development

institutions and funding agencies. Embedding the concept in an urgent context, such as

climate change Quantifying societal, economical and environmental

benefits. Relying on ecosystem services All key stakeholders should understand and rely on ecosystem services ensure implementation of the designs.

Making ecosystem services concrete, verifiable and

where possible predictable. This requires research.

Defining and addressing risks adequately. Willingness to work multi-disciplinary Stakeholders need to be willing to work together in multi-disciplinary teams, and to develop multi-purpose solutions.

Involving multidisciplinary stakeholders from various

governance levels. Identifying and understanding different stakes. Identifying who is responsible for what, and who pays for which developments.

Local availability of capacity and skills Skilled people, with local environmental knowledge, are required to develop, design, apply and maintain GA solutions. These capacities and skills are site specific.

Exchanging international knowledge on ecosystem

functioning and engineering methods. Providing key players with access to available

knowledge and (practical) tools.

Funding Projects will not be funded if risks seem too high or benefits are not well defined. Projects should fit the financers’ focus areas. Financers often tend to finance merely single-purpose solutions, which does not facilitate the development of multi-functional infrastructure solutions.

Investigating integrated infrastructure solutions that address both climate change and food issues. Creating an overview of possible funds to address, specifying their requirements and aims and how a green measure can contribute to these.

Courage Developing new and innovative infrastructure solutions requires extra effort: to convince all stakeholders of the benefits, to bring together multiple disciplines, to convince financers that multi-functional can be cost-effective and successful.

Creating a stimulating driving force, which requires

motivated, skilled people to remove worries and bring different people together.

Attracting people with courage.

5.3 Who to involve: key players Green Adaptation approaches thrive by multi-stakeholder and multi-disciplinary processes. Table 5.2 gives an overview of potential stakeholders in infrastructure development. The table describes their roles, their aims and stakes, and the opportunities for their involvement in the development of Green Adaptation.

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Table 5.2 Overview of roles, aims and stakes for key players in infrastructure development including opportunities

for Green Adaptation.

Key Players Role in infrastructure Aim / Stake Opportunities for Green Adaptation

Examples of key players

Governments

National and foreign governments: initiating and coordinating role. Responding to needs from population pressure, economic developments and external pressures.

General: developing cost-effective infrastructure solutions, Foreign governments: development aid focus, often single purpose development aims (adaptation, health, education, conservation, business).

Governmental coordination: exchange of knowledge from different regions. Effective linkage with other national or international development or climate programs and networks.

Thailand: initiating and coordinating mangrove restoration projects, Netherlands: multi-disciplinary R&D program on eco-dynamic design of infrastructure

Communities

Very little influence in the development of large-scale infrastructure. Construct and own small-scale infrastructure that supports livelihoods.

Protect and improve livelihoods, ensure food production, freshwater availability. Require low cost, low maintenance, easy to use and self constructed solutions.

Local knowledge of the ecosystem and its functions support the longevity of the solution by co-ownership of Green Adaptation solutions, and capacity development.

Community involvement projects related to irrigation, sand dams Kitui – Kenya,

NGOs

Developing local conservation or development projects in developing countries. Strong cooperation with local partners.

Inform and involve local communities, governments and the larger public. Implementation of innovative ecosystem-based infrastructure measures.

Effective promoters of Green Adaptation approaches. Lobby for the development and enhancement of natural climate buffers worldwide. Raising awareness on the possibilities to develop multi-functional sustainable solutions.

Conservation International, Wetlands International, IUCN, WWF

Knowledge / technology

R&D on innovative infrastructure technologies, Knowledge development in the field of natural processes, ecosystem functioning and improvement of agricultural crops.

Innovative knowledge development, knowledge sharing and capacity building worldwide. Local knowledge institutes: valuable knowledge on local systems and practical feasibility.

Connecting government, universities and commercial parties: multi-disciplinary. Link between hard knowledge (climate scenarios, flood risks, natural processes) and practical application.

Universities, International knowledge institutes, local knowledge institutes Deltares, UNESCO-IHE, Alterra, IVM, ITC US-ACE


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Consultancy

Recognizing complexity of infrastructural problems of clients. Developing integrative solutions to variety of pressures.

Making sustainable profit; addressing the complex needs of their clients. Want cost-effective methods and tools.

Providing clients with practical, pragmatic, site specific green solutions to enable safe and sustainable livelihoods

ARCADIS, DHV, DHI

Developers Developing and implementing practical infrastructure solutions. Partners in early stages of spatial development plans.

