Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 1: Introduction

What is Harmony? The first three questions in the ABRSM Grade Six Music Theory Exam are all about

harmony - but what exactly do we mean by "harmony"?

When we look at music with our analytical hats on, we can think about it in two

different ways. We can look at if from left to right - this is the melody and rhythm.

Or, we can look at it from top to bottom - this is the harmony.

For example, here are a few bars by Bach from his "O haupt voll Blut und Wunden".

There are 4 melodic lines (or "voices") here, the soprano, alto, tenor and bass.

On each beat of the bar, those four voices combine to make chords. The science of how we combine

notes into chords, and how the chords work together, is called "harmony".

Tonal Harmony

For Grade 6, we are going to study Tonal Harmony. This just means that we're going to focus on the

kinds of chords used by composers from roughly the 17th to the 19th centuries - composers like Bach,

Mozart, Haydn and Schubert.

Grade Six Harmony

In this part of the course we're going to study:

How chords are built

Different naming systems to describe chords

Chord inversions

Chord progressions and cadences

How to choose chords to harmonize a melody (Q.1a in the exam)

How to understand "figured bass" (which is a chord short-hand system)

How to complete a bass line and add a suitable figured bass (Q.1b in the exam)

How to recognise "melodic decoration" (which means notes which aren't part of the main chords)

How to realise a figured bass (Q.2 in the exam)

Grade Six Music Theory Harmony Lesson 2: Triads and Chords

Chords A chord is any group of notes which are played at the same time.

Chords can have any number of notes in them, as long as there is more than one!

Chords can have any combination of notes in them, but our ears usually prefer

listening to chords which are built to the rules of harmony, rather than just a

random selection of notes!

These chords are built according to the rules of "tonal harmony". (Don't worry

about the names of the chords for now!)

C major G minor C# dim 7 Neapolitan 6th

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Whereas these chords were created by my cat walking across my piano keyboard (he's never studied

harmony).

As we just saw, chords built using the rules of tonal harmony have names. There are a few different

methods we can use to decribe chords in words, and we'll take a look at these shortly. Before that, we'll

go back to the basics of how to build chords in tonal harmony - using TRIADS.

Triads

A triad is a 3-note chord. Take a note (call it the "root"), add a third and a fifth above it, and you have

created a triad. (All triads are chords, but not all chords are triads.)

Take a note: We'll take an F:

Add a major third above it: or a minor third:

Add a fifth above it to make a major triad: or a minor triad:

We can also build a triad with a minor 3rd and and a diminished 5th, like this:

This is called a diminished triad.

Scales and Triads

Each scale has a group of triads whose roots are each degree of the scale. Here's the scale of C major,

in triads:

Look at each degree of the major scale and see if it produces a major, minor or diminished triad.

This pattern is the same for all major keys.

Let's do the same with a minor scale - here's the group of triads which exist in A minor:

We normally use the harmonic (not melodic) variety of the scale to work out triads in music theory. But in

practice, triads from the melodic scale will also be common.

! Chord 3 is an augmented triad- rarely used in practice.

Naming Triads

Here are three methods we can use to name triads:

1. We can use the letter name of the root of the triad, and then add either "major", "minor" or "diminished"

(or "augmented") to it.

E.g. C major (or just "C" for short), E minor (or "Em") and B diminished ("B dim").

2. We can use Roman numerals. Each degree of the scale gets a Roman numeral. We use capitals for

major, small letters for minor, and a small circle for diminished. (Augmented chords have a + sign, but

we don't use them in grade 6.)

Major Scales:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I ii iii IV V vi vii

Minor Scales:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

i ii - iv V VI vii

3. We can use the technical name of the degree of the scale, plus major/minor/diminished as needed.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

tonic super tonic mediant sub-dominant dominant sub-mediant leading note

The Roman numeral system is the most useful, because it lets us understand the triad in relation to the

key of the music, and it's a nice, short way of writing triads. Make sure you learn the Roman numerals!

Naming Chords

Triads are very "theoretical" things - we use them a lot when we analyse music, but we don't see them so

often in practice. Triads only have 3 notes, but in real life, chords usually have more than 3 notes. Very

often they have 4 notes, but can have many more.

The most simple kind of 4-note chord is a triad with the root repeated in a higher octave. (Sometimes the

third or fifth of the triad is repeated instead of the root.)

The triad of C major:

The chord of C major:

Chords which contain only the notes which already exist in the triad use the same naming systems as

triads, so this is C major, or I (in the key of C major).

Another kind of 4-note chord is one which has a note added which doesn't exist in the triad, for example

this one:

Here we've got a G major triad, with an F at the top. F is an interval of a 7th above the root, G, so we call

this chord G7, or V7 (in C major). Or we can use the technical name of "dominant seventh" (in C major).

Dominant seventh chords are extremely common. You've probably come across lots of them in your

music making, but in fact for grade six music theory, you only need to be able

to recognise them - you don't have to actually write any ! :)

Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 3: Inversions

Look at the Bass Note We know that triads are built using a root, 3rd and 5th.

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When we built triads in lesson 2 we always wrote the root as the lowest note (or bass note) of the chord.

However, we can choose another note of the triad to use as the bass note, without changing the basic

nature of the triad.

We don't always use the root of the chord as the bass note when harmonizing music, because it tends to

sound quite boring after a while.

When a chord's lowest note is not its root, we say the chord is inverted (like, turned upside down).

Let's look at inversions in more detail. We'll use the C major triad, to make things easier.

Root Position

The root of C major is C. When the root is the lowest note in the chord, we say the chord is in root

position.

In the Roman numeral system, we write the letter "a" to show a chord is in root position. For example, "Ia"

means a tonic chord with the root as the lowest note.

Root position chords are extremely common.

First Inversion

Let's change the order of the notes so that the lowest note, or "bass note" is an E. We are using the third

of the triad, instead of the root.

In Roman numerals, we write "b" to show 1st inversion. "Ib" means a tonic chord with the third of the triad

in the bass.

First inversion chords are quite common.

Second Inversion

When we put the 5th of the triad as the bass note, we have a second inversion chord.

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In Roman numerals, we write "c" to show 2nd inversion. "Ic" means a tonic chord with the 5th of the triad

in the bass.

! Second inversion chords are quite rare. We don't normally use 2nd inversions, except in special

circumstances, for example, the "cadential 6/4". NEVER use a 2nd inversion chord unless you are sure

you know what you're doing.

The Order of the Other Notes

When you're thinking about inversions, the only note you need to worry about is the bass note. It is the

bass note which tells you which inversion a chord is in.

er order suits them best.

So, for a c major triad in root position we can find:

In 1st inversion:

In 2nd inversion:

Third Inversion

Chords with an added 7th have another possible inversion: 3rd inversion, or "d". Here's G7 (the dominant

7th in the key of C) in its four positions:

You need to be able to recognise third inversion chords at grade 6, but you don't have to write any!

Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 4: Chord

Progressions

What is Chord Progression? The way we place chords next to each other is called "chord progression".

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There is, of course, an infinite number of patterns of chord progressions, but there are also lots of

"standard" patterns which our ears are very used to hearing.

Some chords sound extra-good when placed in certain progressions, so it's useful to learn what these

progessions are.

We most often find "standard" progressions at the end of a phrase, or the end of a piece. Progressions at

the end of a phrase or piece are called "cadences". We already studied cadences at grade 5, so pop back

there to refresh your memory before continuing here.

Standard progressions also happen at non-cadence points in music. One very common pattern is called

the "progression of 5ths".

In this lesson you'll find an introduction to:

Perfect, imperfect and plagal cadences

The progression of fifths

The passing six-four and the cadential six-four

The V-VI progression

You'll also start to understand about voice leading - which means working out which voice (e.g. bass,

tenor, alto or soprano) should sing/play which note of the chord (no, it's not totally random!)

Cadences

Cadences which occur at the end of a piece of music are nearly always either V-I (called a "perfect

cadence") or IV-I (called a "plagal cadence"). Of these two, the perfect cadence is much more common.

In real life, you could see other progressions at the end of a piece. But in the Grade Six Music Theory

Exam, you will always be expected to end a piece with one of these two cadences.

