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8/20/2019 Graham - The Paradox of Prime Matter
1/17
Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 25, Number 4, October
1987, pp. 475-490 (Article)
DOI: 10.1353/hph.1987.0063
For additional information about this article
Access provided by Universidad Complutense de Madrid (2 Sep 2015 13:11 GMT)
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/hph/summary/v025/25.4graham.html
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/hph/summary/v025/25.4graham.htmlhttp://muse.jhu.edu/journals/hph/summary/v025/25.4graham.html
8/20/2019 Graham - The Paradox of Prime Matter
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T h e P a r a d o x o f P r im e a tte r
D A N I E L W . G R A H A M
T R A DIT IO N A L I NT E RP R ET A TIO N S O F A r i s t o t l e h o l d t h a t h e p o s i t e d t h e e x i s -
t e n c e o f
p r i m e m a t t e r - - a
p u r e l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e s u b s t r a t u m u n d e r l y i n g a ll m a -
t e ri a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d p r o v i d i n g t h e u l t i m a t e p o t e n t ia l i ty f o r a ll m a t e r i a l
e x i s t e n c e. A n u m b e r o f r e v i s io n a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e a p p e a r e d i n t h e l as t
t h i r ty y e a r s w h i c h d e n y t h a t A r i s t o t le h a d a c o n c e p t o f p r i m e m a t t e r , p r o -
v o k i n g a n e v e n l a r g e r n u m b e r o f v i g o ro u s d e fe n s e s c la i m i n g t h a t h e d id
h a v e t h e c o n c e p t ? T h e t r a di t io n a l is t s a r e c le a r l y i n t h e m a j o r i t y , b u t s o m e
o b s ta c le s s t a n d i n t h e w a y o f a g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r a s a n
A r i s t o t e l i a n c o n c e p t . I n a r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e d e b a t e , W i l li a m C h a r l -
t on , a n o p p o n e n t o f p r i m e m a t t e r , h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e o p p o s i n g p a r t ie s
h a v e r e a c h e d a s t a l e m a t e i n l a r g e m e a s u r e b e c a u s e m o s t o f t h e r e l e v a n t te x ts
a r e a m b i g u o u s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , " t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r o r n o t [ A r is to t le ] b e-
l i e v e d in p r i m e m a t t e r r e a l l y c o m e s d o w n t o th e q u e s t i o n h o w f a r , i f a t a ll , i t
is d e m a n d e d b y h is p h i l o s o p h y a s a w h o l e . "~
I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t C h a r l t o n is r i g h t t o s h i ft t h e f o c u s o f th e d e b a t e f r o m
q u e s t i o n s o f t e x t u a l e x e g e s i s t o q u e s t i o n s o f s y st e m a t ic r e l e v a n c e . H o w e v e r ,
w i t h in t h e c o n t e x t o f A r i s to t l e ' s g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f c h a n g e , t h e c h a l le n g e
i m p l ic i t i n h is s t a t e m e n t c a n b e m e t , f o r t h e c o n c e p t o f p r i m e m a t t e r a n d i ts
a s s o c i a t e d d o c t r i n e is t h e p r o d u c t o f a s er i es o f o n t o l o g i c a l a n d s c i e nt if ic
i Friedrich Solmsen, "Aristotle and Prime Matter," Jou rna l o f the His to ry o f Ideas 19 (a 958):
243-52 and A. R. Lac ey, "T he Eleatics and Aristotle on Some Problems of Change," ibid. 26
(1965): 451 -68; reply to H . R. King's argu m ent against prim e matter, "Aristotle Without Prime
Matter," ibid. 17 (1956): 37o-89; H. M. Robinson, "Prime Matter in Aristotle," Phronesis 19
(1974): 168-88 and C. J. F. W illiams, Aristo tle De Generatione et Corrpuptione, Oxford (1982),
Appendix reply to an appendix rejecting prime matter in W. Charlton's Aristotle s Physics Books
I - H (Oxford, 197o . See also Alan Code, "T he Persistence of Aristotelian M atter," Philosophical
Studies 29 0976) : 357- 67, who defends the traditional interpretation of matter against Barring-
ton Jones, "Aristotle 's Intro ductio n of M atter," Philosophical Review 83 (1974): 474 -5 ~ See also
Russell M. Dancy, "Aristotle 's Second Thoughts on Substance," Philosophical Review 87 (1978):
372-413 9
W illiam Charlton, "Prime M atter: A Rejoinder," Phronesis 28 (1983): a97-2a a, 197.
[ 4 7 5 ]
8/20/2019 Graham - The Paradox of Prime Matter
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76
J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y ~ 5 : 4 O C T 1 9 8 7
commitments made by Aristotle. At the same time, opponents of prime
matter have a legitimate basis for criticizing the tradition, for there is some-
thing fundame nta lly wrong with the doctrine. Given Aristotle's assumptions
and commitments, the doctrine of prime matter is not only dialectically
inevitable but also systematically incoherent . In this paper I shall not defend
the existence of a doctrine of prime matter in Aristotle's philosophy, al-
tho ugh my a rgu men t will p rovide an incidental justification for it by exhibit-
ing its function within Aristotle's system. My aim here is to explain what is
wrong with the doctrine of prime matter. (1) I shall examine a problem
concerning prime matter--a problem of which Aristotle was aware and
which he thought he had solved. (2) I shall argue that he did not solve the
problem, for the doctrine of prime matter entails a paradox for his system.
(3) I shall reply to some objections, and (4) I shall offer a tentative diagnosis
of how Aristotle could have come to embrace a paradoxical position.
1
According to Aristotle's theory of change, there is a substratum which un-
derlies every change Ph. 1. 7.19oa33ff). Whe n a thing changes its features ,
we call that accidental change and ident ify the subs tratum as substance.
When a thing comes into being or ceases to be, we call that substantial
change 3 and identify the substratum as matter. 4 The most simple bodies of
the Aristotelian cosmos are the f our traditional elements : earth, air, fire,
and water. 5 The elements are characterized by the contrary powers hot, cold,
wet, and dry. Each element has one member of the contrary pair hot-cold,
and one of the contrary pair wet-dry Gen. Corr. 2.2-3). For Aristotle, it is a
fact that the elements are transformed into one another; for instance, water
evaporates to become air. Aristotle understands this change to be a kind of
substantial change. Accordingly, there must be a corresponding substratum
for the several contraries and this is prime matter.
In his treatise on substantial change,
O n G enerat ion an d Corrupt ion ,
Aristo-
3 A r i s t o t le u s e s t h e t e r m s q u a l i f i e d a n d u n q u a l i f i e d c o m i n g - t o - b e f o r a c c i d e n ta l a n d s u b -
s t a n t i a l c h a n g e . H i s t e r m s a r e b a s e d o n a s y n t a c t i c c r i t e r i o n : d o w e sa y ' x c o m e s t o b e F '
( q u a li f ie d ) o r ' x c o m e s t o b e ' s i m p l i c i t e r ( u n q u a l if i e d ) i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e c h a n g e ? S e e
Ph . 1. 7.
t 9 o a 3 1 - 3 3 , Gen. Corr . 3 , 3 1 7 a 3 2 f t . , 3 1 9 a l 1 - 1 4 .
4 Gen . Corr .
a . 4 , 3 2 o a ~ - 5 : t h e s u b s t r a t u m o f s u b s t a n ti a l c h a n g e i s m a t t e r i n t h e p r i m a r y
s e n s e , t h o u g h a n y s u b s t r a t u m o f c h a n g e ( i .e ., in c l u d i n g s u b s t a n c e ) c a n b e c a l l e d m a t t e r .
5 A r i s to t l e i s u n h a p p y w i t h th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a m e ' e l e m e n t '
stoicheion)
f o r e a r t h , a i r , f i r e a n d
w a t e r , a n d o f t e n r e f e r s t o t h e m a s t h e s o -c a l le d e l e m e n t s
Gen. Corr.
1 . 6 . 3 ~ b l f ; ~ . a .3 ~ 8 b 3 a ,
3 ~ 9 a a 6 ). H e p r e f e r s t o ca ll t h e m ' p e r c e p t i b l e b o d i e s '
aisth~ta sOmata)
b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e m -
s e lv e s c o m p l e x e s o f m a t t e r a n d f o r m a n d h e n c e n o t e l e m e n t a r y ( 3 29 a 2 4f f) . H e s o m e t i m e s c al ls
t h e e l e m e n t s ' s i m p l e b o d i e s '
hapla sOmata),
e . g . ,
Cael.
1 . 1 . 2 6 8 b ~ 6 - 3 o ; h e r e t h e e p i t h e t h a s
r e f e r e n c e t o th e e l e m e n t s ' s im p l e m o v e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n (c f. C a d . 3 . 3 . 3 o 2 b 7 f ) .