Making sustainable profit. Finding solutions to environmental problems associated with their activities. Want and need to ecologically optimize their operations.

R&D push towards consultancies, universities and knowledge institutes, effective stimulus for multi-disciplinary applied research.

Van Oord, Boskalis

Financers

Internationally operating banks and International programs: financing, initiating or coordinating infrastructure development.

Stimulate or protect economic development through development of infrastructure, by enhancing safety, and supporting transport, industry and agriculture.

Focus on climate adaptation and environmental protection. Looking for multi-purpose, multifunctional, cost-effective and sustainable solutions

World Bank, IMF, ADB, GEF. UNEP, UNDP.

Business sector

Dependent on development of infrastructure for their operations: creating need.

Making sustainable profit. Increasing focus on Corporate Social Responsibility: supporting local development goals. Need to reduce environmental impacts.

Ambition (cost reduction, improve image, sustainability) to environmentally optimize operations (carbon and water footprint, minimize pollution).

Unilever, Veolia, Shell, Vopak

There are several ways to approach the development process for Green Adaptation application, and the optimal approach depends strongly on existing governance structures, available knowledge and key players in an area. The following section suggests a five-step approach to aid in the development of Green Adaptation.

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5.4 Where to start: the process A suggested process for development of ecosystem-based infrastructure solutions is the five step Eco-Dynamic Design (EDD) process, developed as part of the Building with Nature program in the Netherlands (www.ecohape.com). This process description can serve as a rough guideline for developing Green Adaptation measures. Step 1 Understand the system Acquire a better understanding of the system in which an infrastructural development is planned. In depth knowledge of the biotic and a-biotic system, the socio-economic system, as well as the governance context, is crucial to identify potential win-win solutions. Multi-disciplinary information about the system and its historical evolution can be derived from various sources: from science and from local society. Step 2 Identify realistic alternatives Identify realistic alternatives that provide true win-win solutions delivering services beyond mitigation and compensation, by bringing together academic experts, field practitioners, community members, business owners, decision makers and other stakeholders to formulate these alternatives. Involve relevant other disciplines in the design process as soon as possible. Answer the following questions:

- Utilizing services provided by the ecosystem: How can better use be made of locally active (natural) resources and dynamics: tide, waves, gradients, sediment availability, flora, fauna, economy, cultural values, etc? Can system dynamics be used as a positive rather than a negative aspect?

- How can we strengthen the functioning of the receiving system - ecology, recreation, landscape?

- How can a project deliver benefits to the overall system in which it resides or how can the project at least be more ecologically friendly and increase nature value?

- Can available resources be utilized to lower construction and maintenance costs (more flexible solutions) and reduced use of energy or materials?

Step 3 Valuate the qualities of alternatives, pre-select an integral solution Assess inherent qualities of alternatives and combine them into one optimal integral solution. Valuate the Green alternatives against a traditional infrastructure design; perform a cost-benefit analysis, take into consideration construction costs and maintenance costs as well as social, economical and nature benefits. Actively involve the community in this; evaluate and communicate benefits in terms of supporting livelihoods, and make communities co-responsible for the success of a solution. Step 4 Embed the solution in a project approach Embed the integral solution in a project context considering practical restrictions and governance context, so that it may actually be constructed. To enable implementation of solutions, networks and connections need to be established between all organizations involved; and stakeholders need to be effectively involved in the design and realization process. Knowledge sharing is essential; this requires an open atmosphere of trust.


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Step 5 Translate the solution into a technical design Handle the practical bottlenecks to get the solution included in the next phase on the road to realization: inclusion in request for proposals, inclusion in the detailed design, inclusion in the project delivery, inclusion in the maintenance and monitoring scheme. How to reformulate the request for proposals (TOR) so that the Green solution will be proposed or constructed? Involve stakeholders in the search for additional funding if required, and identify as soon as possible potential bottlenecks in terms of permitting. It is essential to prepare risk analysis and contingency plans: ecosystems are dynamic by definition. Make sure the project takes this aspect into consideration (adaptive execution, adaptive management).


