Greek Alphabet - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Greek alphabet

Type Alphabet

Languages Greek

Time period ~800 BC to the present[1]

Parent

systems

Proto-Sinaitic alphabet

Phoenician alphabetGreek alphabet

Child

systems

Gothic

Glagolitic

Cyrillic

Coptic

Armenian alphabet

Old Italic alphabet

Latin alphabet

ISO 15924 Gr ek, 200

Direction Left-to-right

Unicode

alias

Greek

Unicoderange

U+0370U+03FF(http://www.unicode.org/charts

/PDF/U0370.pdf) Greek and Coptic,

U+1F00U+1FFF

(http://www.unicode.org/charts

/PDF/U1F00.pdf) Greek Extended

Greek alphabet

Alpha Nu

Beta Xi

Gamma Omicron

Delta Pi

Epsilon Rho

Zeta Sigma

Eta Tau

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Greek alphabet is the script that has been used to write the

Greek language since at least 730 BC (the 8th century BC).[2]

The

alphabet in its classical and modern form consists of 24 letters

ordered in sequence from alpha to omega. The Greek alphabet was

derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, from which it differsby being the first alphabet that provides a full representation of one

written symbol per sound both for vowels as well as consonants.

The Greek alphabet in turn is the ancestor of numerous other

European and Middle Eastern scripts that follow the same structural

principle, among them Cyrillic and Latin.[3]

The Greek alphabet reached its classical form around 400 BC, with

some details, including the use of diacritic marks, becoming fixed

only during the following centuries of the Hellenistic and Roman

period. The sequence of letters has remained unchanged since then

up to the present day, although the sound values of individualletters have changed considerably due to phonological changes

between ancient and modern Greek. While it was originally written

with only a single, majuscule form for each letter, the Greek

alphabet developed a second set of letter forms, the minuscule

letters, during the Middle Ages, resulting in the modern system of

uppercase and lowercase forms.

In addition to being used for writing Greek, both ancient and

modern, the letters of the Greek alphabet are today used as

technical symbols and labels in many domains of mathematics,

science and other fields.

1 Description

2 History

2.1 Letter names

2.2 Number notation

3 List of letters

3.1 Obsolete letters

3.2 Variant forms4 Digraphs and diphthongs

5 Diacritics

6 Use of the Greek script for other languages

6.1 Antiquity

6.2 Middle Ages

6.3 Early modern

7 Derived alphabets

8 Greek in mathematics

9 Greek encodings

9.1 ISO/IEC 8859-7

k alphabet - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek

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Theta Upsilon

Iota Phi

Kappa Chi

Lambda Psi

Mu Omega

History

Archaic local variants

Ligatures (, , ) Diacritics

Numerals: (6) (90) (900)

In other languages

Bactrian Coptic Albanian

Scientific symbols

Book Category Commons

Dipylon inscription, one of the oldest

known samples of the use of the Greek

alphabet, ca. 740 BC

9.2 Greek in Unicode

9.2.1 Combining and letter-free diacritics

9.3 Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

10 See also

11 References and Notes

12 Bibliography

13 Further reading

14 External links

In its classical and modern form, the Greek alphabet contains 24 letters.

They are named, in order, as follows: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon,

zeta, eta, theta, iota, kappa, lambda, mu, nu, xi, omicron, pi, rho, sigma,

tau, upsilon, phi, chi, psi, omega. The 24 capital letters (upper-case

symbols) are: , , , , , , , , , , , ,, , , , , , , ,, , , . The 24 minuscule symbols (lower-case letters) of the Greek

alphabet (in order) are: , , , , , , , , , , , ,, , , , , (),,, , , , . Before the 24-letter alphabet, three of the original Phoenicianletters had been in use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter(san), similar to (sigma) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter(qoppa), which was redundant with (kappa) for /k/; and (digamma), whosesound value was /w/. A system of diacritics on some letters was added during

the Hellenistic period. Today the diacritics exist in two orthographic variants:

the traditional ("polytonic") system and a simplified ("monotonic") one that

has been in official use for Modern Greek since the 1980s.

Main articles: History of the Greek alphabet and Archaic Greek

alphabets

The Greek alphabet emerged in the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC[4] Another, unrelated writing system,

Linear B, had been in use to write the Greek language during the earlier Mycenean period, but the two systems are

separated from each other by a hiatus of several centuries, the so-called Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the

alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, a member of the family of closely related West Semitic scripts. The

most notable change made in adapting the Phoenician system to Greek was the introduction of vowel letters.