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T H E P AR ADOX OF P R IME MAT T E R 4 7 7
t le n o t e s t w o p r o b l e m s f o r a n a c c o u n t o f s u b st a n ti a l c h a n g e : (1 ) i f t h e s u b-
s t r a t u m o u t o f w h i c h a s u b s t a n c e c o m e s t o b e i s n o t i t s e lf a s u b s t a n c e ,
a c c i d e n t s w il l i n h e r e i n n o n - s u b s t a n c e ; ( 2) i f t h e s u b s t r a t u m is n o t h i n g a t a ll,
s o m e t h i n g h a s c o m e t o b e o u t o f n o t h i n g . 6 P r o b l e m (1 ) is a g e n e r a l p r o b l e m
f o r a n y s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e a n d is e a s il y s o l v e d ; I sh a ll i g n o r e it. P r o b l e m ( 2)
d o e s n o t a r i s e f o r t h e c h a n g e o f s u b s ta n c e s ( c al l t h e m c o m p l e x s u b s t a n ce s )
a b o v e t h e l e v el o f t h e e l e m e n t s . F o r i n a g i v e n c a se o f s u b s t an t i al c h a n g e o f a
c o m p l e x t h i n g , a n o t h e r t h i n g c a n b e i d e n t i f ie d a s its s u b s t r a t u m . A b r o n z e
s t a tu e c o m e s t o b e o u t o f b r o n z e . B r o n z e i s le ss t h i n g -l i k e t h a n a b r o n z e
s t a t u e , b u t i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s t h i n g - l i k e , s o t h a t i n t h i s c a s e w e f i n d a s u b s t r a -
t u m f o r c h a n g e .
B u t in t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s ( h e n c e f o r t h e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e )
p r o b l e m ( 2) is n o t r e s o l v e d , f o r n o s u b s t r a t u m is v e r i f ia b l e ( cf .
G e n . C o r r .
1 .4 ). T h e c o n t r a r i e s t h a t , b y b e i n g p r e s e n t i n p r i m e m a t t e r , c o n s t it u t e t h e
e l e m e n t s , a r e
e x h y p o t h e s i
b a s i c a n d t h e m a t t e r t h e y r e s i d e i n i s i r r e d u c i b l e .
( W h y A r i s t o t l e a n a l y z e s t h e e l e m e n t s i n t h i s w a y I s h a l l e x p l a i n l a t e r . ) F o r
e v e r y f e a t u r e F , p r i m e m a t t e r is n o t- F . B u t b e c a u s e i t is d e v o i d o f a ll c h a r a c -
t er is ti c s o f i ts o w n , p r i m e m a t t e r is i n d i s t in g u i s h a b l e f r o m p u r e i n d e t e r m i -
n a c y . A r i s t o t l e i d e n t if i e s p u r e i n d e t e r m i n a c y w i t h th e c o n c e p t o f n o t h i n g -
n e s s o f t h e P r e s o c r a t i c ( s p ec i fi c al ly : E l ea t i c) t r a d i t i o n
G e n . C o r r .
1 . 3 . 3 1 7 b 2 8 -
3 1) . T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t i n d e t e r m i n a c y is j u s t w h a t P a r m e n i d e s h a d in
m i n d a s t h e p a r a d i g m c a s e o f n o t h i n g n e s s , 7 a n d A r i s t o tl e s e e m s t o a c c e p t t h e
p a r a d i g m . H e a ls o s h a r e s w i t h t h e E l ea ti c s a n a b h o r r e n c e o f e x n i h i l o c r e -
a t io n . H o w t h e n c a n A r i s to t l e e s c a p e th e c h a r g e t h a t h is e l e m e n t s a r e
c r e a t e d o u t o f n o t h i n g ? F o r i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s o m e t h i n g w h i c h A r is t ot le
p o s i ts a s u n d e r l y i n g e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e is re a l l y n o t h i n g a t a ll. I s h a ll ca ll t h is
d i f f ic u l t y th e p a r a d o x o f p r i m e m a t t e r , s
I n a p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e
G C ,
A r i s t o t l e a d v a n c e s a d i s t i n c t i o n
t h a t p r o v i d e s a t e n t a t i v e s o lu t i o n to t h e p r o b l e m : P e r h a p s t h e s o lu t i o n is
t h a t t h e i r m a t t e r i s i n o n e s e n s e t h e s a m e b u t i n a n o t h e r s e n s e d i f f e r e n t . F o r
t h a t w h i c h u n d e r l i e s t h e m , w h a t e v e r i ts n a t u r e m a y b e
q u a
u n d e r l y i n g t h e m ,
is t h e s a m e : b u t i t s a c t u a l b e i n g i s n o t t h e s a m e ( 1 . 3 . 3 1 9 b ~ - 4 , O x f o r d t r. ). 9
A r i s t o t le c o n f i r m s t h e s o l u t io n l a t e r i n t h e t re a t is e : O u r o w n d o c t r i n e is t h a t
a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a m a t t e r o f t h e p e r c e p t ib l e b o d i e s (a m a t t e r o u t o f w h i c h
t h e s o - c a l le d ' e l e m e n t s ' c o m e - t o - b e ) it h a s n o s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e , b u t i s a l w a y s
6 Gen . Corr. 1. 3. 317b5-13, b2 o-3 3.
7 See A. P. D. M ourelatos, Determinacy and Indeterminacy, Being and Non-Being in the
Fragments o f Parmenides,
Canadian Journal of Philosophy,
Supp. vol. 2 (1976): 45 -59 .
8 Th is p reliminary characterization o f the problem will be replaced by a mo re precise one.
9 Translations are my own except as noted.
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JOURN L OF THE HISTOR Y OF PHILOSOPH Y
5:4
OCT
x987
bou nd up with a contrarie ty (2.1.3~9a24-96, Ox ford tr.). In other words,
prime mat ter escapes the charge of being nothing by its status as part o f a
compound of form and matter. Some form always attaches to it in fact, and
hence no pure nothingness is involved in elemental change. Some feature
imparts determinacy to the underlying matter. Nothing comes to be out of
pure indeterminacy, for there is always some preexisting determinant, even
in the case o f elemental change, namely the forms of hot or cold, wet or dry.
Aristotle's solution to the problem of prime matter is to point out that it is
never foun d ac tua l ly separate from the powers that make up the elements. In
effect, he is willing to concede that prime matter per se is nothing, but he is
not willing to concede that prime matter is ever found by itself. To bolster
his posit ion he refers ~~ to his discussions of matt er elsewhere, alluding to his
exposition of the concept in P h y s i c s 1 .6 9. But that passage does not support
his point. Rather , a study of his doctr ine there reveals the impossibility of his
solution to the paradox of prime matter.
2
In
Phys ics 1
Aristotle is faced with a challenge to a philosophical study of
nature. The Eleatics have raised the problem that the notion of change is
incoherent, for how can what-is come to be from what-is-not? The Eleatic
formulation suggests that change involves something coming to be from
nothing, an implication that appears to be absurd.
Consider an analysis (call it A1) that will avoid the devastating implica-
tions of the Eleatic challenge. We begin with an umproblematic case of
change: Socrates becomes educated. Suppose also, for purposes o f compari-
son, Socrates is pale. We might describe two successive states of affairs, S~
and S~ which obtain at times t~ and t~, respectively.
AI: S~ S~
uneducated educated
pale pale
Socrates Socrates
We notice that one element changes in the description and two remain the
same. The first item in the list has a negative, or more precisely, privative
description in S~ and a positive description in S,. What items are relevant to
explaining the change? The ordinary-language report of the change sug-
gests the answer. We say, Socrates, who was uneducated, has now become
educated or the une ducated man became educated. Paleness does not
1o 317bt3s
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T H E P R D O X O F PRIM E M T T E R 4 7 9
e n t e r i n t o s u c h a r e p o r t , a n d w e m a y f a i r l y c o n c l u d e t h a t i t is i r r e l e v a n t to
a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e c h a n g e . A s t o w h a t d o e s e n t e r i n t o t h e r e p o r t , w e n o t e
t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o a d je c t iv e s , o n e p r i v a ti v e a n d t h e o t h e r a c o r r e s p o n d i n g
p o s it iv e a d j ec t i ve , a n d a n o u n . T h i s s u r v e y s u g g e s t s t h a t in t h e c a s e b e f o r e u s
t h e c h a n g e c o n s is t s in a c h a n g e o f f e a t u r e s i n a t h i n g w h i c h r e m a i n s t h e
s a m e . C a l l t h e p r i v a t i v e a d j e c t i v e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a privation a n d c a l l t h e
t h i n g a
substratum.
W h a t i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e f o r e g o i n g a n l a y s i s r e l a t iv e to t h e E l e a t ic ch a l -
l e n g e i s t h a t i t p r o v i d e s t h e b a s is f o r a n a n s w e r t o t h a t c h a l le n g e . T h e
c h a n g e i n q u e s t i o n is a ca s e o f w h a t - is ( w h a t is e d u c a t e d ) c o m i n g t o be o u t o f
w h a t - i s - n o t ( w h a t i s u n e d u c a t e d , i . e . , n o t e d u c a t e d ) . B u t w h a t w e h a v e i s a
c o u n t e r e x a m p l e t o t h e i m p l i c i t i n f e r e n c e f r o m ( a) W h a t - i s c o m e s to b e f r o m
w h a t - i s - n o t t o (b ) S o m e t h i n g c o m e s t o b e f r o m n o t h i n g . F o r i n t h is c a s e
w h a t- is h a s n o t c o m e t o b e o u t o f n o t h i n g b u t o u t o f s o m e t h i n g e ls e, n a m e l y
a c e r t a in m a n . T h e r e w a s a s o m e t h i n g p r e s e n t a ll t h e t i m e , s o m e t h i n g u n -
d e r l y i n g t h e c h a n g e , n a m e l y t h e s u b s t r a t u m . N o w w e a r e in a p os i t io n to s e e
t h a t t h e E l e a t i c c h a l l e n g e i n v o l v e s a f a ll a c y : t o m a k e t h e m o v e f r o m (a ) t o (b )
i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e is t o c o n f u s e p r i v a t i o n a n d s u b s t r a t u m . F o r i n (a ) w h a t - i s-
n o t r e f e r s t o t h e p r i v a t i o n , w h e r e a s i n (b ) n o t h i n g , w h i c h i s t a k e n a s s y n -
o n y m o u s w i th w h a t - i s - n o t r e f e r s t o t h e s u b s t r a t u m .