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6 Conclusions and recommendations

6.1 Combining ecological and governance conditions Ecosystems provide services that are indispensable for humans. However, degradation of natural systems results in deterioration of services. Successful ecosystem management should allow for sustainable use of ecosystem services for the benefit of flood protection, food production, freshwater availability or urban and rural (economic) development. The extent to which we can actively manage ecosystems for sustainable use of services depends on the occurring situation (environmental, economical, political and social) and the boundary conditions resulting from this. However, we pose that in virtually every situation where an infrastructural need exists it is possible to make use of, or at least strengthen ecosystem services, to reach infrastructural goals. In practice, solutions will range from completely man-made (urban) to entirely natural (nature reserve). Consequently, these measures also vary enormously with respect to ecological impact and effectiveness and in the extent to which they contribute to infrastructural needs and development. Green adaptation is considered a very applicable concept for developing countries. Factors that may facilitate application in these countries are: - Lack of infrastructure in place allows for new developments where ecosystem services

are an integrated part of the design from the start; - Maintenance of ecosystems and their services can easily be executed by local

communities, which coincides with decentralized government structures; - Relatively pristine state of ecosystems requires less costs to start exploring services in

sustainable way. Nevertheless, several factors may counteract application of Green Adaptation approaches: - Lack of economic development; - Committing people if basic needs are not secured; - More catastrophic and extreme events that will put Green Adaptation designs to the

test. Further, Green Adaptation might be a good means for reduction of poverty by coupling infrastructural and economic development (profit) with human well-being (people) and nature conservation (planning). Increased community involvement in large projects might result in a more equal distribution of economic profits. Plus, solutions that value the ecosystem will provide the local community with yields in several ways. For example, construction of a dam sometimes happens by non-local companies that disappear afterwards, while construction of natural wave-breakers asks for specific local system knowledge, thereby guaranteeing involvement of the local community. Further, the local community can execute management and maintenance and natural wave breakers have been shown to increase fishery yields.

6.2 General recommendations Although Green Adaptation seems a promising new approach, compared to traditional engineering processes, there is a substantial lack of quantitative knowledge. Projects applying Green Adaptation approaches took a first step in collecting this knowledge. However, applying the Green Adaptation approach on large scales and making it common practice in the future, acquires additional effort. General recommendations that can be distilled from this paper are:

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- Knowledge sharing and knowledge development are paramount; - Local and international networks should be used in the application of GA; - Green Adaptation approaches should be optimized by creating multi-disciplinary teams

and integrated solutions; - Realize that ecological optimization is always possible in a range of natural and man-

made systems.

6.3 The way forward Deltares and Conservation International are both striving to implement Green Adaptation approaches into their business. Green adaptation concepts are within Deltares also referred to under the terms Eco-engineering and Building with Nature. Conservation International also uses the term Green Infrastructure. Green Adaptation can help Conservation International to reach its overall goals: build on a strong foundation of science, partnership and field demonstration, empower societies to care for nature in a responsible and sustainable manner resulting in higher biodiversity and human-well being. Thereby, it should be noted that ecological optimization is possible in any situation, man-made or natural, so Green Adaptation principles could be applied in any Conservation International project. For Deltares Green Adaptation is a valuable opportunity to apply their knowledge on this topic in an international context. Collaboration of Deltares and Conservation International on Green adaptation will offer good opportunities to implement knowledge in large-scale projects. This would serve multiple goals. First, implementation of these approaches in large-scale projects is essential for developing knowledge on realistic scales, which is one of the main knowledge gaps. Second, the process for designing and developing Green adaptation solutions will be put into practice which will result in valuable process information and lessons, and third, successful large-scale applications will serve as showcases that are invaluable for dissemination of the GA approach. Finally, collaborating will be a good opportunity to share knowledge and process between both organizations. With respect to collaborating on this topic the most promising route is outlined here. For future collaboration in this field there are numerous possibilities. However, considering the scope of Deltares (research and specialist advice on water, subsoil and infrastructure in delta areas) and of Conservation International (valuing nature and making sustainable use of ecosystem services) working together on water related projects, both fresh and salt, is most straightforward. Regarding the current state of knowledge this topic can even be narrowed down towards nature-based flood defenses. There is a considerable amount of peer-reviewed literature that deals with wave-dampening properties of ecosystems and that assesses the importance of ecosystems to mitigate damage and resulting financial consequences of tsunamis and other coastal hazards. However, there are no large-scale applications of coastal defense structures that make use of ecosystem services in an integrated design. In the Netherlands there are several efforts to implement the first natural flood defenses and currently construction of the first hybrid design (a dike to block water together with a willow plantation to attenuate waves) has started. This Dutch initiative could provide useful parallels for development of knowledge and process with projects executed by Deltares and Conservation International. There are several possible ways to initiate projects with nature-based flood defenses. First, current projects and programs of CI can be scanned for possibilities of integrating these approaches. Second, joint project proposals can be written. Third, infrastructural initiatives,


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large-scale flood defense plans and projects can be identified and initiative can be taken to actively try to couple Green Adaptation to these initiatives.