According to a definition used by some modern authors, this feature makes Greek the first "alphabet" in the narrow

sense,[3]

as distinguished from the purely consonantal alphabets of the Semitic type, which according to this

terminology are called "abjads".[5]

Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five of them were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the

glide consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ (waw) were used for [i] (, iota) and [u] (, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stopconsonant // ('aleph) was used for [a] (, alpha); the pharyngeal // (ayin) was turned into [o] (, omicron); and theletter for/h/ (he) was turned into [e] (, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (,digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal // (heth) was borrowed in two differentfunctions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as anadditional vowel letter for the long // (, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventhvowel letter for the long // (, omega) was introduced.


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Main article: Greek numerals

Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood

for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters

stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made

up the standard alphabet, three of the obsolete letters were revived: wau/digamma () for 6, koppa () for 90, and arare Ionian letter for /ss/, today called sampi ( ), for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present

day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English.

The three extra symbols are today written as , and respectively.

Below is a table listing the Greek letters, as well as their forms when romanized. The table also provides the equivalent

Phoenician letter from which each Greek letter is derived. Pronunciations transcribed using the International Phonetic

Alphabet.

The classical pronunciation given below is the reconstructed pronunciation of Attic in the late 5th and early 4th

century BC. Some of the letters had different pronunciations in pre-classical times or in non-Attic dialects. For details,

see History of the Greek alphabet and Ancient Greek phonology. For details on post-classical Ancient Greek

pronunciation, see Koine Greek phonology.

Letter

Corresponding

Phoenicianletter

Name Transliteration1 Pronunciation

NumericvalueEnglish

AncientGreek

MedievalGreek

(polytonic)

ModernGreek

AncientGreek

ModernGreek

ClassicalAncient

Greek

ModernGreek

Aleph Alpha a [a] [a] [a] 1

Beth Beta b v [b] [v] 2

Gimel Gamma () g gh, g, y [] [], [] 3

Daleth Delta d d, dh [d] [] 4

He Epsilon e [e] 5

Zayin Zeta z [zd, dz,z] (?)

[z] 7

Heth Eta e, i [] [i] 8

Teth Theta th [t] [] 9

Yodh Iota () i [i] [i] [i], [] 10

Kaph Kappa () k [k] [k], [c] 20

Lamedh Lambda () l [l] 30

Mem Mu / m [m] 40

Nun Nu / n [n] 50

Samekh Xi x x, ks [ks] 60


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'Ayin Omicron o [o] 70

Pe Pi p [p] 80

Resh Rho r, rh r [r], [r] [r] 100

Sin Sigma s [s] 200

Taw Tau t [t] 300

Waw Upsilon / u, y y, v, f [()],[y()]

[i] 400

origin debated

Phi ph f [p] [f] 500

Chi ch ch, kh [k] [x], [] 600

Psi ps [ps] 700

'Ayin Omega o, o [] [o] 800

For details and different transliteration systems see Romanization of Greek.1.

Obsolete letters

Digamma orwau () was the continuation of Phoenician waw, denoting the sound /w/. It stood in the sixthposition in the alphabet, after. It dropped out of use because the sound /w/ became mute during the archaicand classical era. It remained in use as a numeric sign denoting the number six. In this function, its shape in

uncial and cursive writing changed to "", until in medieval Greek handwriting it was conflated with anaccidentally similar ligature sign for "". The symbol "", both in its function as a numeral continuing that ofdigamma and in its function as a ligature, is today called "stigma".

San (), shaped like a modern M, was a continuation either of Phoenician sin or tsade (the exact relationshipbeing unclear), and was used as an alternative to sigma in writing the sound /s/ in some dialects. It was replaced

by standard sigma during the classical period. Its position in the alphabet was after pi.

Koppa () was the continuation of Phoenician Qoph and was used in some dialects to denote the retractedallophone of /k/ before back vowels. Like digamma, it remained in use as a numeral sign after it had become

obsolete as an alphabetic letter. It is used for the number 90, reflecting its original position in the alphabet

between pi and rho. In uncial and cursive handwriting its shape changed to . In its numeral function it is

today displayed as .Sampi ( ), of unknown origin, was a short-lived addition used for writing a consonant /ts/ or /ss/ in some Ionic

forms of Greece, and then remained in use as a numeral for 900. It may have been a continuation of san,

although in its numeral position it did not continue the position of the latter but was placed at the end, after

omega. In later handwriting its shape changed to and it is today displayed as . Its modern namesampiprobably refers to its shape ("()", i.e. "like a pi").

Variant forms

Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in

normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings

in Unicode.

The symbol ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (). In the French tradition of Ancient Greektypography, is used word-initially, and is used word-internally.The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped ('lunate epsilon', like a


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semicircle with a stroke) or (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol (U+03F5) is designated specificallyfor the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.