(A piece ends with a double barline - sometimes you might get a question which ends with a single

barline - in that case it's not the actual end of the piece and so might not be a perfect or plagal cadence.)

Cadences which occur at the end of a phrase often, but not always, end on chord V (always major, even

in a minor key). These are known as "imperfect" cadences.

Perfect Cadences

In perfect cadences, the bass line falls by a fifth (or rises by a fourth) and the chords are in root position.

So, the perfect cadence is Va - Ia.

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Notice the voice leading - see how:

the bass root rises by a fourth or falls by a fifth

the doubled root of V, (G in this example), does not move - it becomes the 5th of I

the 3rd of V, (B in this example), rises to the tonic of I

the 5th of V, (D in this example), rises to the 3rd of I

Plagal Cadences

In plagal cadences, the bass line falls by a fourth (or rises by a fifth) and the chords are usually in root

position. The plagal cadence is IVa - Ia.

Notice the voice leading - see how:

the bass root rises by a 5th, or falls by a 4th

the doubled root falls to the 3rd of I

the 3rd of IV falls to the 5th of I

the 5th of IV does not move and becomes the doubled tonic of I

Imperfect Cadences

At the end of a questioning phrase (not at the end of a piece) we often hear an "imperfect cadence". This

is any progession which ends up on a dominant, chord V. The most common imperfect cadences are:

I-V

ii-V

IV-V

VI-V

Chords I, ii, IV and VI can also be used in the first inversion.

As we'll see, ii and II lead us to V in the progression of 5ths.

Listen to some imperfect cadences:

Notice the voice leading - see how:

all chord notes except the bass move by the smallest possible step.

if a note occurs in both chords (e.g. D in the first example), keep it in the same part (soprano

here).

other notes move by semitone, tone or third. Don't use larger intervals.

The Progression of Fifths

As you know, lots of music ends with a V-I (or i) cadence. This is because the notes in the V chord have a

very strong "pull" towards those in a I chord.

For example, in the key of C major the chords V-I are G major - C major. The B in G major has a strong

pull towards the tonic C. The semitone interval creates this strong pull.

Chord V is called the "dominant" for this reason - it's the most important chord after the tonic.

The 7th degree of the scale is called the "leading note" for the same reason - it feels like it leads

somewhere, and the note it leads to is the tonic. We say that the leading note resolves to the tonic,

because our ears feel satisfied when we hear the tonic played after the leading note.

So, chord I is most strongly related to chord V, its fifth .

In fact, every chord has a very strong connection with the chord which is a fifth higher. So, a chord of G

has a strong link with the chord of D. In C major, D is chord ii (minor, not major), but that's ok - the link is

still strong whether it's a major or a minor chord.

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So far we have have discovered that the following chords have a dominant-tonic relationship: I-V-ii

We can carry on in the same way, until we've used up all the triads of C major:

We now have the complete cycle of the progression of fifths . All we need to do now is reverse the

order, so that each "dominant" chord resolves to its "tonic":

Progression of Fifths: I - IV - vii - iii - vi - ii - V - I

Here's an easy way to remember the order of chords:

Write down these numbers: 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 backwards, leaving a big gap between each number:

Then write the numbers 5 - 6 - 7 between those numbers, also backwards, and finish off by writing the

Roman numerals below each number:

You will almost never see the whole series of fifths in use in one go. Usually just 2 or 3 chords taken from

it at one time, for example, you might see vi - ii - V, or ii - V - I.

The Cadential 6-4

Often, the perfect cadence is stretched over three chords, in what's known as a "cadential 6-4". (See the

lesson on figured bass for why!)

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The cadential 6-4 progression uses the chords Ic - Va - Ia.

This is one of the very few occasions when you are allowed to use a second inversion (c) chord. (The

inversions are very important here).

The bass note in chords Ic and Va is the same (in C major, for example, the bass note will be G in both

chords).

The effect is that the bass stands still for a moment, while the chord above it changes. This "powers up"

the bass note - our ears are expecting something important to happen - and when we finally hear the root

position tonic chord Ia, with the bass dropping solidly by a 5th, our ears (and brains) feel satisfied.

Listen to a cadential 6-4 - pay particular attention to the bass line:

Tip! Always see if you can use a cadential 6-4 at the end of a piece in your grade six exam. They are not

always possible, but if they work, they are great!

To use a cadential 6-4 correctly, you must be careful that

the tonic of the Ic chord resolves to the 3rd of the Va chord

the 3rd of the Ic chord resolves to the 5th of the Va chord

the 5th (bass note) of the Ic chord becomes the tonic of the Va chord, i.e. the bass line keeps the

same note in Ic-Va.

The Passing 6-4

The passing 6-4 is another progression where you are allowed to use a second inversion (6-4) chord.

Unlike the cadential 6-4 where the bass note stays the same, in a passing 6-4 the bass moves by step.

The second inversion chord falls on a weak beat of the bar.

Look at this passing 6-4 and notice that

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the bass line moves by step - C-D-E

the second inversion chord (Vc) falls on a weak (middle) beat

the other parts move by the smallest possible steps

V-VI Progression in Minor Keys

Finally, we'll take a look at a progression which is very common in minor keys. The V-VI progression is a

little bit special, because you have to break one of the general rules of harmony in order to use it!

The most important rule in harmony is that you don't write consecutive fifths or octaves. You must never

write consecutives. What are consecutives? Find out here.

The rule which this progression breaks is "never double a major third" in root position chords. You'll learn

more about the rules of harmony later, but if you want to check out this rule right now, read the passage

on doubling in the rules of harmony.

In the Va-VIa progression, if you want to avoid writing a consecutive fifth or octave, you have to double a

major third.

Here's an example - the key is A minor.

Chord V is E major, so there is a fifth between the E and B of the chord. Chord VI is F major, with a fifth

between F and C.

In Va-VIa, the bass E has to move to bass F, G# is the leading note, so it moves to A. The B would

logically move to a C, because it's a semitone step, but that would make a consecutive 5th with the bass,

so we move it to A instead. The soprano E again would normally move by semitone step to F, but that

would make a consecutive octave with the bass, so it has to move to C instead. These are the only legal

moves, and the end result is a chord of F with two As - which is a major third above the root F.

Why is this just for minor keys? Because in major keys, chord vi is minor. In minor keys, chord VI is major.

It's ok to double a minor 3rd in a root position chord, but not a major one!

Don't worry if all this sounds a bit too confusing for now! The important thing to remember is that there are

some progressions which require special treatment. Keep that in the back of your mind, and when you

start doing harmonisations and find yourself getting stuck, come back to this page and see if it makes a

bit more sense!

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Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 5: Melodic

Decoration

What is Melodic Decoration?echa There are several ways that we can make a harmonic line more interesting - liven

it up a little - so that it doesn't sound like a boring, simple progression of chords.

The different techniques we can use to do this are, as a group, called "melodic

decoration", and can be found in any of the harmonic lines.

Notes which form part of the melodic decoration are also known as "non-chord" notes, because they are

not part of the actual chord chosen for the harmony.

Look at these bars taken from a Bach Chorale BWV 2.6. The first score shows the "bare bones" harmony

- each chord is spelled out using the notes you would expect, with one chord per beat.

Bach added some melodic decoration to this harmonisation, making it a lot more interesting. Can you

spot the differences?

Each type of melodic decoration has a name. You'll need to learn the names and how to recognise the

decorations in a piece of music. For grade 6, you don't need to actually write any melodic decorations.

But, you will see them, both in the harmonisation questions and in the general knowledge section

(questions 4 & 5).

Types of Melodic Decoration

These are the types of melodic decoration or ("non-chord notes") you need to know about for Grade VI

Theory:

Passing notes (accented, unaccented, chromatic & harmonic)

Auxiliary notes

Changing notes

Anticipations

Suspensions

Retardations

Pedals (tonic & dominant)

Non-chord notes can be either accented or unacc ented .

Non-chord Notes

1. Passing Notes

A passing note falls in between two different chord notes. For example, the notes C and E are both part

of the C major chord, so they are both chord notes. They are a third apart. The D (marked *) falls between

them, so it is a passing note .