6.3.1 Research and development The main knowledge gap related to natural flood defenses lie in the lack of controlled measurements of necessary services, such as wave attenuation and reduction of erosion. Most of these measurements are derived from flume experiments or from experiments that were executed only by ecologists in the field and that lack control measurements. Consequently, these results are not suitable to persuade engineers to implement ecological services in their flood defense designs. Further, existing ecological theories are mostly tested on small, single plot, scales and hardly ever on realistic landscape scales. Thus, it is not clear whether these assumptions will still hold on larger scales. Still, it is extremely important to use available theory and link it to ecosystem restoration and also to Green adaptation designs. Additionally, there is very little knowledge on the interaction between hard structures (such as a dam, dike or levee) and an ecological component (mangrove, wetland, marsh). What are optimal designs to integrate these components while taking care that they do not exert negative influences on one another. Finally, little is known on governance of Green Adaptation. How do we implement these novel techniques into policies, programs and into legislation? More process orientated research should focus on providing general principles that provide the basis for implementing Green adaptation into the distinct project phases, such as planning, design, execution, monitoring and evaluation. Summarizing, the most important topics for jointly gathering and developing knowledge are: - Quantification of services related to flood defense functions of ecosystems in field and

in controlled measurements executed by both engineers and ecologists; - Obtaining a complete picture of ecosystem functioning integrating multiple disciplines; - Testing whether existing knowledge is applicable on realistic scales; - Obtaining knowledge on effectiveness of hybrid engineering designs; - Gather and implement knowledge on effective restoration and management of

ecosystem; - Governance related to Green Adaptation; - Implementation of Green Adaptation in project phases.

6.3.2 Project development Development of Green adaptation projects should be a collaborative effort. However, Conservation International and Deltares fulfill different roles. Deltares should make links to other projects and offer multidisciplinary input. Conservation International has the local network in developing countries and is experienced in stakeholder and community involvement. The project process is something that is important in these projects but that should be approached from a ‘learning by doing’ perspective. The most valuable part will be to involve different disciplines and link projects closely to local communities and their efforts. During the project process knowledge on several aspects can be gained. The most important aspect is to demonstrate cost effectiveness of these approaches. Information on costs are already collected in Dutch projects and programs. However, extending knowledge and data on this topic will prove extremely valuable and an important asset for communication. Further, attention for additional benefits of Green adaptation designs should receive more attention. Conceptualizing these benefits or offering a common framework for validating additional benefits may be a step forward towards getting these benefits more accepted. Conservation International has the expertise to pick up on this specific topic, as they have plenty of experience with quantifying ecosystem services.

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Important points to consider are: - Accompany Green Adaptation developments by a research and monitoring program

that constantly evaluates the effectiveness of the approach. The implementation of new approaches should be considered a constant (adaptive!) learning process;

- Further develop multi-disciplinary approach, work closely together with engineers and business sector;

- Show cost-efficiency of Green Adaptation designs; - Show and quantify additional benefits from Green Adaptation designs; - Identify what works best for local communities; - Make use of existing programs (Delta Alliance and Connecting Delta Cities); - How should the Green Adaptation solutions be managed and maintained so that

ecosystem services and functions remain effective (tools for monitoring and evaluation)?

6.3.3 Raising awareness and knowledge dissemination Raising awareness should happen through community involvement in the process and in management and maintenance. However, for this the most crucial is to obtain large-scale applications of Green Adaptation measures. These projects will have a very useful showcase function, to show nationally but also internationally that approaches work, that safety against flooding has in fact increased, while nature, agriculture and other socio-economic functions have benefited. Case studies and pilot studies have proven to be very useful methods to verify the effectiveness of the approaches in different situations and areas. Combined with a monitoring and research programs, valuable knowledge can be developed from real experiences, not just from a scientific perspective, but also from a social-economic perspective. Scientific knowledge can be shared on conferences. Actions for knowledge sharing and dissemination are: - Launch idea at the World Bank and Asian Development Bank; - Adapt idea to most urgent pressures where and when needed; - Think about a joint platform or umbrella structure to disseminate knowledge and make

use of information of both organizations and each others networks; - Develop a manual for application of Green Infrastructure concepts worldwide; - Make a joint publication plan.


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