The symbol ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specializedmeaning as a technical symbol.

The symbol ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (), used as a technical symbol.The symbol ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (), also used as a technical symbol.The letter rho () can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or

curled to the right. The symbol (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technicalsymbol.The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: , used only at the ends of words, and , usedelsewhere. The form ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used inboth environments without the final/non-final distinction.

The capital letter upsilon () can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like aLatin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as atechnical symbol.

The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as (a circle with a vertical

stroke through it) or as (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol (U+03D5) is designated specificallyfor the closed form, used as a technical symbol.

Further information: Greek orthography

A digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the

written letters in sequence. The orthography of Greek includes several digraphs, including various pairs of vowel

letters that used to be pronounced as diphthongs but have been shortened to monophthongs in pronunciation. Many of

these are characteristic developments of modern Greek, but some, such as (pronounced [o], then [u]) and (pronounced [e], then [i]), were already present in Classical Greek. None of them are regarded as a letter of thealphabet.

During the Byzantine period, it became customary to write the silent iota in digraphs as an iota subscript (, , ).

Main article: Greek diacritics

In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, vowels can carry diacritics, namely accents and

breathings. The accents are the acute accent (), the grave accent (), and the circumflex accent ( or). In AncientGreek, these accents marked different forms of the pitch accent on a vowel. By the end of the Roman period, pitch

accent had evolved into a stress accent, and in later Greek all of these accents marked the stressed vowel. The

breathings are the rough breathing (), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, and the smooth breathing (),marking its absence. The letter rho (), although not a vowel, always carries a rough breathing when it begins a word.Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis ( ), indicating a hiatus.

In 1982, the old spelling system, known as polytonic, was simplified to become the monotonic system, which is now

official in Greece. The accents have been reduced to one, the tonos, and the breathings were abolished.

The Greek alphabet has been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.[6]

For some


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languages, additional letters were introduced.

Antiquity

Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in use c. 800-300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were

the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications as were the original Old Italic alphabets.

Some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient

Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.

Some Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) use the Greek alphabet (c. 300 BC).The Hebrew text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Origen's Hexapla.

The Bactrian alphabet adds the letter Sho and was used to write the Bactrian language under the Kushan Empire

(65-250 AD).[7]

The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write the

Coptic language. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today (compare

with the forms of the Latin letters used in Gaelic script).

Middle Ages

An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.

An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10-12c AD found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Osseticlanguage.

The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from

Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.

Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in

Greek script.[8][9][10][11]

The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.

Early modern

Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called

Karamanlidika.

Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500[12]

. The printing press atMoschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that

the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still

occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.

Aromanian (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for

Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the Romanian orthography will be adopted.

Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans.

Surguch, a Turkic language spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece.

Urum or Greek Tatar.

The Greek alphabet gave rise to various others:[3]

The Latin alphabet, an offshoot of an archaic western form of the Greek alphabet

The Gothic alphabet, devised in Late Antiquity to write the Gothic language

The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the Middle Ages for writing Slavic languages

The Cyrillic script, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards

The International Phonetic Alphabet contains many Latin and Greek letters.

It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, and had an influence on the development of the

Georgian alphabet.


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Main article: Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering

Greek symbols are traditionally used as names in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have

traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon () for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi () for the ratio ofthe circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma () for summation, and lower case sigma () for standarddeviation.

For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in

RFC 1947.

The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic

orthography; Unicode supports the polytonic orthography.

ISO/IEC 8859-7

For the range A0FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 3703CF (see below) except that some symbols, like , ,

etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 007F (hex).

Greek in Unicode

Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and

even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology

and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. However, Unicode still falls short in rendering the full

range of Greek letter forms. Most current text rendering engines do not support diacritics well, so, though alpha with

macron and acute can be representedas U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: .

There are 2 main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This

block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and

Greek-based technical symbols.

This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking

Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1,

Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2

to U+03EF).

To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek

Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

Greek and Coptic[1]

Unicode chart (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf) (PDF)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

U+037x ;

U+038x

U+039x

U+03Ax


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U+03Bx

U+03Cx

U+03Dx

U+03Ex

U+03Fx

Notes

1. ^ As of Unicode version 6.1

Greek Extended[1]

Unicode.org chart (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1F00.pdf) (PDF)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

U+1F0x

U+1F1x

U+1F2x

U+1F3x

U+1F4x

U+1F5x

U+1F6x

U+1F7x

U+1F8x

U+1F9x

U+1FAx U+1FBx

U+1FCx

U+1FDx

U+1FEx

U+1FFx Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 6.1

Combining and letter-free diacritics

Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

combining spacing sample description

U+0300 U+0060 () "varia / grave accent"

U+0301 U+00B4, U+0384 ( ) "oxia / tonos / acute accent"


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Cook, B. F. (1987). Greek inscriptions. University of California Press/British Museum.