M y a n a ly s is A 1 e m b o d i e s a h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
A r i s t ot l e s a n a l y s i s o f c h a n g e i n Physics 1 .7 . P r i v a t i o n i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s w h a t
is r e f e r r e d t o b y a p r iv a t i v e a d je c t i ve i n a r e p o r t o f a c h a n g e a n d s u b s t r a t u m a s
w h a t is r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e s u b j ec t o f t h e s e n t e n c e . T h e a n a ly s is is m o t i v a t e d b y
t h e E l e a t i c c h a l l e n g e a s A r i s to t l e u n d e r s t a n d s i t a n d is s u c c e ss f u l i n r e p l y i n g t o
i t ( see
Ph .
1.8 ). H o w e v e r , i t is n o t e n o u g h f o r A r i s t o t l e t o r e v e a l t h e f a l la c i o u s -
n e s s o f t h e E l e a t ic c h a l l e n g e i n g e n e r a l . H e m u s t s h o w t h a t t h e c h a l l e n g e is n o t
v a li d fo r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n y t y p e o f c h a n g e . S o f a r w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d o n l y
a n e x a m p l e o f a c c i d e n t a l c h a n g e . W h a t o f s u b s ta n t i a l c h a n g e ? H e r e is a c a se i n
w h i c h it is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m a n d h e n c e w h e t h e r t h e s a m e
m o v e c a n b e m a d e t o d e f e n d a g a i n s t t h e E l e a t i c o b j e c t o r .
C o n s i d e r a n o t h e r a n a ly s is o f c h a n g e , A ~ . A l u m p o f b r o n z e is t a k e n a n d
c a s t i n t o t h e s h a p e o f a m a n . T h e b r o n z e is u s e d a s a s t a t u e . A s t a t e d e s c r i p -
t i o n o f t h e c h a n g e m i g h t b e a s fo ll ow s :
A 2 : S~ S~
u n f o r m e d f o r m e d
b r o w n b r o w n
b r o n z e b r o n z e
B y a p p l y i n g a m e t h o d s i m i l ar to t h a t o f A 1 w e m a y d e t e r m i n e t h a t w e h a v e a
p r iv a t io n , u n f o r m e d , a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o si ti ve f e a t u r e , f o r m e d , a n d a s u bs tr a -
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48
JOURN L OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPH Y
25:4
O C T
1987
r u m , b r o n z e . T h e f e a t u r e b r o n z e i s i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e c h a n g e . W h a t is i n t r i g u i n g
a b o u t A 2 is t h a t i t m a y b e t h o u g h t o f as a
model
f o r i n s t a n c e s o f s u b s t a n t ia l
c h a n g e . T h e c o m i n g t o b e o f a n a t u r a l s u b s t an c e , s ay s S o c r at e s , m a y b e u n d e r -
s t o o d t o b e s im i l a r to t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f s h a p e o n a p r e v i o u s ly u n s h a p e d s t u ff .
W h e t h e r w e h a v e in m i n d t h e m o l d i n g i n t o h u m a n f o r m o f a n i m a t e e c t o p l as m
o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o a s e e d - m a t e r i a l o f t h e b r e a t h o f li fe , w e a r e a b le t o g iv e
s o m e a c c o u n t o f h u m a n c r e a t i o n in t e r m s o f th e b r o n z e s t a t u e an a lo g y . I f t h e
a n a l o g y g i v e s a re l i a b l e p a r a d i g m f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f l i vi n g t h i n g s , t h e E l e a ti c
c h a l l e n g e i s m e t f o r c a se s o f s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e .
I t a k e A ~ t o r e p r e s e n t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f A r i s to t le ' s a n al y si s o f c h a n g e t o
s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e i n Physics 1. 7 . T h e s u b s t r a t u m o f s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e is
c a l l e d matter b y a n a l o g y t o t h e c r a f t s m a n ' s m a t e r i a l a n d t h e p o s i t iv e f e a t u r e
form b y a n a l o g y to th e s h a p e t h e c r a f t s m a n i m p o s e s . H a v i n g g e n e r a l i z e d t h e
c o n c e p t s p r i v a t io n , f o r m , a n d s u b s t r a t u m t o a p p l y t o a ll i n s t a n ce s o f c h a n g e ,
A r i s t o tl e r e g a r d s t h e m a s n e c e ss a r y c o n c e p t u a l c o m p o n e n t s o f a n y t ru e
a n a l y si s o f c h a n g e . H e a c h i e v e s n o t m e r e l y a n e g a t i v e e x p o s 6 o f a l o g ic a l
f a ll a cy b u t a p o s i ti v e t h e o r y o f c h a n g e . A n e s se n t i a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h a t
t h e o r y is a t h e o r y o f m a t t e r .
F r o m A r i s t o tl e 's a n al y si s a n d e x a m p l e s w e m a y i n f e r s e v e ra l p r in c i p a l
t h e s es o f h is t h e o r y o f m a t t e r . 1' ( a) M a t t e r i s s o m e t h i n g d e t e r m i n a t e . I n t h e
c as e o f b o t h t h e u n e d u c a t e d m a n a n d t h e u n f o r m e d b r o n z e , t h e r e is a
d e t e r m i n a t e e l e m e n t t o w h i c h t h e p r i v a t i o n a t t a ch e s . T h e r e is a d i al ec t ic a l
r e a s o n f o r a s s e r t i n g t h is p r o p o s i t i o n : w i t h o u t it , A r i s to t le c a n n o t a n s w e r t h e
E l e a ti c c h a l l e n g e . T h e c h a l l e n g e c a n b e d i r e c t e d t o s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e a s w e l l
a s a c c i d e n ta l c h a n g e , a n d A r i s t o tl e m u s t b e a b le to a p p e a l t o a s u b s t r a t u m
t h a t is a r e a l b e i n g f o r s u b s t a n t i a l a s w e l l a s f o r a c c i d e n t a l c h a n g e . A c c o r d -
i ng l y , m a t t e r m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g . B u t i f i t w e r e n o t s o m e t h i n g i n p a r t i c u la r ,
t h e E l e a ti c c o u l d o b j e c t t h a t A r i s t o t le ' s p o s t u l a t i o n o f m a t t e r w a s ad hoc a n d
h i s c l a i m t h a t t h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r e v e r y c h a n g e w a s q u e s t i o n - b e g g i n g . '~
A r i s to t l e s e e m s t o c o n f i r m t h e v i e w t h a t m a t t e r is i n s o m e w a y d e t e r m i n a t e
w h e n h e s a ys t h a t m a t t e r is a l m o s t - - i n d e e d i n a s e n s e it i s - - s u b s t a n c e [ o r
r e a l b e i n g : ousia] (192a6). O n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f s u b s t a n c e is t h i sn e s s ,
It has been suggested to me that the Ph. a analysis is merely an analysis of predication
and not o f physical change. I see n o ba sis in the text for invoking this distinction, Inde ed
Aristotle here as in othe r plac es seems to take fo r granted that language (w hen prop erly
understood) directly mirrors reality.
'~ A t this p oint the traditionalist wishes to s ay: what is im portan t about m atter is not its
actual nature but its potentiality. Yet Aristotle in Ph. a clearly presupposes that the Eleatic
challenge can be met
without
app eal to the potentiality-actuality distinction, which provides an
alternative solution (191b 27-29). According ly I wish to examine how m atter provides the basis
for a solution independently of any o ther scheme, I shall deal w ith potentiality below,
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o r d e t e r m i n a c y , w h i c h A r i s t o t le a s c r ib e s t o m a t t e r i n P h y s i c s x. 'a O f c o u r s e
m a t t e r is r e l a t iv e l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e - - r e l a t i v e , t h a t is , t o t h e c o m p o u n d o r t h e
f o r m - - b u t t h a t d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t i t is c o m p l e t e l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e o r n o t h -
i n g i n t h e E l e a t ic s e n s e . M a t t e r c a n b e n o p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g , i .e ., n o c o m p l e x
s u b s t a n c e , w i t h o u t b e i n g n o t h i n g a t a ll .
(2 ) C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e m a t t e r o f c a se A 2 h a v e e x p l a n a t o r y v a lu e . W e c a n
a c c o u n t f o r t h e c h a n g e i n s h a p e o f t h e b r o n z e i n t e r m s o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f
b r o n z e - - i t s d u c t i l it y , m a l l e a b il i ty , m e l t i n g p o i n t , e tc . T o s a y t h a t c e r t a i n f e a -
t u r e s o f m a t t e r h a v e e x p l a n a t o r y v a l u e i s n o t t o s a y t h a t al l f e a t u r e s d o . I n d e e d ,
t y p ic a l l y th e r e w i l l b e m a n y f e a t u r e s o f m a t t e r w h i c h a r e i r r e le v a n t t o ex p l a i n -
i n g a g i v e n c h a n g e . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e b r o n z e s ta tu e , t h e b r o w n c o l o r o f th e
b r o n z e is i r re l e v an t , a s is t h e p a l e c o m p l e x i o n o f t h e m a n w h o c h a n g e s f r o m
u n e d u c a t e d t o e d u c a t e d . M o r e o v e r , e v e n t h e c o n t o u r s o f t h e l u m p o f b r o n z e
b e f o r e i t w a s c a s t a r e i r r e l e v a n t t o e x p l a i n i n g i ts c h a n g e o f s h a p e . A l l t h a t is
r e l e v a n t is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s h a p e w a s n o t t h a t o f a s t a t u e .
( 3) I t is i n v i r t u e o f t h a t s u b s e t o f p r o p e r t i e s t h a t h a v e e x p l a n a t o r y v a l u e
t h a t s o m e s t u f f is t h e m a t t e r r e la t iv e t o c h a n g e . I t is
b e c a u s e
b r o n z e h a s a
c e r t a i n m e l t i n g p o i n t t h a t it h a s a s s u m e d t h e s h a p e o f a m a n a n d c a n be
u s e d a s a s t a t u e . I n g e n e r a l , m a t t e r is a d e t e r m i n a t e k i n d o f s t u f f t h a t is a p t
f o r d e t e r m i n a t e k i n d s o f c h a n g e . A r i s to t l e d e f in e s m a t t e r a s w h a t p e rs i st s i n
a c h a n g e . B u t m a t t e r is n o t j u s t a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t ic t h a t p er s is t s , f o r m a n y
i n c id e n t a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s m a y e n d u r e t h r o u g h a c h a n g e , f o r e x a m p l e th e
b r o w n c o l o r o f b r o n z e w h i c h b e c o m e s a s ta t u e. A r i s t o t le a d d s t h e r e s t i c t i o n
m Y k a t a s y m b e b ~ k o s :
I d e f i n e m a t t e r a s t h e f ir st s u b s t r a t u m o f e a c h t h i n g f r o m
w h i c h , b y i ts p e r s i s t i n g a s a n e s s e n t ia l i n g r e d i e n t o f t h e c h a n g e e n h y p a r c h o n -
t o s m Y k a t a s y m b e b ~ k o s ) ,
s o m e t h i n g c o m e s t o b e ( 1 9 1 b 3 1 - 3 ~ ) . T h e m a t t e r
r e l a t iv e t o a c h a n g e m u s t b e t h e p r o p e r s u b je c t o f t h e f e a t u r e s w h i c h c h a n g e
s o t h a t i ts o w n p r o p e r t i e s e x p l a i n i t s a p t n e s s f o r c h a n g e .
C o n s i d e r n o w a s t a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c a s e o f e le m e n t a l c h a n g e . S u p p o s e
t h a t s o m e w a t e r e v a p o r a t e s a n d is t r a n s f e r r e d i n to a ir :
~s 7.19ob2 4_26 C on tra ry to his usual practice (se e no te 4 above), Aristotle conflates sub-
stantial individuals and stuffs (man and gold) in the passage. In fact, Aristotle consistently uses
hyl~ to in Ph. I refe r to sustratum in general (see D. Gr aham , Aristot le 's Discovery of Matter,
Archiv fi~r Geschichte der Ph ilosophie
66 [a 984]: 37 -5 l , 49 ) . On e might objec t tha t hi s confusion
here nullifies the claim that matter is significantly like
ousia.
However , the point of the a rgu-
me nt is that ma tter, w heth er substance o r stuff, is the source of determ inacy in contrast to the
privat ion. Fu rther m ore , i t is no t clear th at wh en A ristotle sa ys that m atter is countable
arithm~t~,
19ob25) he means that instances of matter can be counted--which is clearly false for stuffs
unless they are a l ready individuated by some p r ior form . H e m ay s imply be saying tha t we can
cou nt m atter as a principle distinct fro m privat ion. Th us there is no obviously fallacious reason-
ing behind his identifying matter as substance-l ike.
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48 JOUR NAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPH Y 2 5 : 4 O C T 1 9 8 7
A 3: S~ S~
c o l d w a r m
m o i s t m o i s t
p r i m e m a t t e r p r i m e m a t t e r
C o l d h a s b e e n e x c h a n g e d f o r w a r m , o r , u n d e r a n o t h e r d e s cr i pt i on , n o t-
w a r m h a s b e e n e x c h a n g e d f o r w a r m . A r i s to t le n o t e s t h a t a l t h o u g h b o t h
a i r a n d w a t e r a r e t r a n s l u c e n t , t h e t r a n s l u c e n c e i ts e l f c a n n o t b e t h e s u b je c t
o f a c h a n g e f r o m a i r t o w a t e r : i f i t w e r e t h e c h a n g e w o u l d r e d u c e t o
a l t e r a t i o n Gen. Corr. 1 . 4 . 3 1 9 b 2 1 - 2 4 ) . T h i s o b s e r v a t io n s u p p o r t s o u r
a n a l y s is o f t h e b r o n z e c a s e a n d t e ll s u s w h a t t h e s u b j e c t is n o t. B u t w e s t il l
w i s h to k n o w w h a t i t is . D o t h e p r i n c i p le s o f c h a n g e e n u m e r a t e d a b o v e
s u g g e s t a p o s i t iv e a c c o u n t o f t h e s u b j e c t, p r i m e m a t t e r ? I f (1) h o l d s ,
p r i m e m a t t e r m u s t b e a r e a l s o m e t h i n g . B u t A r is t o tl e h a s g iv e n u s n o
g r o u n d s t o t h i n k t h a t i t is. H e a t t r i b u te s n o p r o p e r t i e s t o p r i m e m a t t e r
a p a r t f r o m t h e s i m p l e p o w e r s . A s f a r a s w e k n o w , p r i m e m a t t e r per se is
c o m p l e t e l y c h a r a c t e r le s s , a n d h e n c e i t h a s n o p r in c i p l e o f d e t e r m i n a c y i n
its o w n n a t u r e a n d c a n n o t q u a l i f y a s ousia. S i n c e it h a s n o c h a r a c t e r s o f i ts
o w n , p r i m e m a t t e r c a n n o t f u l f il l (2) b y h a v i n g a s u b s e t o f f e a t u r e s w h i c h
e x p l a i n e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . A n d s in c e (1) a n d (2) a re n o t f u l fi ll e d , p r i m e
m a t t e r c a n n o t (3) b e i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e p r o p e r s u b je c t o f t h e c h a n g e b y
v i r t u e o f t h e f e a t u r e s i t h a s i n i ts o w n n a t u r e .
D o e s A r i s to t l e s s o l u t i o n r es o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f p r i m e m a t t e r ? W e a r e
n o w i n a p o s i t i o n t o s e e t h a t i t c a n n o t . A c c o r d i n g t o A r i s t o t le s s o l u t io n ,
p r i m e m a t t e r i s s o m e t h i n g b e c a u s e i t is a l w a ys c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s o m e p a i r o f
b a si c p o w e r s . B u t A r i s t o tl e s t h e o r y o f c h a n g e e n t a i ls t h a t t h e m a t t e r i n
q u e s t i o n i t se l f b e s o m e t h i n g , a n d r e l a ti v e t o a c h a n g e o f p o w e r s , t h e m a t t e r
is p r i m e m a t t e r i ts e l f devo id 0 f t h e p o w e r s . I n t h e s t at e d e s c r i p t i o n a b o v e, o n e
p o w e r r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e , b u t t hi s w ill n o t h e l p to c h a r a c t e r i z e p r i m e m a t t e r
s i nc e t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f m o i s t n e s s is n o m o r e r e l e v a n t to e x p l a i n i n g a c h a n g e
f r o m c o l d n e s s to h o t n e s s t h a n p a l e n e s s is t o e x p l a i n i n g e d u c a t i o n o r b r o w n -
n e s s is t o e x p l a i n i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a s t a t u e . A r i s t o t le i s r i g h t t o c l a i m
t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r i s n e v e r f o u n d w i t h o u t th e s i m p l e p o w e r s , b u t it is e q u a l l y
t r u e - - a n d e q u a l ly i r r e l e v a n t - - t h a t b r o n z e is n e v e r f o u n d w i t h o u t s o m e
s h a p e . T h e p o i n t is t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f s o m e s h a p e o r o t h e r i n t h e b r o n z e
c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e k i n d o f d e t e r m i n a c y t h a t b r o n z e h a s q u a b r o n z e . W e
m u s t e x p l a i n t h e a p t n e s s o f b r o n z e t o re c e i v e d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s b y i n v es t ig a t -
i n g t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e b r o n z e . T h e s h a p e i t s e l f w i ll b e i nc i -
d e n t a l t o b r o n z e
q u a
b r o n z e - - a n a c c i d e n t o r s u p e r v e n i e n t c h a ra c te r is t ic .
B r o n z e i s a r e a l s o m e t h i n g , a n d m o r e o v e r a s o m e t h i n g t h a t is a p t t o r e c e iv e
s h a p e s , i n v i r t u e o f c h a r a c t e r is t ic s t h a t c o n s t i t u te b r o n z e q u a b r o n z e , n o t d u e
t o s u p e r v e n i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s t h a t t h e m s e l v e s n e e d t o b e a c c o u n t e d f o r .
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THE PARADOX OF PRIME MATTER 48
A r i s to t le ' s s o l u t i o n is b a s e d o n a n e r r o r o f an a ly s is . H e h a s c a st s u p e r v e n i e n t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e r o l e o f c o n s t i t u t i v e c h a r a c t e r is t i c s .
B u t p e r h a p s t h e r e is a d e f e n s e f o r A r i s to t l e in h is d o c t r i n e o f p o t e n ti a l it y .
E v e n t h o u g h p r i m e m a t t e r d o e s n o t h a v e a n y a c tu a l c o n s ti tu t iv e p r op e r t ie s ,
i t h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l i ty t o be a n y o f t h e e l e m e n t s . T h i s p o t e n t ia l i ty is u n i q u e i n
p r i m e m a t t e r a n d is su f f ic i e n t t o d is t in g u i s h i t f r o m p u r e i n d e t e r m i n a c y . T o
t h is I r e p l y t h a t h a v i n g p o t e n t i a l it y m u s t b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f h a v i n g s o m e
a c t u a l c o n s t i t u t iv e p r o p e r t i e s . B e c a u s e b r o n z e h a s a c e r t a i n m e l t i n g p o i n t, i t
is a b le t o b e ca s t a s a s t a tu e . T h e p o t e n t i a l it y f o r b e i n g s h a p e d d e p e n d s u p o n
s o m e a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f b r o n z e . I f w e u n d e r s t a n d p o t e n t i a li t y i n t h is
w a y , i t is a l e g i t im a t e a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g c o n c e p t . B u t i f w e d o n o t r e q u i r e t h a t
p o t e n t i a l it y b e b a s e d o n s o m e a c tu a l p r o p e r t y , w e m a k e t h e c o n c e p t a n ad
hoc
p o s i t w h i c h c a n o n l y s e r v e t o b e g q u e s t i o n s . T h i s i s M o l i ~ r e 's c a r i c a t u r e
o f p o t e n t i a li t y : W h y d o e s t h i s s u b s t a n c e p u t o n e t o s l ee p ? B e c a u s e i t h a s a
d o r m i t i v e p o w e r .
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t a k i n g po t e n ti a l it y t o b e a n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o p e r t y c a n
p e r h a p s b e b r o u g h t o u t b y t h e k i n d o f a r g u m e n t W . D . R o ss u s e d to c la r if y
p r o b l e m s o f v a l u e t h e o r y . I m a g i n e s u b s t a n c e s X a n d Y w h i c h a r e id e n t i c a l i n
a ll p r o p e r t i e s e x c e p t t h a t X h a s a p o t e n t i a l i t y t o G a n d Y d o e s n o t . D o e s it
s e e m p l a u s ib l e t h a t s u c h a s t a te o f a f f a i r s s h o u l d o b t a i n ? I t h i n k n o t . I f w e
s h o u l d , e . g. , f i n d t w o s a m p l e s o f t h e s a m e m e t a l , o n e o f w h i c h w o u l d c o n -
d u c t e l e ct r ic i ty , o n e o f w h i c h w o u l d n o t , w e w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y l o ok f o r
s o m e c a u s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e - - i m p u r i t i e s , c r y s t al l in e s t r u c t u r e , e tc . B u t w e
w o u l d t r e a t t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y a s a p r o d u c t o f s o m e a c t u a l c h e m i c a l o r p h y s ic a l
d i f f e r e n c e s . A n d i n g e n e r a l w e u n d e r s t a n d p o t e n ti a l it i e s t o b e c o n s e q u e n t i a l
p r o p e r t ie s , n o t i n d e p e n d e n t f e a t u r e s .
A r i s t o t le h i m s e l f re c o g n i z e s t h e n e e d t o p u t r e s t r i c ti o n s o n t h e a s c r i p t io n
o f p o t e n t i a l it y to s u b je c t s: W e m u s t d e c i d e w h e n e a c h t h i n g e x is ts p o t e n -
t ia l ly a n d w h e n i t d o e s n o t , f o r i t d o e s n o t e x i s t p o t e n t i a l l y a t j u s t a n y t i m e .
F o r i n s t a n c e , is e a r t h p o t e n t i a l l y a m a n o r n o t ? P r o b a b l y n o t u n t i l i t h a s
a l r e a d y b e c o m e a s ee d , a n d p e r h a p s n o t e v e n th e n Met. 9 .7 . l o 4 8 6 3 7 - 8 a 3 ) .
T h e r e a s o n f o r s a y i n g t h a t n o t e v e r y t h i n g is p o te n t i a l ly a m a n is t h a t n o t
e v e r y t h i n g i s i n s u c h a s t a te o r h a s s u c h p r o p e r t i e s , t h a t b y a n o r m a l p r o c e s s
o f d e v e l o p m e n t i t m a y g r o w i n t o a m a n . T h e p r o p e r t i e s i n q u e s t io n m u s t b e
c o n s t i tu t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t t e r . M o r e o v e r , A r is t o tl e 's p r in c i p l e t h a t
a c t u a l i t y is p r i o r t o p o t e n t i a l i t y s e e m s t o e n t a il t h a t a t h i n g ' s p o t e n t i a l l y b e i n g
F d e p e n d s u p o n i ts a c t u a ll y b e i n g G . B u t s in c e p r i m e m a t t e r p e r s e is n o t
a c t u a l ly a n y t h i n g , i t f o ll o w s t h a t i t c a n n o t p o t e n t i a ll y b e a n y t h i n g e i t h e r .
T h e r e is a n o t h e r s e r io u s p r o b l e m f o r p r im e m a t t e r t h a t a ls o a ri se s f r o m
i ts la c k o f d e t e r m i n a c y . O n e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e is a
s u b s t r a t u m f o r c h a n g e is t h a t w e b e a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e s u b s t r a t u m . B u t b y
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4 8 4 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 5 : 4 O C T I 9 8 7
h y p o t h e s i s w e h a v e n o m e a n s o f i d e n t i f y i n g p r i m e m a t t e r b y it se lf . T h i s
p r o b l e m c a n b e p u r s u e d f r o m e i t h e r t h e s ta n d p o i n t o f e p i s t em o l o g y o r t h e
s t a n d p o i n t o f m e t a p h y s i c s . A r i s t o t le r e c o g n i z e s a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d i s ti n c -
t io n b e t w e e n q u a l if i e d a n d u n q u a l i f i e d c o m i n g t o b e i n G e n C o r r 1 . 4 , w h e r e
h e n o t e s t h a t n o c o n t i n u i n g s u b s t r a t u m is p e r c e i v e d i n c a se s o f u n q u a l i f i e d
c o m i n g t o b e. B u t c u r i o u s l y , h e is i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p h e n o m e n o n o n l y a s a
c r i te r i o n o f w h a t k i n d o f c h a n g e w e a r e d e a l i n g w it h . T h e e p i s t em o l o g i c a l
p r o b l e m is t h i s: h o w c o u l d w e e v e r k n o w t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r c o n t i n u e d i n a
c h a n g e ? F o r i n t h e f i rs t p l a c e , o n e c a n n o t p e r c e i v e a c o n t i n u i t y o f s u b s t r a -
t u m f o r a n y s u b st a n t ia l c h a n g e ; a n d i n t h e s e c o n d p la c e p r i m e m a t t e r h a s n o
p e r c e i v a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s a p a r t f r o m t h o s e o f t h e e l e m e n t s i t u n d e r l ie s .
H e n c e i t c a n n o t b e p e r c e i v e d b y i ts e lf e v e n b e f o r e o r a f t e r a c h a n g e . T h e
p r o b l e m is a d i f fi c u lt o n e , b u t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l v e r s i o n is e v e n m o r e p r e ss -
i ng : w h a t w o u l d i t e v e n m e a n t o s a y t h a t a g i v e n p ie c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r a t
t i m e t , w a s i d e n t ic a l t o a p i e c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r a t t ,? I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t
t h e r e is n o p o s s i b l e g r o u n d f o r e s t a b l is h i n g c o n t i n u i t y , s in c e b y h y p o t h e s i s
p r i m e m a t t e r d o e s n o t h a v e a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f its o w n . ~4 W e c o u l d n o t
t h e n a p p e a l t o L e i b n i z ' s L a w o r t o a n y o t h e r p r i n c i p l e o f i d e n t i t y t o e s t a b li s h
t h a t t h e p r i m e m a t t e r w e s t a r te d w i th w a s t h e s a m e a s t h a t w h i c h w e e n d e d
w i th . T h u s , n o t o n l y w o u l d p r i m e m a t t e r b e ep i s t em o l o g i c a l l y i n ac c es si b le ,
t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f a c h a r a c t e r l e s s s u b s t r a t u m t h a t r e t a i n s it s i d e n t i t y is
i n c o h e r e n t .
T h e m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r i m e m a t t e r d e b a t e is a n a rt ic l e b y
S h e l d o n C o h e n w h i c h , i f i t is c o r r e c t , w o u l d n o t o n l y d e f e n d t h e e x i s te n c e o f
p r i m e m a t t e r , b u t s a v e th e c o n c e p t f r o m t h e c h a r g e o f i n c o h e r e n c e . 1~ I t w il l
b e c o n v e n i e n t t o r e p l y t o h is s t a t e m e n t h e r e , s i nc e h e e x p l ic i tl y re j e c ts c e r -
t a in k e y p o i n t s i n t h e a r g u m e n t I a m f o l lo w i n g a n d p r o v i d e s a t h o u g h t f u l
a l t e rn a t i v e t o v ie w s cr it ic a l o f p r i m e m a t t e r . C o h e n ' s b a s ic a r g u m e n t f o r
p r i m e m a t t e r is t h a t i t is n o t d e v o i d o f c h a r a c t e ri s t i c s a n d s o i t is n o t i n a n y
d a n g e r o f b e i n g n o t h i n g . H i s s t r a t e g y is t h e r i g h t o n e : i f t h e r e is a n y w a y t o
~4 Panayot Bu tchvarov pointed out the metaphy sical problem to me, See his Being Qua
Being (Bloomington, 1979), 165-69 .
,5 Aristotle's Doctrine of Material Substrate, Philosophical Review 93 (1984): 17x-94.
Cohen considers th ree gro und s fo r rejecting prim e matter: (a) it is characterless, (b) it has no per
se
characteristics, and (c) it is not a distinct type of s tuf f even if it has
per se
characteristics (181).
My position falls under (c) with the specific interpretation that prim e m atter has no essential or
defining characteristics. I hold that Aristotle ascribes characteristics, including per se characteris-
tics or Aristotelian Properties to pr im e matter; but b ecause of (c), it is difficult to see how he can
be justified in assigning any characteristics.
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save prime matter from the charge of incoherence, it must be by showing
how prime matter is a something.
Cohen recognizes that one common reason for construing prime matter
as characterless is the a ssumption that it is the matte r of all things. He rejects
this interpretation of prime matter and hence removes one strong reason for
believing that matter is characterless. Cohen is right in rejecting this inter-
pretation of prime matter, for this is a view that derives from medieval and
mod ern theories and not from Aristotle. Aristotle s notion of matter is hier-
archical: there is a matter for the elements, which in turn serve as matter for
chemical compounds, which provide the matter for homogeneous tissues,
which in turn compose heterogeneous parts, of which biological substances
are composed. There is no reservoir of purely potential matter that can
immediately be transformed into some organized object.
On the other hand, as one descends down the chain of being in the
direction of prime matter, there is a continual loss of determinacy and con-
tent at each level. The behavior of complex substances is a function of their
high-level attributes, which are, quite literally, emergent properties inh ering
only in high-level kinds of matter. For instance, life is a characteristic that
can be realized only in a certain kind of body which possesses organs
De An.
2.1.412a27-b6 ). T he real question is whether there is anything left when
one reaches the ontological cellar. Cohen does address this question, and he
offers some specific answers.
1. Contras ting the four elements with the fifth element, Cohen suggests
that the four elements possess the potentiality for rectilinear motion
(178).
2. Prime mat ter is essentially spatially extended . (179)
3. Prime mat ter is capable of motion and rest. (ibid.)
Attributes (l) and (3) are problematic because they are potentialities. But
as I have arg ued , potentialities presuppose actual attributes of some kind.
For Aristotle, a potentiality is a consequential attribute that follows from
some actual attribute. What, then, are those actual attributes? We do not
know. Contemporary philosophers of science account for dispositional pro-
perties on the basis of underlying structural properties. For instance, salt has
the dispositional property (potentiality) of being soluble in water; this pro-
perty can be explained by the crystal structure of NaC1, the ionic bonding,
the structure o f H20, etc. Obviously Aristotle cannot take this line, because it
undermines the claim that the four elements are the ultimate bodies of the
(sublunar) universe. Whatever the attributes in question, they cannot be
structural (i.e.,
formal)
attributes.
But perhaps there are mysterious attributes that do account for the po-
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t e n ti a li t ie s f o u n d i n p r i m e m a t t e r . I t h i n k t h a t t h is is u n l i k e l y t o b e th e c as e .
F o r t o a d m i t t h is p o s s i b il i ty w o u l d b e t o m a k e a c h a r a c t e r is t i c a ll y u n - A r i s t o -
t e l i a n m o v e . I s u g g e s t t h a t i t is n o t a n a c c i d e n t t h a t A r i s t o t l e a t t e m p t e d t o
s o l ve t he p a r a d o x o f p r i m e m a t t e r i n t h e w a y t h a t h e d id . T h e r e a s o n f o r
s t o p p i n g t h e r e g r e s s o f m a t t e r s w h e r e h e d i d w a s p r e c is e l y t o r u l e o u t a n y
i n a cc e s si b le a n d m y s t e r i o u s a t t r i b u te s . B y c la i m i n g t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r is
n e v e r f o u n d w i t h o u t s o m e c o n t r a r i e s h e w as a t t e m p t i n g to k e e p m y s t e r i o u s
a t t r ib u t e s a n d s u b s t r a t a f r o m b e i n g b u i l t in t o h is sy s te m . W h a t is r e m a r k a b l e
a b o u t A r i s t o t e l i a n s c i e n c e i s i ts a c c es s ib i li ty to r a t i o n a l c o g n i t i o n . A l t h o u g h
w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e o f h i n d s i g h t w e c a n fi n d n o e n d o f u n s o l v e d p r o b l e m s
a n d a r e a s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n A r i s to t l e ' s s c ie n ce , h e h i m s e l f t e n d s t o l o o k
a t n a t u r e a s a n o p e n b o o k t h a t c a n b e d e c i p h e r e d w i t h th e a id o f t h e f o u r
c a u s e s a n d s o m e b a s ic r a t io n a l p r i n c i p le s . D e s p i t e L o c k e ' s d e r o g a t i o n s o f
s u b s t a n c e a s a s o m e t h i n g - I - k n o w - n o t - w h a t , A r i s to t le ' s s u b s t a n c e is n o t u n -
k n o w a b l e . O f c o u r s e m a t t e r is t h e m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c o f A r i s to t le ' s c o n c e p t s in
t hi s c o n te x t , b u t e v e n m a t t e r is k n o w a b l e b y a n a l o g y P h . 1. 7 . 1 9 1 a 7 - 1 ~ ) a n d
b y v i r t u e o f p a r t a k i n g o f f o r m . A r i s t o t le w o u l d r a t h e r r e f u s e t o a l l o w p r i m e
m a t t e r t o b e s c r u t i n i z e d t h a n t o a d m i t t h e p o s si bi li ty o f u n k n o w a b l e a t t r i -
b u t e s .
W h a t t h e n o f (2 )? C a n t h e a t t r ib u t e o f b e i n g e x t e n d e d s a ve p r i m e m a t t e r ?
R o b e r t S o k o l o w s k i h a s d i s c u s se d t h i s p r o b l e m a t s o m e l e n g t h ? 6 B y e x a m i n -
i n g a s e r i e s o f t e x t s in t h e p h y s i c a l w o r k s h e f i n d s t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r is
i n d e e d e x t e n d e d . H e t h e n a s k s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r e x t e n s i o n is a n es s en -
t ia l a t t r i b u t e o f m a t t e r :
Does m a t te r t hen acqu i re an e ssence , s ince it has som eth in g sa id o f it in it se lf?. Th is i s
n o t t h e c a s e f o r A r i s t o tl e ; h e d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r e x t e n s i o n a s a n a t t r i b u t e o f m a t t e r .
Ex t e n d e d m a t t e r i s n o t m a t t e r p l u s e x t e n s i o n ; e x t e n s i o n i s n o t c o n c e i v e d a s a p r e d i -
c a te w h i c h is r e c e iv e d b y s o m e t h i n g p r i o r t o a n d m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n i ts el f, a s o r t
o f u n e x t e n d e d m a t t e r . F o r A r i s t o tl e , m a t t e r i s i n tr i n si c a ll y s p at ia l , b u t w h e n w e h a v e
s a id t h i s m u c h a b o u t i t, w e h a v e n o t s a i d a n y t h i n g a b o u t w h a t i t is . S p a t ia l it y o r
e x t e n s io n d o e s n o t r e v e a l t h e n a t u r e o f u n d e r l y i n g m a t t e r . I t te lls u s n o t h i n g a b o u t
i t . . . . N o m a t e r i a l p r e d i c a t e s c o u l d b e a p p l i e d i f it w e r e n o t e x t e n d e d , b u t e x t e n s io n
i t s e lf is n o t a p r e d i c a t e i n A r i s t o t le ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m a t t e r . ( 2 86 )
S o k o l o w s k i is g e n e r o u s t o p r i m e m a t t e r i n d e f e n d i n g i t a g a i n s t o b j e ct i on s
t h a t e x t e n s i o n is n o t i n t r in s i c t o it . B u t e v e n s o, h e r e c o g n i z e s t h a t e x t e n s i o n
is n o t t h e e s s e n c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r . I n a s e n s e, t h e a t t r i b u t e o f b e i n g e x -
t e n d e d h a s t h e s a m e l i m i ta t io n s a s t h e a t t r i b u t e o f b e i n g p o t e n t ia l l y s o m e -
,6 ,,Matter, Elements and Substance in Aristotle, Journa l o f the His tory o f Phi losophy 8 (1970):
963-88, esp. 277ff.
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t h i n g: i t s e e m s t o r e q u i r e s o m e f u r t h e r s p e c if i ca t io n as a g r o u n d . T o b e
p o t e n t i a l l y F s e e m s t o r e q u i r e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t b e a c t u a l ly G , w h e r e G is s o m e
s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t y w h i c h m i g h t b e a p t t o b e c o m e F. S i m i la r ly , t o b e e x-
t e n d e d s e e m s t o p r e s u p p o s e h a v i n g s o m e a t t r i b u t e G w h i c h it s e l f c a n b e
d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h s p a c e. T h u s , i t m a k e s s e n se t o s ay t h a t N e w t o n i a n m a t -
t e r i s e s s e n t ia l l y e x t e n d e d b e c a u s e i t h a s m a s s . I t m a k e s s e n s e t o s a y o f t h e
e l e m e n t h y d r o g e n t h a t i t is p o t e n t i a l l y w a t e r b e c a u s e i t ha s a c e r t a in v a l e n c e
w h i c h i n t u r n is t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f i ts a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e . B u t it d o e s n o t
m a k e s e n s e t o s a y t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r is e s se n t i a ll y e x t e n d e d o r e s se n ti a ll y t h e
p o t e n c y t o b e o n e o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s i f w e c a n n o t a s c r ib e t o i t s o m e b as ic
a t t r i b u t e a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f w h i c h i t h a s t h o s e o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s .
I f A r i s t o t l e h a d w a n t e d t o d e f e n d p r i m e m a t t e r b y s a y i n g t h a t it w a s
e s s e n ti a l ly e x t e n d e d , h e c o u l d h a v e s a i d so . I n f a c t , w h a t h e d o e s i s t o s a y
t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r i s n e v e r f o u n d b y i t se lf . I n s t e a d o f s t r e s si n g th e s u b s ta n t i -
a l it y o f p r i m e m a t t e r , h e e m p h a s i z e s t h a t i t is i n s u b s t a n t ia l . I t w o u l d b e
i n t e r e s t in g t o d e v e l o p a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p r i m e m a t t e r a l o n g t h e l in e s
s u g g e s t e d b y C o h e n , w h i c h m i g h t w e ll p r o v i d e a c o h e r e n t a n d a t t r a c t i v e
a c c o u n t ; b u t i t w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a r e v i s i o n a r y p r o p o s a l , n o t A r i s t o t le s c o n -
s i d e re d r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o b l e m o f Gen . Corr . a . 3 . A r i s t o t l e g o e s s o f a r a s t o
i n d ic a t e w h y p r i m e m a t t e r c o u l d n o t h a v e a c h a r a c t e r o f i ts o w n . H e a r g u e s
t h a t i f t h e r e w e r e a s in g l e ( i n d e p e n d e n t ) m a t t e r o f th e e l e m e n t s , i t w o u l d
d e t e r m i n e t h e m a ll e i t h e r t o b e h e a v y o r l i g h t Cael. 4 . 5 . 3 x 2 b ~ o - a 3 ) . B u t
s in c e s o m e a r e h e a v y a n d s o m e l i g ht , th is c a n n o t b e . O n e o f t h e c a n d i d a t e s
f o r i n d e p e n d e n t m a t t e r h e n a m e s is m e g e t h o s - - e x t e n s i o n . T h u s i t a p p e a r s
t h a t t h e d i s p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s e f f e c t iv e l y r u l es o u t a
c o m m o n n a t u r e f o r p r i m e m a t t e r : f o r t h e y h a v e n o p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e s i n
c o m m o n a n d t h u s t h e m a t t e r c a n n o t h a v e a n y ph y si ca l a t tr ib u te s . W e r e
e x t e n s i o n a p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e c o n s t i t u t i v e o f m a t t e r , i t w o u l d l i m i t t h e p o t e n -
t ia li ty f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s . 17
W e g e t a g l im p s e o f t h e d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n A r i s t o te l ia n p r i m e m a t t e r
a n d e s s en t ia l ly e x t e n d e d m a t t e r b y c o m p a r i n g A r i s to t le w it h D e s c a r te s . F o r
D e s c a r t e s , m a t t e r is e s s e n t ia l l y e x t e n d e d . S i n c e m a t t e r h a s i ts o w n e s s e n c e, it
c a n e x i s t i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y h i g h e r- l e v e l su b s t an c e s . I n f a ct , D e s c a r t es
,7 Th e mo st interesting kind o f revisionary account w oul d be one attributing not just
extendedness but a certain quantity of extension to prime m atter. This quantity could then
form the basis of a law of conservation of m atter. Note, however, how difficult the law would be
for Aristotle to conceive; since two elements are heavy and two are light, and o f each pa ir one is
extremely heavy/light while the other is moderately heavy/light, the quantity in question have to
be deter min ed independently of weight. Th us Aristotle would have to come up with a concept
of mass; yet the m odern not ion of mass as a measure of
inertia
wou ld be extraordinarily difficult
to handle in Aristotelian physics.
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JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 5 :4 OCT
1 9 8 7
s p e a k s a s i f b o d i e s w e r e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f a n i n f in i te l y e x t e n d e d m a t t e r a n d
t h u s d e p e n d e n t s o f m a t t e r , w h e r e a s f o r A r i s to t le p r i m e m a t t e r is u n t h i n k -
a b l e a p a r t f r o m t h e e l e m e n t s . D e s c a r t e s t e n d s t o r e if y e x t e n s i o n '8 a n d t o
t h i n k o f it a s a n a d e q u a t e g r o u n d f o r a ll p h y s ic a l p r o p e r t i e s , f o r w h i c h
e x t e n s i o n h o l d s t h e p r o m i s e o f a q u a n t i t a t i v e d e r i v a t i o n . A r i s to t le , o n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , s e es t h e b a si c p o w e r s e x h i b i t e d b y t h e e l e m e n t s a s t a ct il e c h a r a c -
t er is ti cs , a n d h e n c e a s q u a l i t i e s - w h i c h c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d q u a n t i t a t iv e l y
G e n . C o r r . ~ . 2 ) . T h u s D e s c a r t e s d i ff e r s f r o m A r i s to t le in tw o f u n d a m e n t a l
w a y s: f o r D e s c a r t e s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o d y a n d m a t t e r is s o m e t h i n g l ik e
t h a t b e t w e e n p a r t a n d w h o l e w h i l e f o r A r i s to t l e i t is t h a t b e t w e e n a c o m p o -
s it e s u b s t a n c e a n d its s u b s t r a t u m ; a n d f o r D e s c a r t e s t h e re l a t i o n is d e t e r -
m i n e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y w h i le f o r A r i s t o t le i t is d e t e r m i n e d q u a l i t a ti v e ly a n d
c a t e g o ri a l ly . B y a s s i g n i n g m a t t e r a n e s s e n c e o f i ts o w n , D e s c a r te s c o n s t i t u te s
it a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t t y p e o f s u b s t a n c e . B y a s s i g n in g it a n e s s e n c e f r o m w h a t
A r i s t o t l e w o u l d c al l t h e c a t e g o r y o f q u a n t i ty , h e g r o u n d s p h y s ic s i n q u a n t i t a -
t iv e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . A n d f in a ll y b y a v o i d i n g s t r o n g v e rt ic a l f o r m - m a t t e r
d i st in c t i o ns i n b o d y - - a n d a ls o b y r u l i n g o u t p h e n o m e n a l p r o p e r t i e s as n o n -
p h y s i c a l - - h e s a v es h i m s e l f f r o m h a v i n g t o e x p l a i n p r o p e r t i e s e m e r g i n g
f r o m a c h a ra c t e r le s s s u b s t r a t u m .
O f c o u r s e D e s c a r te s d o e s n o t b an i s h p h e n o m e n a l o r s e c o n d a r y q u a l i t i e s - -
h e s i m p l y a s si g n s t h e m t o t h e r e a l m o f s o u l. T h i s p a v e s t h e w a y f o r a r a d i c a l
d u a l i s m o f s u b s t a n c e t y p e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e d u a l i s m w e d o n o t c al l D e s c a r t e s
a m a t e r i a l i s t . B u t f o r A r i s t o t l e h is m o v e is a m a t e r ia l i s ti c m o v e , a n d t h e
r e s u l t i n g t h e o r y i s m u c h t o o m a t e ri a li s ti c t o b e s a ti s fa c to r y . F r o m a n A r i st o -
t e l ia n p e r s p e c t i v e , C a r t e s i a n m a t t e r s e e m s t o b e g i v e n a l i fe o f its o w n a p a r t
f r o m f o r m , a n d t h e A r i s t o t e li a n f o c u s o n m i d d l e - s i z e d b i o lo g i ca l o b j e ct s
d i s a p p e a r s i n t o a m e c h a n i s t i c m a t e r i a l i s m o n t h e o n e s i de , o p p o s e d b y a
d e t a c h e d i d e a l i s m o f so u l o n t h e o t h e r . I n D e s c a r t e s t h e t e n u o u s u n i t y o f
A r i s t o t e l ia n n a t u r a l i s m d i ss o lv e s i n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x t r e m e s A r i s to t l e
o p p o s e d i n t h e P r e s o c r a t i c s a n d P l a t o .
4 .
W h y d i d A r i s t o t l e t r e a t p r i m e m a t t e r a s s o m e t h i n g i n d e t e r m i n a t e i n i t s e l f ? .