Passing notes can be harm onic or chromatic .

Harmonic passing notes are notes that naturally occur in the key of the piece, like in the previous

example. They usually happen when the two chord notes are a third (major or minor) apart.

Chromatic passing notes have an accidental added because they don't occur naturally in the key of the

piece. For example, this passing note is C# - it falls between the two chord notes C and D. Chromatic

passing notes usually happen when the two chord notes are a major second apart.

The passing notes above are unaccented , because they fall on a weak beat of the bar (between two

chords). Passing notes which fall on a strong beat are called accented passing notes. Compare the

following with the first example - this time the D is sounded on the strong beat - at the same time as the

second chord. This time it's an accented passing note.

It's possible to have more than one passing note - the chord notes G - C here are filled in with two

passing notes, A (unaccented) and B (accented).

2. Auxiliary Notes (also called "Neighbour Notes")

An auxiliary note falls between two chord notes which are the same. It can be higher or lower than the

chord note, and it can be chromatically altered (have an accidental).

Auxiliary notes can be either accented or unaccented, just like passing notes.

3. Changing Notes (Cambiata & Echappee)

There are two types of changing note.

The first type falls between two notes which are often a fourth apart:

Look at the soprano line. The notes G-D are a fourth apart, and the changing note, F, falls between them.

It's not a passing note, because passing notes always move by step. This kind of changing note is also

called the cambiata .

The cambiata moves down by step (from G-F), then falls by a third in the same direction (F-D). The next

note (E) is then a step upwards (D-E). This kind of decoration was more common in Renaissance music

(1400-1600).

Try to learn it as down 2nd, down 3rd, up 2nd .

The second type of changing note falls outside of the two chord notes:

Look at the soprano line. B and G are chord notes. The C is the changing note. This kind of changing

note is also called the Echappee .

The Echappee moves by step in one direction (B-C) and then by a leap in the opposite direction (C-G), or

vice-versa.

Try to learn it as step one way, leap the other . This kind of decoration was more common in Baroque

music (1600-1750).

4. Anticipations

An anticipation happens when we write a chord note earlier than expected - in the beat before the rest of

the chord sounds. Here, the B is part of the G major chord. The G major chord is sounded on the 2nd

beat, but the B is sounded earlier, on the half beat before, so it is an anticipation . Anticpations are

approached by a downwards motion (e.g the C falls to B).

The B is not part of the C major chord, even though it is heard at the same time. For this reason, it is a

non-chord note.

5. Suspensions

Suspensions are the opposite of anticipations. A suspension happens when we write a chord note later

than expected - during the beat after the rest of the chord sounds. In this example, the B doesn't sound

immediately with the rest of the G major chord - instead, the C from the C major chord is held on for a

little longer, and then falls to the B half a beat after the G major chord has sounded. The C is not part of

the G major chord, so it is a non-chord note. The C is a suspension .

6. Retardations

Retardations are a type of suspension. In the example of a suspension above, the C resolved

downwards to B. In a retardation , the non-chord note resolves upwards.

Here the A resolves upwards to B.

7. Pedals

A pedal is when either the tonic or dominant note is played continuously, while the chords in the other

voices change. Pedals normally occur in the bass, (but it is possible to find them in any of the other

voices too). The pedal note is either held on for a long time, or repeated several times. Here's a tonic

pedal:

And here's a dominant pedal:

Pedals which happen in the melody line are called "inverted" pedals.

Non-Chord Notes in Action

Let's look again at the Bach extract at the top of this page, and try to work out some of the melodic

decorations he used.

Note Type Reason

1. F

natural

Harmonic,

unaccented

passing note

F natural is part of the scale of G minor, so it's harmonic. It

falls on the second quaver, so it's unaccented. It falls between

two different chord notes, G and E flat*, so it's a passing note.

2. D " " As above.

3. C Harmonic, This time the passing note falls on the first quaver of the pair -

accented passing

note.

on the strong beat, so it's an accented passing note.

4. D Auxiliary note The D is between the two C sharps, so it's an auxiliary note.

5. F

Harmonic,

unaccented

passing note

F is part of the scale of G minor, so it's harmonic. It falls on the

second quaver, so it's unaccented. It falls between two

different chord notes, G and E*, so it's a passing note.

*Don't forget that the melodic minor version of the scale uses both E and E flat, and F natural and F

sharp, because the note series is different on the way down.

Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 6: Harmonising a Melody (1)

Your Task at Grade Six Now we have looked at the basics of chords and chord progressions, it's time to start looking at how they are

used in action - how to harmonise a melody.

This lesson teaches you how to answer Question 1(a) in the ABRSM grade six music theory exam paper.

Here's a short melody in C minor (based on Bach's "Jesu, Jesu du bist mein"):

Your task, at grade six, is to indicate ONE chord at each of the places marked * to accompany the

melody.

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In this question, you don't have to do a full harmonization - PHEW! You don't have to write out each of

the separate lines for alto, tenor and bass.

Instead, you have to suggest chords with inversions for each beat of a melody. (This is similar to the

grade five question on cadences; it's a bit harder because it's longer, and you also have to say which

inversion each chord is in.)

Write down your chords:

as Roman numerals,

with the small a, b or c to indicate the inversion

- that's all. (If you want, you can write all the actual chord notes on the staves, but we don't recommend

this method.)

Harmonising a melody with Roman numerals is an optional question in grade 6 theory. If you prefer, you

can create a bass line from a melody instead, using figured bass. We suggest you practise both questions

at first, and then focus on the one you find easier.

So let's get started!

Each step is detailed with bullet points. An example for each step is given in a shaded box

like this one.

Step 1: Key and Triads

Work out the key of the piece. (If you see accidentals making a sharpened leading note, it will be

minor. If there are no accidentals, sing the melody through in your head and determine which

note is the tonic.)

Write out and label all the triads for that key. This will help you avoid mistakes.

If it's in a minor key, don't forget to sharpen the leading note in triads V and vii; and you can

safely ignore chord III - you don't need to use it in grade six.

Our question has three flats. It's C minor , because there is a B natural in there. Here are the triads in

C minor:

Step 2: Identify Possible Chords

Use the table you wrote out at the beginning.

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For each note marked *, write down the three possible chords it can be included in. (We'll choose

the best chord later. For now, mark down all the possibilities.)

Note: we don't use chords with added 7ths at this stage in grade 6, so each chord is a basic triad.

In a minor key, the mediant, dominant and leading notes will only have 2 possible chords, not 3,

because we avoid using chord III.

Don't write any triads for non-chord notes.

Here are the triads we could use with each of the notes in this melody. For example, the first G can be

used with chords i, III or V. We don't use chord III at grade 6, so don't bother listing it!

You don't need to write any triads for the quaver D in bar 2 because it's a non-chord note.

Step 3: Do the Cadences

Remember that we find standard cadences at the end of a phrase or a piece. Because of this, when we

harmonise a melody it's actually easier to start the end!

Check the end of the piece - if there is a double barline , it's finished. It will end on chord I (or i),

and will be a perfect or plagal cadence.

If there isn't a double barline, it will probably be an imperfect cadence (ending on chord V).

Our melody does have a double barline at the end, so we can be sure it finishes on chord i. Cross out

the other options for the last note.

Now look at the last but one note. This note forms part of the cadence. Which cadence should

you use? Look at your options and choose the chord which forms part of a recognised cadence -

perfect, plagal or imperfect.

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We can choose from triads V, ii or vii. Only chord V is possible, making a perfect cadence. We now

have the final two chords:

Check the middle of the piece - very often there will also be a cadence about half way through.

You can spot a cadence because the music will pause momentarily and a longer note will be

used (on a strong beat).

Look at your available chords, and choose the most likely cadence, using the same process as

before.

The minim D in bar 2 is part of a cadence, so we'll choose chord V to make it an imperfect cadence.

The quaver Eb can be part of chord i or VI, and both of them are acceptable in an imperfect cadence.

We'll pick chord i for now - but be prepared to change it later if necessary!

Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 7:

Harmonising a Melody (2)

Step 4: Chords & Inversions: Creating a Bassline

When you decide which inversions of each chord to use, you are in fact creating a bass line.