Coulmas, Florian (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd..

ISBN 0-631-21481-X.

Daniels, Peter T; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press.

Elsie, Robert (1991). "Albanian Literature in Greek Script: the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth-Century Orthodox

Tradition in Albanian Writing" (http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A1991AlbLitGreek.pdf) .Byzantine and Modern Greek

Studies15 (20). http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A1991AlbLitGreek.pdf.Johnston, A. W. (2003). "The alphabet". In Stampolidis, N.; Karageorghis, V. Sea Routes from Sidon to Huelva:

Interconnections in the Mediterranean 16th - 6th c. B.C.. Athens: Museum of Cycladic Art. pp. 263276.

Kristophson, Jrgen (1974). "Das Lexicon Tetraglosson des Daniil Moschopolitis".Zeitschrift fr Balkanologie10:

4128.

Macrakis, Stavros M. (1996). Character codes for Greek: Problems and modern solutions (http://www.writingsystems.net

/systems/greek/languages.htm) . http://www.writingsystems.net/systems/greek/languages.htm. Includes discussion of the

Greek alphabet used for languages other than Greek.

Mazon, Andr; Vaillant, Andr (1938). L'Evangliaire de Kulakia, un parler slave de Bas-Vardar. Bibliothque d'tudes

balkaniques. 6. Paris: Librairie Droz. selections from the Gospels in Macedonian.

Miletich, L. (1920). "Dva blgarski ru kopisa s grtsko pismo".Blgarski starini6.Peyfuss, Max Demeter (1989).Die Druckerei von Moschopolis, 1731-1769: Buchdruck und Heiligenverehrung in

Erzbistum Achrida. Wiener Archiv fr Geschichte des Slawentums und Osteuropas. 13. Bhlau Verlag.

Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1997). "New Findings in Ancient Afghanistan the Bactrian documents discovered from the

Northern Hindu-Kush" (http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html) . http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum

/bactrian.html.

Swiggers, Pierre (1996). "Transmission of the Phoenician Script to the West". In Daniels; Bright. The World's Writing

Systems.

Hansen and Quinn (1992). Greek - An Intensive Course, Second Revised Edition. Fordham University Press. -

especially noted for an excellent discussion on traditional accents and breathings, as well as verbal formation

Humez, Alexander; Nicholas Humez (1981).Alpha to omega: the life & times of the Greek alphabet. Godine.

ISBN 0-87923-377-X. A popular history, more about Greek roots in English than about the alphabet itself.Jeffery, Lilian Hamilton (1961). The local scripts of archaic Greece: a study of the origin of the Greek

alphabet and its development from the eighth to the fif th centuries B.C.. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-814061-4.

Macrakis, Michael S. (ed.) (1996). Greek letters: from tablets to pixels. [proceedings of an international

symposium held at the Institut Franais d'Athnes, Athens, June 710, 1995 (http://www.greekfontsociety.gr

/pages/en_publications1997.html) / Greek Font Society.]. New Castle, Delaware: Oak Knoll Press.

ISBN 1-884718-27-2. http://www.greekfontsociety.gr/pages/en_publications1997.html. Includes papers on

history, typography, and character coding by Hermann Zapf, Matthew Carter, Nicolas Barker, John A. Lane,

Kyle McCarter, Jerme Peignot, Pierre MacKay, Silvio Levy, et al.

Powell, Barry B. (1996).Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet. Cambridge University Press.

discusses dating, early inscriptions, and ties to origin of texts of Homer. ISBN 052158907XRuijgh, C. J. (1998). "Sur la date de la cration de lalphabet grec".Mnemosyne51 (6): 658687.

Unicode 5.1 (http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf) Greek range

Examples of Greek handwriting (http://ellinikasimera.dartmouth.edu/resources/texts/shapes1.html)

Greek Unicode Issues (http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode.html)

Unicode FAQ - Greek Language and Script (http://www.unicode.org/faq/greek.html)

Unicode 5.1 alphabetic test for Greek Unicode range (http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/greek.html)

Unicode 5.1 numeric test for Greek Unicode range (http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/ancient-greek-


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numbers.html)

Unicode 5.1 test for all Greek-related Unicode ranges (http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis//unicode

/unicode_stories.html)

Collection of free fonts: greekfontsociety.gr (http://www.greekfontsociety.gr/pages/en_typefaces1.html)

(Greek) Collection of free truetype polytonic fonts: enoriaka.gr (http://enoriaka.gr/index.php?option=content&

task=view&id=748)

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Greek Alphabet - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia