GRAMMAR - Macmillan Education English · 2 ENGLISH TOOLKIT ISBN: 978 1 4586 5381 9 Grammar—An introduction Do the following sentences seem fluent to you or would you change them

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ISBN: 978 1 4586 5381 9

Grammar

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2 ENGLISH TOOLKIT ISBN: 978 1 4586 5381 9

Grammar—An introductionDo the following sentences seem fluent to you or would you change them in some way?1. No pleasure is better than joy of being parent.2. We serve free coff ee with all breakfast meal.3. The dates for the exams has changed.4. The priests treated Galileo’s idea as evil because it is against their religion.

Each of those sentences represents one of ‘the big four’ challenges encountered by many people learning English as a second language. This is because not all languages use the same logic as English when putting words together to make sense: they use a diff erent grammar. If we analyse those major grammatical challenges, we will get an idea of the nature of grammar itself—and specifically of English grammar.

The big four challenges for people of non-English speaking background

1 Knowing when to insert the, a and an (See 3.1 and 3.2 Articles on pages 31–3.)

• No pleasure is better than the joy of being a parent.Some languages don’t use determiners such as the articles a, an and the.

2 Making nouns plural by, for example, adding s. (See 5.1 Nouns, on page 40.)

• We serve free coff ee with all breakfast meals.In some languages, the presence of a modifi er (e.g. ‘all’) would signal that more than one meal was being spoken about so the word ‘meal’ itself would not be changed. The grammar is diff erent.

3 Changing verbs to be the same number as the subject. (See 10.1 Verbs, on page 81.)

• The dates for the exams have changed.Not all languages infl ect (change) the verb to refl ect the number of the subject: … the date … has changed; the dates … have changed.

4 Changing verbs to indicate past, present and future time consistently. (See 10.3–10.5 Verbs, on pages 84–8.)

• The priests treated Galileo’s idea as evil because it was against their religion.

Some languages use modifi ers such as ‘today’ to indicate time; however, in English, the verbs change to indicate whether an action is set in the past, the present or the future.

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The ‘big four’ problems illustrate how each language has its own grammar … and that at the heart of English grammar is syntax (how words, phrases and clauses are woven together to make sense) and morphology, how we form and infl ect individual words (e.g. meal, meals—or the word syntax, where ‘syn’ means ‘together’ in Greek and ‘tax’ means ‘to place’.)

While we have to control the ‘big four’ aspects of English grammar to be sound (passable) in English, to be totally fl uent we have to control a host of other elements of syntax and morphology as well. This book identifi es those elements and the errors that are commonly committed by both native speakers and people learning English, while also providing exercises to help you to avoid those errors.

Before we look at individual errors, let us look at ‘the big picture’—at an overview of syntax to see how words are grouped in phrases and clauses in English to form sensible sentences.

An overview of English syntaxIf a friend said to you, ‘The engineer’, that would not make sense. To make sense, your friend would need to assert something about the engineer, e.g. ‘The engineer built a robot.’ That would make sense because it is a complete statement with a subject (The engineer) and an attached idea (built a robot). The attached idea is called the predicate. The word ‘predicate’ comes from the Latin praedicatum, meaning ‘to declare’ or ‘to proclaim’ … so the predicate is simply what is declared (predicated) about the subject. When we attach a predicate to a subject, we have a complete thought—or in other words, a sentence.

subject

= sentence

The engineer built a robot

predicate+

Independent and dependent clausesThe sentence ‘The engineer built a robot.’ has only one verb, so we say it is a simple sentence. That simple sentence also happens to be a clause. The term ‘clause’ derives from the Latin claudere (to close), as in include (to enclose). Thus, a clause is a complete, closed grouping of words with their own verb (in other words, with a subject and predicate). Why then do we need the term ‘clause’ as well as ‘sentence’? The answer is that there are two sorts of clauses—independent and dependent clauses—and two sorts

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of sentences—simple and complex sentences. Understanding how these relate to each other is at the heart of English grammar.

As stated, our sample sentence above has just one verb, so we call it a simple sentence. Because it can stand on its own, it is an independent clause. We can add other clauses to a simple sentence to make it more complex, but those clauses cannot stand on their own; they are dependent clauses—dependent in the sense that they have meaning only through how they relate to parts of the independent clause … just as arms cannot exist without having a body to be attached to! The illustration below shows the types of dependent clauses that we can add to a simple sentence (the independent clause) to make it a complex sentence with many verbs. At the heart of a complex sentence is the simple sentence, so we say that it is the principal clause (the main one).

As you can see, there are three types of dependent clauses: noun clauses, adjectival clauses and adverbial clauses. If you are not quite sure yet how these clauses are diff erent, don’t worry; their diff erent functions are explained below. Because they are clauses and contain their own verbs, the addition of one or more of these dependent clauses to a simple sentence increases the complexity of the sentence. Where grammar can be tricky is attaching all the ‘body parts’ in the right places (i.e. attaching them in the right sequence)!

Now that you have been introduced to the broad idea of clauses, let us go back to our simple sentence and build up more complex sentences in easy steps. The chart below starts with the simple sentence The engineer built a robot and shows how we build up the complexity of sentences by adding information, such as dependent clauses.

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SUBJECT PREDICATE

Simple sentence definite article + noun The engineer

verb + indefinite article + nounbuilt a robot.

Add a noun in apposition

(i.e. positioned next to another to

define it)

definite + noun + indefinite + noun article article The engineer, a genius,

verb + indefinite + noun + indefinite + noun article articlebuilt a robot, a humanoid.

Add a noun clause(with its own verb)

definite article + noun The engineer

verb + noun clausebuilt what is known as a humanoid robot.

Add an adjective(to add information

about a noun)

definite + adjective + noun article The robotics engineer

verb + indefinite + adjective + noun articlebuilt an intelligent robot.

Add anadjectival phrase

(to add information about a noun)

indefinite + noun + adjectival article phrase An engineer with experience

in robotics

verb + indefinite + noun + adjectival article phrasebuilt a robot with artificial intelligence.

Add anadjectival clause


indefinite + noun + adjectival article clause An engineer who had a lot

of experience in robotics

verb + definite + noun + adjectival article clausebuilt a robot that could make

simple decisions.

Add aparticipial phrase


indefinite + noun + participial article phrase An engineer experienced

in robotics

verb + indefinite + noun + participial article phrasebuilt a robot able to make simple decisions.

Add an adverb(to add information

about a verb, adjective or another

adverb)

definite article + noun The engineer

verb + indefinite article + noun + adverbbuilt a robot successfully.

Add an adverbial phrase

(to add information about a verb,

adjective or another adverb)

definite article + noun

The engineer

verb + indefinite + noun + adverbial article phrasebuilt a robot to do the

dangerous work in the factory.

Add anadverbial clause

(to add information about a verb,

adjective or another adverb)

definite article + noun

The engineer

verb + definite + noun + adverbial article clausebuilt a robot because some jobs

in the factory were dangerous for humans.

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Dependent clauses—subordinationTo summarise, we have learnt that dependent clauses cannot exist on their own. Now because they are a sub-part of another clause, usually the principal clause, they are also called subordinate clauses (sub meaning under, lower in the order). If we add a subordinate clause to a principal clause (a simple sentence), the sentence has become a complex sentence (because it has many clauses, many verbs). From the chart above, we can see that there are three types of subordinate clauses:1 Adjectival clauses qualify nouns and pronouns (and are introduced by

relative pronouns who, whom, whoever, whomever, that, which), e.g.:• who had a lot of experience in robotics (qualifi es engineer)• that could make simple decisions (qualifi es robot)

2 Adverbial clauses modify verbs (and are introduced by conjunctions such as because, if, when, whenever, although, unless …), e.g.:• because some jobs in the factory were dangerous for humans

(modifi es built)3 Noun clauses can act anywhere that a noun can, e.g.:

• Whoever built the robot was a genius. (Noun clause as subject of was.)

• The engineer built what is known as a humanoid robot. (Noun clause as object of built.)

• What I noticed was that the robot could make some simple decisions. (Noun clauses as both subject and complement of the verb was.) Complements complete statements such as ‘bird’ in ‘A chicken is a bird’ (chicken = bird; NOUN = NOUN). What comes after the verb completes the ‘equation’, so it is called the complement of the sentence. The italicised clause in the following completes the sentence and is the complement: This is what you get for not studying.

One fi nal point should be made about dependent clauses. It is possible to subordinate a dependent clause to another dependent clause, which creates a really complex sentence: The mountaineers went to bed early because the next day they would begin a climb that would test the limits of their physical endurance. (The fi nal adjectival clause is attached to an adverbial clause that is attached to the principal clause!)

CoordinationThe same sorts of clauses can be joined by coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, or, nor. Coordination means of the same order/level: I sketch and I also paint (joining two simple sentences) OR He built the robot

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because some jobs in the factory were dangerous for humans and because there had been a lot of accidents (joining two adverbial clauses–because … and because). If we join principal clauses together with a coordinating conjunction, that creates compound sentences. Of course, complex sentences can also be compounded.

For fun, see if you can work out how the pieces of these complex sentences fit together to make sense. What is the principal clause and what other types of clauses have been added? (To show you how complex sentences can become, the second example contains two dependent clauses that are attached to other dependent clauses—i.e. sub-clauses of sub-clauses.) You may want to check your answers in the back of the book.

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Here are some complex sentences for you to analyse. What noun clauses, adjectival clauses or adverbial clauses have been added to the principal clause to make each sentence more complex? Identify the subordinate clauses and indicate what sort of clause each is. Check your answers in the back of the book.1 Because more speed was needed to escape the gravity of Mars, the

commander ordered the pilot to accelerate. (1 subordinate clause)2 The astronaut who was in charge of the spaceship pulled a lever that

increased the speed of the spaceship. (2 subordinate clauses)3 Although we were late, we saw the best part of the game. (1 subordinate

clause)4 Whatever he has eaten has made him ill. (1 subordinate clause)5 Nelson Mandela was a man who was respected by everyone.

(1 subordinate clause)6 I do not know who did it. (1 subordinate clause)


THE ORIGINS OF GR AMMARYou probably realise that we usually write more carefully than we speak. When speaking, we are able to use sentence fragments because the context and voice intonation help to convey meaning.

Understanding English grammar seems to have become more important since Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1445. Latin was already studied by the privileged class and its grammar was well known, so the terminology we have to describe English grammar tends to

come from Latin: e.g. noun from nomen (name), verb from verbum (word), adverb from ad (to/towards) and verbum (word) and adjective from ad (to/towards) and jacere, jecto (throw). The term grammar itself derives from the Greek grammatikē technē, which means ‘art of letters’. The Greek gramma means ‘letter’.

The early Grammar schools were given that name because they included in their curriculum the teaching of Latin and Greek grammar.

DID

YO

U K

NO

W?

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1 ADJECTIVES—AN INTRODUCTIONWhat exactly is an adjective? The name gives us a clue as adjective comes from the Latin ad (to/towards) and jecto (to throw). Thus, adjectives ‘throw’ layers of description onto nouns. Some other words in the same word family are rejection (throw back), interjection (throw between), injection (thrown into!). Can you think of any others?

Adjectives are very powerful, especially as we have a vast array of diff erent adjectives in English. For example, an athlete’s performance might be described simply as ‘great’ … but we can choose any number of synonyms that are much more descriptive—which is what adjectives are all about. The cartoon below gives us a few ideas!

Because adjectives describe nouns by indicating qualities that are associated with nouns, we say that adjectives qualify nouns. (Some grammars use the word ‘modify’ instead of ‘qualify’, but English Toolkit prefers to use ‘qualify’ because it reminds us that adjectives associate qualities with a noun.)

See if you can write down five more synonyms to describe the athlete’s ‘great’ performance. (You may wish to compare your synonyms with those suggested in the back of the book.)