The inversion of a chord tells you which note is in the bass - so each time you pick an inversion to use,

you are creating the next note of the bass line.

In the grade 6 exam, in question 1(a), you don't have to write out the bass line at all - does that sound like

a relief? Well in fact, it's not such a good thing! You still have to know what your bass line looks like and

how it functions harmonically, whether you write it out or not; and it's much easier to spot mistakes when

you are looking at actual notes rather than just Roman numerals.

We strongly recommend writing out the notes of your bass line in order to avoid serious errors. (You

can rub them out before you hand in your exam paper!)

Take a look at some of the rules you have to follow:

Rules

Your bass line must not break these basic rules of harmony:

No consecutive fifths

No consecutive octaves

No exposed (or "hidden") fifths or octaves

No leaps of a diminished or augmented interval

Second inversion chords can only be used as part of a cadential 6-4 or a passing 6-4

The range of the bass line should be

The bass line must, of course, fit the notes of the chord you've chosen.

Click on the links to learn more about these rules, then come back to this page when you're ready. (Don't

worry if you can't remember everything just yet - practise makes perfect!)

Guidelines

You can use either the root or the third of the chord in the bass. This means you can use root position

(a) or first inversion (b) chords.

Root position chords are stronger (more stable) than first inversions, so always use root position chords

at a cadence.

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Try to use "contrary motion" in relation to the melody line. That means if the melody line goes up, then the

bass line goes down, and vice versa. Don't worry if you can't always manage contrary motion, but you

should always aim towards it!

It's important to realise that there isn't only one right answer when harmonising a melody. You can choose

whichever chords you like the sound of, as long as you don't break any rules. Bach himself often

harmonised the same melody in lots of different ways, just for fun!

You can only use the 5th of the chord in the bass (second inversion or "c" chord) in a cadential or passing

6-4 - be careful! In the following instructions, we won't try to include second inversion chords. Try them for

yourself only when you feel confident to do so! There are some instructions at the bottom of this page.

How to Choose Chords and Inversions or "Writing the Bass Line"

Here are the triads in order of how common they are, (e.g. I is the most commonly used chord, but iii is

quite rare), and then the triads which most frequently follow them (e.g. chord iii is almost always followed

by chord vi, but chord I can be followed by any chord at all).

Any chord can also be followed by the same chord, as long as it's in a different inversion. For example, Ia

is often followed by Ib.

Major Key Signatures

I any chord

V I, vi

IV I, V, ii, vi

ii I, V

vi ii, V, IV

viio I

iii vi, IV

Minor Key Signatures

i V, iv, ii?, VI

V i, VI

iv i, V

iio i, V

VI i, iv, V

viio i

iii+ avoid

Using the table above, and what we know about common chord progressions, let's get to work and pick

some chords for our melody.

Start with the first note. Choose a chord from the three you noted down, and pick the inversion:

root position or 1st inversion. Start by choosing the most common chord i.e. Ia, if possible. (You

can change it later if you need to).

Lightly pencil in the bass note. (We say "lightly", because you'll probably end up doing a lot of

rubbing out!)

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For the next note, there are 4 or 6 possible chords (two or three chords x two inversions). Go

through each possibility and eliminate chords which break the rules and don't follow the

guidelines . (If all the chords break rules/guidelines you'll need to go back and choose a different

first chord).

You need to check each possible chord against the previous one , looking for consecutives and

illegal intervals.

From your "good" chords, choose the most likely chord. The primary triads are I, IV and V.

Repeat for each note of the melody.

If you find yourself "stuck" i.e. all the chords break rules, you'll need to go back one step and

choose a different chord. Double check that the new chord doesn't break any rules!

It's ok to have a little bit of similar motion - but try to avoid it as much as possible!

Chord 2

Here are our 6 choices for the second chord:

ia - repeat of the first chord - not a great choice

ib - similar motion - not a great choice

iva - consecutive 5ths - not allowed

ivb - good choice

VIa - good choice

VIb - bassline doesn't change - not a great choice

ivb is a primary triad - so let's choose that one. (You could choose VIa if you prefer.)

Chord 3

We have only 4 choices for chord 3, because we don't use III+ in grade 6:

Va - similar motion.

Vb - not allowed for two reasons: Ab to B in the bass is an augmented 2nd, and there would be a

doubled major third/leading note.

viia - not allowed because diminished chords are only normally used in the first inversion, and you

may not double the leading note.

viib - not allowed because the bass would move by an illegal augmented 4th.

Although Va gives us similar motion, it's the only chord which is allowed, so that's the one we'll use.

Chord 4

ia - similar motion.

ib - low Eb is extremely low, and high Eb involves a big leap and similar motion. Not a great choice.

iva/b - the progression V-iv is not recommended (see the table above)

VIa - similar motion

VIb - similar motion (note that the doubled major third is allowed in a V-VI progression)

We'll choose ia, because it's the most common chord.

Chord 5

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iia - ii is diminished, so it should only be used in the first inversion.

iib - ok with a low F in the bass

Va - ok with a low G in the bass

Vb - ok

viia - not allowed in root position

viib - similar motion

We've got three potential chords - iib, Va and Vb. We are also just about to arrive at the cadence

we've already put in. So, we need to check our chords not only against chord 4, but also against

chord 6 (ia):

iib - ok but bass line seems to jump about a bit too much

Va - ok, but the bass line would be a repetitive G-C-G-C-G!

Vb - good - the bass line moves by step, the leading note B in the Vb chord will resolve on to the tonic

in ia.

Choice: Vb. We'll put in the bass notes of the cadences too:

Chord 8

After a cadence, a new phrase starts. Moving by step and in contrary motion from the previous chord

is less important here.

ia - ok.

ib - large leap in the bass.

VIa - consecutive 5ths - not allowed.

VIb - large leap in the bass.

Choice: ia.

Chord 9

ia - repeat of previous chord

ib - ok

iva - ok

ivb - similar motion

VIa - similar motion

VIb - cannot double the major third - not allowed

I'm going to choose ib, because I prefer the bass line it creates.

Chord 10

iva - not allowed as it creates an exposed octave

ivb - ok

iia - not allowed as it's diminished

iib - exposed octave again

viia - not allowed as it's diminished

viib - ok

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I haven't used a chord vii yet, so let's use one now for the sake of variety. (A vii chord functions like

V7 aurally.) Choice: viib.

Chord 11

Chord vii should only resolve to chord i. (See table above.)

ia - similar motion

ib - ok (it's ok to double a minor third)

Choice: ib

Chord 12

As before, we should consider this chord not only in relation to chord 11, but also to chord 13 in the

cadence.

Va - chord 13 is Va, so it's a repeat.

Vb - the bass cannot move by a diminished 4th here. (A diminished 4th is a dissonance; the note

which follows a dissonant interval must occur between the two dissonant notes. i.e. be a note

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between Eb and B natural. A note B in chord 12 would have to rise to C in chord 13. The bassline in

chord 13 is G, which is outside the interval Eb-B.)

iia - not allowed - diminished chord

iib - bad choice because the bass would have a leap of a 7th

viia - not allowed - diminished chord

viib - not allowed - consecutive octaves

Houston, we have a problem! None of our chords are allowed!

This kind of stalemate scenario happens all the time when you try to harmonize a melody. I've

deliberately included it here, to help you figure out what to do next - read on!

What to do when you get stuck!

When you get stuck, go back one chord and read through your choices again. Could you have

chosen a different chord? If not, go back another chord and keep going back until you get to a

point where you had a choice of good chords.

Cross out the chord you chose first time round and make a note that it causes problems further

down the line. (It's a good idea to do this, in case you end up re-tracing your steps yet again, and

forget which chord you chose first time round!)

Choose the next best chord, rub out everything you had written up to but not including the

cadence, and repeat the process as before.

We need to look at chord 11 and see if there is another possibility.

We're in luck! Chord 11 could also be ia.

Let's test the new chord 11 against chords 10 and 12:

Va - repeat of chord 12 (as before)

Vb - similar motion

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iia - not allowed

iib - high F makes a leap of a 7th down to G, and low F is similar motion (and the second in a row,

which is even worse!)

viia - not allowed

viib - ok

Thank goodness! We only had to change one chord, and it meant we now have one good chord and 2

not-so-good-but-ok chords to work with.

Choice: viib.

Note: when a piece is in a major key, it's completely possible to harmonise every note simply using the

major chords I, IV and V. However, you will create much more interest harmonically if you throw in one or

two minor chords - ii and vi most often.

What About Second Inversion Chords?

Second inversions can be used in passing 6-4 and cadential 6-4 progressions.

Passing 6-4s are pretty tricky to get right, so basically we don't recommend trying to use them in this

question (1a of the grade six paper).

Cadential 6-4s, on the other hand, are pretty neat things to use if you can manage them. Look at the

chords you've picked, and see if the pattern I-V-I crops up at a cadence. If it does, then you can safely

write a cadential 6-4 using Ic-Va-Ia.

The Final Answer

Your final answer should have the Roman numeral letters with their inversions .

You are also allowed to write out the full chords instead of using the Roman numeral system, but I advise

against this. If you write out the full chords, you should make sure that every single part conforms to all

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the rules of harmony. If you write the Roman numerals, the middle parts are left blank and you don't need

to worry about any rules for those parts.

Here's our final answer:

Click to play -

Just for fun, I filled out the middle parts and made the last chord major (a "tierce de Picardie") - click to

listen:

Summary

Here are the steps summarized for you:

1. Find key & write triads of scale

2. Write all possible chords under each note

3. Do cadences

4. Pick chords & check as you go along

Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 8: Figured Bass

What is Figured Bass? Figured bass might look a bit mysterious if you've never seen it before. Even if you have heard of it, you

might think it's rather strange. Let's find out what figured bass is all about.

This is what it looks like - the figured bass is the little numbers written underneath the lower stave:

Figured bass is a shorthand method of composing. It was invented during the Baroque period (about

1600-1750). In those days, composers only wrote out a melody and a bass line (and not any of the middle

parts). The melody was played (or sung) by a soloist, and the bass line was usually played on a keyboard

instrument, such as the harpsichord or organ.

Obviously, the keyboard player needed to do a bit more than just play the bass line with his or her left

hand, but where was the rest of the music? Well, he or she had to improvise! The composer added small

numbers underneath the bass line, like a kind of code, which told the player which chords to play.

However, this code (which is the "figured bass") didn't tell the player exactly how to play the chords - for

example, they could choose to play them as solid chords, broken chords or could weave them into heavily

decorated individual voice lines.

In fact, keyboard players in those days were judged on their ability to create amazing improvisations from

a figured bass - and of course, the same piece of music would be played in totally different ways by

different musicians.

Don't worry though - in grade six theory you only need to write out the chords in their most basic forms -

you don't need to add melodic decoration or anything fancy!

In the modern world, you can find a similar kind of thing in sheet music for pop songs. Have you ever

seen a tune written out with chord markings for piano or guitar? The accompanist uses the suggested

chords, but plays them in whatever way they feel like. Figured bass is just the same, except that there are

a few rules you have to obey - the rules of harmony.

Figured bass is hardly ever used today except in music theory exams, or in early music groups. So why is

it tested? Well, it's been part of the study of music theory for hundreds of years and it's an excellent way

to test your knowledge of harmony. Although no one composes using figured bass any more, it's still a

useful way of referring to chords and chord progressions quickly. Figured bass is a compulsory part of

Grade Six Theory, and actually it's quite simple to get the hang of, you'll be pleased to know! So let's get

started!

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Understanding Figured Bass

The Figures

Figured bass is written underneath the bass line. (Sometimes a bass line with figures is called a

"continuo".) The numbers in figured bass tell you what chord to build up from the bass note, and in which

inversion.

The single most important thing to remember about figured bass is that the bass line shows you the

lowest note , and that you must build a chord upwards from that note. Never, ever write a chord note

which is lower than the bass note.

Each number tells you the interval above the bass note which you need to write, in order to create a

chord. We will write all our chords as 4-note chords , creating 4 independent voices soprano, alto, tenor

and bass.

(Note, although figured bass is really all about playing and improvising, rather than writing, we will talk

about writing here because we are training you for an exam, after all!)

In Grade 6, there are three - - -

5-3

5-3 means root position . From the bass note, write the note a third higher, and then the note a fifth

higher.

Remember that the exact position of the notes of the chord are up to the performer. Only the bass note is

fixed. But, it doesn't matter at all what order we write the notes of the chord, or in which octave. For

example, we could write either of these two chords:

We have written a four-note chord, so one of the notes is doubled. In both these examples, we have

the triad). In a 5-3 chord, the root is the most common note to double, but you are also allowed to double

t Rule 3a Doubling for more details about this.)

Because root position chords are so very common, sometimes the 5-3 figure is left out. If you see a bass

note without any numbers at all, it means it's a 5-3 or root position chord. (It does not mean that you can

write any chord you want!)

6-3

A 6-3 chord is a first inversion chord. The notes we need to write are a third and a sixth above the bass

note.

Here the bass note is C. The figured bass tells us to add the notes E (a third above C) and A (a sixth

above C). Our chord notes are C-E-A, which is A minor in the first inversion.

Some examples of 6-3 chords:

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In a 6-3 chord, you are allowed to double any of the chord notes to make a 4-note chord.

We can talk about the chord notes as if they are triads, (e.g. A-C-E), or as they are written on the stave

(C-E-A). A triad has a root, 3rd and 5th . The notes on the stave are the bass note , the 6 and the 3. In

Because 6-3 chords are also very common, sometimes they are just written as 6 instead of 6-3. The

figure 6 means first inversion.

6-4

A 6-4 chord is a second inversion chord. The notes we need to write are a fourth and a sixth higher than

the bass note.

Here the bass note is C. The figured bass tells us to add F (a fourth above C) and A (a sixth above C).

The chord notes are C-F-A, which is F major in second inversion.

In a 6-4 chord you should always double the bass note (5th) of the chord.

The rules of doubling are very important and need to be learned. More information can be found in Rule 3a

Doubling.

Chromatic Alteration

You can add sharps and flats to figured bass. The accidental is written next to the number which it

affects.

If the accidental is not next to a number, but just appears on its own, then it refers to the 3rd of the chord.

For example:

= sharpen the 3rd. The chord notes will be F#, A# and C#.

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= sharpen the 6th. The chord notes will be C#, F# and A#.

Chromatic alteration is very common in minor keys, where the dominant chord has a sharpened third

which does not appear in the key signature. For example in A minor, the dominant chord is E major, with

a G sharp accidental.

Lines

Horizontal lines in figured bass mean that the same harmony applies to two or more notes. It means

"don't change the chord!".

First Realization of Figured Bass

step. Each note is numbered (1- k at each note and

try to work out which three

exact positions on the stave for now!) Then check your answers below.

1. No numbers = 5-3, root position chord. B - D - F#.

2. No numbers = 5-3, root position chord with a sharpened third.. F# - A# - C#.

3. Line = hold the previous chord.

4. 6 = 6-3, first inversion chord. D - B - F#.

5. 6-4 = second inversion chord. F# - B - D.

The Cadential 6-4

When we use the chords Ic-Va-Ia, and notate them in figured bass, they are written as 6-4, 5-3, 5-3. This

is also known as the "6-4 - 5-3 progression" or cadential 6 -4. This is one of the very few chord

progressions where you are allowed to use a second inversion chord.

Cadential 6-4s work really well at the end of a piece, because there is a very strong emphasis on the

dominant note in the bass for two chords (Ic and Va) instead of just one (e.g. V7). When the final Ia chord

is finally reached, our ears and brains feel very satisfied, because we've had to wait just a tiny bit longer

to hear the tonic.

Let's add a bar to the previous example, to finish off with a cadential 6-4:

Notice how the chord notes move: in the 6-4 chord, the B falls to A# in the 5-3 chord (tenor line). The D in

the 6-4 chord moves to C# in the 5-3 chord (soprano line). In a cadential 6-4, the 6 ALWAYS moves to 5,

and the 4 ALWAYS moves to 3.