O u r p r e v i o u s d i sc u s s io n p r o v i d e s s o m e g r o u n d s f o r a n a n s w e r . I n t h e f ir st
p la c e, w e h a v e n o k n o w l e d g e o f a n y c h a ra c te r is t i c s w h i c h a c c o m p a n y t h a t
:s S ee Louis E. Loeb,
From Descartes to H ume
(Ithaca,
1981 ,
93, who claims that Descartes
tends to identify m aterial substance w ith extension rath er than w ith the subject of extension.
How ever, I think that ultimately the m ost plausible reading ma kes extension an essential pro-
perty o f an underlying subject; see Richard J. B lackwell, D escartes' Concep t of Matter, in E.
M cMullin, ed.,
The C oncept of Matter in M odern Philosophy
(Notre D ame, 19 63), 6o -64 . I t is not
surprising that Descartes should focus on the essence rath er than the subject since the subject
without the essence would be something like a bare p articular.
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T H E P R D O X O F P R I M E M T T E R 89
m a t t e r o f e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f p r i m e m a t t e r w e r e s u p p o se d to
h a v e c e r t a i n c o n s t i t u t iv e c h a r a c t e r i st i c s o f i ts o w n , t h e r e w o u l d b e a d a n g e r
t h a t i t m i g h t t u r n o u t t o b e a n e n t it y w h i ch e x i s te d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f th e
c o n t r a r y p o w e r s . A n d i f i t d i d e x is t i n d e p e n d e n t l y , p r i m e m a t t e r w o u l d
p r o v e t o b e a s u b s t a n c e m o r e b a s ic t h a n t h e e l e m e n t s , w h i c h c o n t r a d i c ts
A r i s t o tl e 's i n t u i t i o n t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s a r e b a s ic . M o r e o v e r , p r i m e m a t t e r
w o u l d b e m y s t e r i o u s - - i t w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a s u b s ta n c e o f w h ic h w e c o u l d
h a v e n o a c q u a i n t a n c e . T h e s e s c i e nt if ic a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
p r o v i d e a s t r o n g p r e s u m p t i o n a g a in s t r e i fy i n g p r i m e m a t t e r . B u t a s w e h a v e
s e en , t h e r e i s a m o r e c o m p e l l i n g m e t a p h y s i c al p r e s u m p t i o n a g a in s t p r i m e
m a t t e r . F o r o n t h e g i v e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r i m e m a t t e r w o u l d p r o v e t o b e
i n d e p e n d e n t o f h i g h e r - l e v e l e n ti t ie s a n d i n v i r t u e o f i ts u l t im a c y w o u l d b e a
s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t o r f o r t h e t it le o f p r i m a r y s u b s t a n c e - - t h r e a t e n i n g t o c ol -
l a p s e A r i s t o t l e ' s i d e a l i s t i c m e t a p h y s i c s i n t o a m a t e r i a l i s m .
F r o m a n o t h e r p o i n t o f v ie w th e p a r a d o x o f p r im e m a t t e r m a y b e se e n to
r e s u l t f r o m a t e n s i o n i n A r i st o tl e 's c r i te r i a o f r e al it y . O n t h e o n e h a n d r e a l it y
is a f u n c t i o n o f d e t e r m i n a c y a n d c o n c r e t e n e s s : t o b e is t o b e a ' th i s' , a
p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g ? 9 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d r e a li ty c o ns is ts in b e i n g a s u b j e c t f o r
p r e d i c a t i o n s , b u t n e v e r a p r e d i c a t e ? ~ A s o n e a p p r o a c h e s t h e l im i ts o f b e i n g
i n d e s c e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e c h a i n o f b e i n g t o s i m p l e s u b s ta n c e , t h e su b s t a n ce s
b e c o m e m o r e r e a l o r a t le a s t n o l es s r e a l a s s u b j e ct s ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e th e y
b e c o m e l es s r e a l as d e t e r m i n a t e p a r t ic u l a r s . A t t h e p o i n t w h e r e o n e m e e t s
p r i m e m a t t e r t h e d i v e r g e n c e h a s b e c o m e c o m p l e t e . P r i m e m a t t e r is b o t h a n
u l t i m a t e l y r e a l s u b s t r a t u m a n d a n u l t i m a t e l y u n r e a l p a r t i c u la r .
T h e p r o b l e m c o n c e r n i n g p r i m e m a t t e r is a p a r a d o x i n t h e s t ro n g lo g ic al
s e n s e t h a t i t y i e ld s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n ( s ee a p p e n d i x ) . T h e i n c o m p a t i b l e p r e -
m i se s t h a t g e n e r a t e t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s e e m t o b e d e e p l y - r o o t e d p ri n c ip l e s o f
A r i s t o tl e 's w o r l d v ie w . O n e w a y t o b l o c k t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n w o u l d b e to r ev i s e
A r i s to t le ' s s c ie n ti fi c a s s u m p t i o n s ; b u t t hi s e x p e d i e n t w o u l d n o t u l t im a t e l y
r e s o lv e t h e t e n s i o n i n A r i st o t le ' s c r it e r i a o f r e al it y . W e m u s t c o n t e m p l a t e a
m o r e r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n o f p r i n c i p l e s to s av e A r i s t o t le n o t o n l y f r o m t h e p a r a -
d o x o f p r i m e m a t t e r , b u t f r o m t h e c au s es o f th e p a r a d o x ? ~
B r i g h a m Y o u n g U n i v e r s i t y
,9 Met.
5.8.1o17b24-26, 7.3.xo~9a27f.
so Met. 5.8.1ot7b~3f; 7.3.1o~9alf; Cat. 5.2al 1-13.
2, M y interpretation of Aristotle's concept o f matter is developed furth er in Graham, Aris-
totle's Discovery (note t3). Versions of this pap er were read at the Io w a Philosophical Society
(Nov., 19 81), the Conference on Aristotle's Metaphysics and Epistemology Florida State U.,Jan.,
1983) and the 17 th W orld Con gress of Philosophy (Mo ntreal, Aug ., 1983), at which I received
helpful sug gestions. I also received constructive criticisms from two anonymou s referees. T he
themes o f th is paper are deal t wi th fur ther in my
Aristotle s Two Systems
(Oxford, 1987).
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.
4 .
~176
A p p e n d i x
D e d u c t i o n o f
T h e P a r a d o x o f P r im e M a t t e r
1. T h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r e v e r y c h a n g e .
Ph.
: - 7- 1 9 o a 3 3 f , b l - 3 )
2 . I n a c h a n g e t h e n e w s t at e o f a f fa i r s c o m e s t o b e d i re c t ly f r o m t h e
s u b s t r a t u m a n d i n d i r e c tl y f r o m t h e p r iv a t io n . Ph. : . 9 . 1 9 2 a 3 : f ; 8 .
1 9 x b a 5 f )
A s u b s t r a t u m i s r e a l ( 0 u s/ a) . Cat. 5 . 2 b 1 5 - : 7 ; c f . Ph. : . 9 . 1 9 2 a s f )
A P r i v a t i o n i s n o t r e a l . Ph. 1 . 9 . 1 9 2 a 5 f )
I n a c h a n g e t h e n e w s t a te o f a f fa i rs c o m e s t o b e d i re c t ly f r o m s o m e -
t h i n g r e a l a n d o n l y in d i r e c t ly f r o m s o m e t h i n g n o t r ea l. (2 ,3 ) Ph. x.8.
1 9 1 b 1 3 - 1 6 )
6 . T h e r e is s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e . ( f a c t)
9 . 7 - T h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r s u b s t a n c e . ( 1, 6)
Ph.
a . 7 . 1 9 o b l - 3 )
8 . T h e s u b s t r a t u m f o r su b s t a n c e i s m a t t e r . ( d ef .) Gen. Corr . 1 . 4 . 3 2 o a 2 f )
9 . 9 . M a t t e r i s r e a l . ( 3 , 8 )
ousian pOs [einai] t~n hyl~n: Ph.
1 . 9 . 1 9 2 a 5 f )
: o . T h e r e i s e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . (f a ct ) Cael . 3 . 6 )
1 1. T h e e l e m e n t s a r e t h e m o s t b a s i c s u b s t a n c e s . ( f ac t) Cael. 3 . 3 )
. 'a 2 . T h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . ( 1 ,1 o ) G en . Corr. 1. 3.
3 1 9 b 2 - 4 ; 2 . 1 . 3 ~ 9 a 2 4 - ~ 6 )
.'.1 3. T h e s u b s t r a t u m f o r e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e i s m a t t e r . (8 , 1 1 ,1 2 ) Gen. Corr.
~ . l . 3 2 9 a 2 4 f )
1 4. T h e s u b s t r a t u m f o r e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e i s p r i m e m a t t e r . ( d e f. ) ( cf . i b id . ,
3 2 9 a 2 9 f )
.'.x 5 . P r i m e m a t t e r i s r e a l . ( 9 , 1 3 , 1 4 )
1 6 . P r i m e m a t t e r h a s n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f it s o w n . ( c f. a l ) (i b i d ., 3 2 9 a 2 5 f )
1 7 . W h a t h a s n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is n o t r e a l. ( a s s u m p t i o n )
m ~ d e n :
i b i d . ,
x . 3 . 3 1 7 b 2 7 - 3 x )
9 a 8 . P r i m e m a t t e r i s n o t r e a l . ( 1 6 , 1 7 )
[ 4 9 0 ]