Meet the adjectival familyTypes of adjectivesWhen we think of adjectives, we tend to think of descriptive (qualitative) adjectives such as those above. However, there are other categories of adjectives. Starting with qualitative adjectives, the various types are:Qualitative adjectives: beautiful fl owers, new sneakers (i.e. showing

qualities)

synonyma word or phrase

that means the same as another

word or phrase

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Quantitative adjectives: enough food, many attempts, three attempts, third attempt (adjectives of number—or quantity—and order)

Demonstrative adjectives: this apple, those pears (not to be confused with demonstrative pronouns, which stand on their own as in That is correct or This is the place)

Interrogative adjectives: Which race? What program? (Interrogation means asking questions.)

Possessive adjectives: their shoes, his demeanour (though these are often called possessive pronouns)

Compound adjectives: a fast-moving train, an over-ripe peach, an ever-attentive nurse

Proper (nouns as) adjectives: December weather, Chinese languages, the Brisbane festival.

As well as adjectives, there are also adjectival phrases, adjectival clauses and participial phrases that add layers of information to nouns and pronouns.

Adjectival phrasesAdjectival phrases are introduced by prepositions such as in, on, under, with … and, just like adjectives, they ‘throw’ information onto nouns and pronouns.a The cat on the mat is a Burmese. (The phrase on the mat identifi es

which cat.)b Children with lice in their hair should be kept away from school. (The

phrase with lice indicates which children; but the noun ‘lice’ is also qualifi ed by the phrase in their hair.)

Adjectival clausesAdjectival clauses are another way to add information about nouns and pronouns. They are introduced by relative pronouns such as who, that and which and are diff erent from phrases because clauses have a verb, whereas phrases do not.a They handed the free tickets to the people who arrived fi rst. (Here the

clause who arrived fi rst tells us which people. It is a clause because it contains a verb—arrived.)

b The fi reworks that we saw were fantastic. (The clause that we saw qualifi es ‘fi reworks’. It contains its own verb, saw.)

prepositionspre-positioned before a noun or pronoun to

introduce a phrase: under the covers,

with me, etc.

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Participial phrasesInstead of starting with prepositions, participial phrases start with participles: -ing words such as running, sleeping, partying (called present participles) and words such as exhausted, loved, shaken, broken, seen (past participles). Participles frequently introduce phrases—and those participial phrases qualify nouns and pronouns, as in:

Sailing with the wind, the yachts made good speed.

Shattered by the fall, my vase was beyond repair.

Seen by no one, a beautiful flower bloomed in the desert.

Sequence of adjectivesNormally we place adjectival information next to the noun or pronoun that it qualifies … but what happens when we have a string of adjectives? In English there is a sequence that works best. If you examine the following, you will see that the sequence is generally the same, starting with a determiner such as a, an or the or a demonstrative, interrogative or possessive adjective. The last adjective before the noun is always the adjective that describes the function of the object.

Determiner opinion size age shape/style colour origin material purpose/function

We are planning an exciting lengthy Vietnamese cycling holiday.

The Premier opened our magnificent new Olympic-size swimming pool.

They brought back these beautiful old classic blue Venetian glass tea cups from Venice.

Work out the best sequence to insert the given adjectives in the following sentences. You will need to follow the coloured sequence above, starting with the determiner. (You might also like to make up your own long list of adjectives and put them in a sentence in the right sequence.) You can check your answers in the back of the book.R We discovered … restaurant. (Turkish new a traditional cozy)R The theme park has … slide. (orange crazy water spiralling fibre-glass

a new)R … cars were on display? (sports exciting latest which high-powered

European)


determinera word that is a

reference signpost for a noun: a

cat, this cat, that cat (which cat?).

It ‘determines’ which noun we are

talking about.

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GRAMMAR - Macmillan Education English · 2 ENGLISH TOOLKIT ISBN: 978 1 4586 5381 9 Grammar—An introduction Do the following sentences seem fluent to you or would you change them