You can easily spot a cadential 6-4, because the bass note is the same for both chords (F# in this case),

and the second chord is always notated "5-3" instead of being left blank.

The Passing 6-4

If you see a 6-4 chord notated, but the bass note of the following chord is different , it will be a passing 6-

4. The bass will move by step.

The rules for voice-leading in a passing 6-4 just follow the normal rules of harmony. There are many

variants.

You can spot a passing 6-4 because the chord following the 6-4 will not be notated "5-3", but will be left

blank if it's a root position chord. (It could also be a first inversion chord, notated in the normal way with

"6").

Here's an example of a passing 6-4 notated in figured bass:

The next lesson will show you how to realise a figured bass yourself!

Grade Six Music Theory - Harmony Lesson 9: Realising a Figured Bass

Introduction to Realization

So Many Rules!

Before we begin to make our own realizations, there are a few things we need to learn about first. There

rules and guidelines, then you need to do lots of practice exercises, and be prepared to make lots of

mistakes!

With each practice exercise you do, you will get better at remembering all the rules. It also helps to

understand why the rules exist. You must get into the habit of triple-checking your work too, because in

figured bass, mistakes hide everywhere!

To get started with figured bass, you need to know the rules about:

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1. Consecutives

2. Voice-leading

3. Doubling & Omission

4. Overlap & Range

Click the links to read about each rule in detail. Here is a summary:

1. No consecutive 5ths or octaves, and also check for

2. The soprano line should have a nice melody. The alto and tenor lines just fill out the harmony. No

wide leaps, augmented or diminished intervals. Use as little movement as possible most of the

time.

3. Always check you have doubled the right note usually the root or fifth.

4.

How to Do It

These are the steps you need to follow. More details are given below.

1. Work out the key of the piece.

2. Write down the chords you need by name.

3. Write the whole soprano line.

4. Fill in the alto and tenor parts, chord by chord.

5. Check for errors and rewrite where necessary.

6. Repeat step 5.

We must stress how important it is to CHECK CHECK CHECK everything you write in figured bass!

Step 1 KEY

Look at the key signature and decide which pair of keys it could be in the major and its relative minor.

Look at the figures if you see any added sharps or naturals, it will probably be the minor key. Sing

The key signature is two flats is it Bb major or G minor?

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line slowly in your head. You can press the play button to listen to it.

Step 2 CHORDS

Look at the first note in the bass line and the figure underneath it.

- we need to add the notes which are a

third and a sixth higher than the bass note.

Starting on the bass note, count the lines and spaces until you get to 3: Bb C D. So, D is the third note

up.

Starting on the bass note again, count the lines and spaces until you get to 6: Bb C D Eb F G.

So, G is the sixth note up.

Put the notes together: Bb D G and work out the name of the triad. This is the triad of G minor.

Underneath the stave, make a note of three things:

the chord name (G minor)

the chord notes (G Bb D) and

the chord number & position in Roman numerals (ib)

all this information. But

rules of harmony, and it helps avoid mistakes. You will begin to see that there are common patterns of

chords, for example, and you are less likely to write in the wrong chord notes accidentally.)

Write in ALL the chord information in this way. Check your answers in the table:

Gm D Gm Gm D Gm Cm Gm Gm D G

G Bb D D F# A G Bb D G Bb D D F# A G Bb D C Eb G G Bb D G Bb D D F# A G B D

ib Vc ib ic Va ia ivb ib ic Va Ia

Step 3 SOPRANO

Starting at the beginning, choose a note to start your soprano line on. How?

A good soprano line

has an interesting melody without too much repetition of notes

moves in contrary motion to the bass line

The soprano line can take any of the chord notes in your list, and you can safely double any of the bass

notes EXCEPT in chord Vb

So, for our first chord, shall we choose a G, Bb or D?

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Look back at the chord notes you listed in step 2 in the first six chords you will need a D so the note D

will probably be better in the alto or tenor parts, because those parts should move very little, whereas the

soprano part needs to move mostly by step

move in contrary motion we will quickly run out of singable

and tenor parts).

nd change it later,

but we need to start somewhere and this is the best place to try!)

We write the soprano note in as a crotchet, because we can see that the chords change on each crotchet

beat. We write the stems upwards, because we will write the alto line on the same stave, underneath the

soprano line, with stems downwards.

To choose the next note, we need to remember some guidelines and rules:

No consecutive 5ths or octaves (including hidden consecutives)

No huge leaps or illegal intervals

Move in small steps where possible

Contrary motion is best (but not compulsory)

The notes we can choose from are D, F# and A. We want to use contrary motion, so the melody line

needs to move upwards or stay the same, because the bass moves downwards.

So, shall we choose D, F# or A?

D is ok, but perhaps we should avoid it for the same reasons as before (save it for the tenor or alto, which

need repeated notes).

F# is nice and is a semitone step but is similar motion and getting quite low on the stave.

A is in contrary motion with the bass.

Next, we need to choose from G, Bb and D. What do you think is the best choice, and why?

G is ok but a little boring

Bb is good because it uses contrary motion and is also a semitone step from the A. Always use a

semitone step if there is one!

one possible answer when realizing a figured bass. Read through our decisions for each note to see what

u can see why we chose it, and the reason

why the other notes were not chosen is in brackets.

4. G- contrary motion. (Bb is ok, high D is a hidden consecutive octave).

5. F#- in a 6-4 /5-3 progression the 4 must resolve to 3, no choice here.

6. G- semitone step (Bb is an illegal interval, D is hidden consecutive 5th)

7. C-

8. D-

9. Bb- contrary motion (D is a

10. A- 6-4 / 5-3 progression the 6 must resolve to 5, no choice here.

11. B natural-

leap)

rules, we can attempt to fill in the alto and bass parts.

usually we find that we have to change something in the

soprano line to avoid breaking rules in the alto and tenor parts.

In the above list of reasons for not choosing a note, you should realize that:

use similar motion

be repetitive

have a big leap

have consecutives

have hidden consecutives

use illegal intervals

go outside of the normal voice range

Step 4 ALTO & TENOR

Now we need to fill in the inner parts. The number one rule to remember here is that there should be as

little movement as possible if you can keep the same note in the same part then do! Complete each

-read the rules of doubling now, if you need to.

which other

notes we must (or can) add into the chord.

You should make sure the tenor, alto and soprano parts are not too far apart from each other an interval

over an octave is too big. Between the tenor and bass parts big intervals are absolutely fine.

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in the alto and G in the tenor.

Chord 2: We need D and F#. The alto part can repeat the D, which means the tenor takes the F#. That

works well because the tenor part also moves by a semitone step.

Chord 3: D and G. Alto repeats D, tenor moves by step.

Chord 4: D and Bb. Alto repeats D, tenor jumps up to Bb.

Chord 5: D and A. Remember this is a cadential 6-4. The tenor part must fall to A, so the alto can stay on

D yet again!

Chord 6: D and Bb. Alto D, tenor Bb (another nice semitone step).

Chord 7: G and C. Both parts need to move. We put the G in the alto so that the top parts have narrower

spacing, and the tenor/bass parts have the widest spacing.

Chord 8: G and D. Alto repeats G, tenor D (stepwise movement).

Chord 9: G and D. Both parts repeat the note.

Chord 10: F# and D. Alto semitone step to F#, tenor repeats the D.

Chord 11: G and D. Alto semitone step to G, tenor repeats the D.

Step 5 CHECK!

Step 5 is possibly the most important step of them all! It really is easy to make mistakes in figured bass

because you need to concentrate on so many things at once.

These are the checks you need to do every time. When you come across a mistake and then fix it, you

need to start your checks right at the beginning again, because fixing one problem often causes problems

somewhere else! (Sorry!)

playing through as part of your checks. Play it on a keyboard and play it

slowly. This helps your brain to associate the chord sounds with the symbols your eyes can see.

If, horror of horrors, you find that every time you fix one mistake another one appears, you probably have

a faulty soprano l

start again!

The Checks:

1. Chord Notes . Check that every chord contains the right chord notes and that the note you have

doubled is allowed.

Read each chord slowly

2. Consecutives . Check each possible pairing of parts for consecutive octaves and fifths.

Write out the following: S-A, S-T, S-B, A-T, A-B, T-B. Then follow each pair of parts, one at a

time, watching the interva

3. Hidden Consecutives .

Recheck the bass and soprano lines together. If the two parts make a 5th or an octave, make

sure that it is approached by contrary motion, OR that the soprano part moves by step. If neither

of those two things are true, you need to re-write.

Look along the soprano and bass lines. If you find a 5th or an octave, check the conditions apply.

4. Voice Leading.

Leading notes should resolve to the tonic, no illegal intervals, mostly stepwise movements.

allowed.

5. Cadences.

Cadential 6-4s must move in the proper way, 6 moves to 5, and 4 moves to 3.

Look at the figures. If you see 6-4 followed by 5- -4. (If there is a 6-3 without the

5- -4 and more flexible).

6. Overlap.

Make sure none of the parts overlap.

Check particularly between the alto and tenor parts as this is where errors creep in.

Grade Six Music Theory - The Rules of Harmony

These rules of harmony need to be learnt. You need to use them when you are harmonizing a melody,

creating a bass line with figured bass, or realizing a figured bass.

Click on each rule for more details about it.

The Rules

1a. NO consecutive 5ths

1b. NO consecutive octaves

1c. NO hidde

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2a. NO dissonant leaps (seventh, augmented or diminished intervals), choose small intervals. Leading note resolves

to the tonic.

2b. The soprano line should have an interesting melody.

2c. The alto and tenor lines should not move about much at all.

3a. Double the root or fifth in root position chords. Double any note in first inversion chords. Double the fifth in

second inversion chords. Double the third in diminished chords. Double the third with care in other chords.

3b. Never leave out a figured note. Never leave out the root or third.

4a. Never overlap parts.

4b.

1a. Consecutive 5ths

Consecutives are the no.1 bad guy in figured bass! You must NEVER write consecutives.

Consecutive 5ths often sneak in when there are two root position (5-3) chords next to each other.

Here are two root position chords C major and A minor:

In the first chord, the tenor and bass parts are a perfect 5th apart. In the second chord, they are also a

perfect fifth apart.

When there are perfec t 5ths in the same two parts

We need to find another way to write one of the chords, to get rid of the consecutives:

Now the perfect 5th in the second chord is between the alto and tenor parts the 5ths are no longer

consecutive, because they are in different parts.

You have to check for consecutive 5ths between each voice of the harmony. This means six checks

between each chord:

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Soprano Alto

Soprano Tenor

Soprano Bass

Alto Tenor

Alto- Bass

Tenor Bass

Sometimes the consecutives are more difficult to see: here are consecutive 5ths between the alto and

bass parts:

Common questions about Consecutive 5ths.

Are compound 5ths (i.e. an octave and a 5th) wrong ? YES, they are also illegal.

Are diminished 5ths wrong? No, but you should still avoid writing them if possible.

Does it count if the same notes are repeated? No, consecutives are only bad when the voices move:

1b. Consecutive Octaves

Consecutive octaves are just as bad as consecutive 5ths. Consecutive octaves can sneak in just about

anywhere, so always be on the look out for them!

Check for consecutive octaves between all six voice pairings, as above.

Here are some illegal consecutive octaves:

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Consecutive 5ths and octaves are considered to be bad because it sounds as though the music has been

reduced to only three parts. Each of the four voice parts should have a strong, independent identity, and

this effect is dramatically lessened by consecutives.

1c. Hidden Consecutives

avoided.

Hidden consecutives happen when:

The bass and soprano parts form a perfect 5th or octave AND

The 5th/8ve is approached by similar motion AND

The soprano part is approached by a leap (not by step).

The bass and soprano parts form a perfect 5th.

The 5th is approached by similar motion (both parts move upwards in the same direction, instead of one

The soprano part contains a leap (the interval between the two notes is

wider than a 2nd).

We can fix a hidden consecutive by just fixing one problem from above.

We can change around the notes, so that the 5th (or octave) disappears:

We can change the similar motion to oblique (or contrary) motion:

Or, we could make the soprano part move by step, instead of a leap.

2a. Voice Leading Basics

In all voices:

Leaps of a seventh are NOT allowed.

In major keys, diminished/augmented melodic intervals are NOT recommended.

Augmented 2nds and 4ths are NOT allowed.

6ths should be avoided.

Leading notes in dominant chords ALWAYS resolve onto the tonic of a tonic chord.(Bach didn't always do

this, though!)

In a cadential 6-4, the 4 resolves to 3 and the 6 resolves to 5.

Always choose a semitone step if one is available.

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2b. Voice Leading - Soprano

In the soprano part, you should try to write a reasonably tuneful melody, but you should avoid leaps of

more than a perfect 5th. Follow these guidelines:

The best intervals to use are 2nds and 3rds.

4ths and 5ths are OK, but should only be used in an emergency.

Repeated notes can be used, but the more you use the more boring your melody will be, so only use

them if you are stuck.

Here is the beginning of a soprano line written by J.S. Bach:

Which intervals has Bach used here, and how many times?

Unison (2)

Second (7)

Third (1)

Fourth (1)

Fifth (1)

Sixth (1)

Seventh (0)

Augmented/diminished (0)

As you can see, a good soprano line is made up mostly of intervals of a 2nd.

2b. Voice Leading - Alto and Tenor

In the alto and tenor parts, you are padding out the chords:

Always choose the nearest note that you can, without breaking any other rules (e.g. of consecutives or

illegal intervals etc.)

If possible, repeat the previous note.

Otherwise, choose the next nearest note.

Leaps of 4ths and 5ths are ok, but use them sparingly.

Unison (7)

Second (4)

Third (2)

Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, dim/aug (0)

In the alto and tenor parts, the most common interval to use is the unison (the same note!)

choice about which note to write next. Here are some cases:

Leading notes ALWAYS resolve onto the tonic when possible.

In a cadential 6-4, the 4 resolves to 3 and the 6 resolves to 5.

Always choose a semitone step if one is available.

2c. Voice Leading -Bass

The bass line should be reasonably melodic, without too much repetition of adjacent notes.

The bass usually moves either by step, or by leaps of perfect 4ths and 5ths, or by leaps of 3rds. Octave

leaps may be used in moderation.

The bass should not leap by a 7th, an augmented or a diminished interval.

The final note in the bass line of a piece must always be the tonic.

3a. Doubling

All four-note chords need to double one note from the triad. But which one?

Double the Root:

In any 5-3 chord

In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT diminished chords (ii or vii)

Never in 6-4 chords

Double the Third:

In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT if it is the leading note (which means chord Vb)

Never in 6-4 chords

Never in a 5-3 chord UNLESS:

o it is a minor

o it is a major -VI progression.

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Double the Fifth:

In any 5-3 chord

In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT diminished chords (ii and vii)

Always in 6-4 chords

at grade 6.

The chord notes in brackets are OK but try not to use them unless you absolutely have to!

Notes to doubl e in Major Keys

Ia iia iiia IVa Va via viia

1, 5 1, 5 (3) 1, 5 (3) 1, 5 1, 5 1, 5 (3) -

Ib iib iiib IVb Vb vib viib

1, 3, 5 1, 3, 5 1, 3, 5 1, 3, 5 1, 5 1, 3, 5 3

Ic iic iiic IVc Vc vic viic

5 5 5 5 5 5 -

Notes to double in Minor Keys

ia iia iii+a iva Va VIa viia

1, 5 (3) - - 1, 5 (3) 1, 5 1, 3, 5 -

ib iib iii+b ivb Vb VIb viib

1, 5 (3) 3 - 1, 5 (3) 1, 5 1, 3, 5 3

ic iic iii+c ivc Vc VIc viic

5 - - 5 5 5 -

Are you thinking

Root position 1 or 5

First Inversion anything goes

Second inversion 5

Watch out for:

diminished chords (ii and vii) ONLY double the third

chord VI in minor keys CAN double the third

Vb

3b. Omission

fifth of the triad.

Never leave out a note that is figured - must include the third and the fifth. But if

the chord is blank, it means you can leave out the fifth.

- -

leave out the fifth.

You can never leave out the fifth of a 6-4 chord.

Never leave out the third or the root.

4a. Overlap

always be higher than the tenor. Be careful not to write parts which cross over like these two:

In the first example, the alto part C is lower than the tenor E.

In the second example, the tenor C is higher than the alto B in the next chord.

share a note from time to time.

4b. Range

When you write for four voices (soprano, alto, tenor and bass), you should keep to the normal range that

those voices can sing:

These ranges are not absolutely fixed, but stay within them to stay safe!

Never have an interval wider than an octave between

to have more than an octave between the tenor and bass parts.

Grade Six Music Theory Composition Introduction - ABRSM Requirements

Type of questions

In the Grade Six music theory exam, composition is

exam. You will have a choice of question. Both options will ask you to continue a given opening, and will

be for instrument rather than voice.

(usually by a well-known composer from the

Classical or Romantic eras) and the other will be an opening which has been specially written for the

exam.

key. This is because the melody you write is really just the beginning of a bigger piece (which will never

get written, however!) Although the name of the composer and work are given, you are not supposed to

know how the piece goes and write the same notes as in the original! Even if you do know the opening,

you need to write something new. The melody should be 8-10 (complete) bars in length.

score if you

it must end in the same key that it

started in. The melody should be at least 8 bars long.

What the Examiners are Looking For

Never forget that this is a music theory exam, not a composition exam! Although you are writing a

composition, you will be judged on your skill in applying the rules of accepted techniques, rather than

displaying amazing creativity. Your composition should fit in with the norms which apply to music written

from the 17th to 19

th centuries.

The things the examiner will be looking for are the basis of this composition course. In a nutshell, they

are:

Form (good organisation)

Harmonic structure (suitable expected chords to harmonise the melody)

Melodic structure (showing continuity but with variety)

Performance directions (relevant and appropriate)

The examiner is NOT looking for:

Innovation (e.g. something new in every bar, new ways of getting sounds from an instrument,

non-diatonic key systems)

Proof that you know every ornament, tuplet, scale, broken chord, foreign term and symbol etc.

that exists.

A Note about Naming Chords

There are a few different ways to refer to chords in music theory. In this course we use the extended

Roman numeral system.

The Roman numerals I, II, III, IV, V, VI and VII refer to the triads built on each note of a scale.

Lower case numerals (e.g. i, ii, vi) mean the chord is minor. Upper case (e.g. I, IV, V) mean the

chord is major.

A diminished chord is written in lower case with the symbol (e.g. vii).

An augmented chord is written in upper case with the symbol + (e.g. III+).

Grade Six Music Theory Composition: Lesson 1 - Architecture in Music

How Compositions are Built

learning about

music theory exam!

Music Theory in

Practice Grade Six planned use of sounds, ordered and

an unplanned composition will generally

sound random and pointless and sometimes downright irritating!

We can compare music to language in many ways. If we think about language, the smallest units we

have at our disposal are the individual letters of the alphabet. We can arrange and group the letters to

together if we want our words to be meaningful! We

arrange words into sentences, and sentences into paragraphs. We could write out the possible

progression like this:

Letter > Word > Clause > Sentence > Paragraph > Chapter > Book > Series etc.

In music, we start with a note. We combine small numbers of notes together to make a motif . We might

combine motifs in a couple of sections , which together make up a phrase . A couple of phrases will make

a sentence and a bunch of sentences will make up a section (of a different type!) A handful of sections

could comprise a movement , and three or four movements can make up a piece .

Note > Motif > Section > Phrase > Sentence > Section > Movement > Piece etc.

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In the same way that in language the structure has some flexibility (not all books have chapters, for

example), musical forms also vary a lot. Some parts are indispensable however there are no words

without letters, and there are no motifs without notes.

In the Grade Six music theory exam, you will have a choice of composition questions. You can either

write:

a melody which forms a complete piece , or

one which is a section of a larger piece .

The composition techniques are more or less the same though, whichever option you choose. You will

need to pay close attention to the wording of the question.

your composition ends at the last bar you write, and

has to end on the tonic of the original key.

it usually ends in key related to the original, for example the dominant.

Structure

A typical eight-bar melody is divided up into two phrases, each of four bars. The first phrase is the

antecedent and the answering phrase is the consequent . Each phrase might be further subdivided into

two two-bar sections.

Each section normally contains connected motifs or melodic sequences of notes. The similarity of these

it is

not just a random series of notes.

does not have to start on the first beat of the bar. But each

phrase will contain the same number of strong beats .

Examples

Here are some examples of eight-bar melodies. (Click the green button to play the audio.) Each eight-bar

melody is made up of two complementary phrases. Notice how, in each case, the melody is developed

from the material in the first two bars by means of simple changes .

The antecedent phrase is from bars 1-4, and the consequent phrase is from bars 5-8.

Each phrase is sub-divided into two sections (bars 1-2, 3-4, 5-6 and 7-8).

The first section in both phrases begins with a dotted quaver trill followed by two sextuplet

groups.

The first section of the second phrase begins an octave lower than that of the first phrase, but is

identical in every other way.

The second section in each phrase contains some rhythmic material which is the same (the

demisemiquaver rhythm) and some which is different.

In bar 3, the harmony on the first beat of the bar is IV-I. In contrast, in bar 7 the chord is ii.

Both phrases end with perfect cadences.

The semiquaver figure in bar 8 belongs, in fact, to the next phrase. These are simply decorative

linking notes.

Our second example is from a p

The first section of the antecedent and consequent phrases is identical, except for the dynamics.

The second section of the first phrase contains a quaver sequence, whereas the second section

of the second phrase re-uses the quaver-quaver-crotchet rhythm from the first section.

The first phrase ends with an imperfect cadence I-V.

The second phrase ends with a modulation to the dominant D major. This is a perfect cadence.

Our final example comes from a Waltz by Schubert. This melody is actually the second 8-bar section of

The first section of each phrase has the same rhythm, but the final minim is different, which

means the harmony will also be different.

The first section of the first phrase ends on the dominant of B minor (F# major). The first section

of the second phrase ends on the dominant of D major (A major), which is the relative major key.

Bar 7 re-uses the rhythm of bar 4, with a different melodic shape.

The final three quavers are decorative linking notes which belong to the next phrase.

The modulation to the relative major key is helped by the A natural in bar 6. The harmonic B

minor scale uses A#, but A natural is in D major.

Grade Six Music Theory Composition; Lesson 2 - Motifs & Melodic

Sequences

Motifs

A motif is a short, memorable unit of music. A phrase can be made up of motifs which could be as short

-used throughout a piece to give a sense

of continuity to the music. Although not all pieces of music contain motifs, many many do, and they are a

useful weapon to have in your arsenal of compositional techniques! Probably the most famous motif in

classical music is the four-

The motif is repeated many times throughout the first movement. Sometimes the pitch is altered,

sometimes it is sped up, but it keeps its character. The character of a motif is usually defined by its

rhythm .

When you develop the opening material given in the Grade Six music theory exam, you will need to

decide which element is interesting enough or promising enough to work as a motif. You then need to

your composition.

Examples

Here are some examples of motifs in action. Play them through and notice how the motifs are altered in

simple ways in order to give a feeling of continuity with variety.

Our first example comes from the Waltz in A flat by Brahms, Op.39 no.15. The motif is a dotted crotchet

All the notes are taken from the chords which make up the underlying harmony. The melodic shape of the

motif is pretty constant too the first two quavers are lower in pitch than the crotchet, and are repeated,

and the final quaver is the same pitch as the crotchet (or close enough).

Here are the first eight bars. (Try to listen to the whole piece you will notice the motif occurs

throughout.) The motif occurs 5 times here, and then a final time in the 8th bar as a linking sequence into

the next phrase. (Note you only need to write a single line of melody for the Grade Six music theory

exam.)

or Piano Op.23 no.5. The motif is a rhythmic unit:

quaver semiquaver semiquaver quaver. It is usually made up of the notes of the underlying chord.

The first quaver is stressed and forms part of the melody. The other three notes are repeated and are of a

higher pitch and form part of the accompaniment. Here are the first 5 and a bit bars:

Melodic Sequences

A melodic sequence is a series of notes which is