Government and Politics of Asia

China

Midterm Period

Phases of Chinese Politics

The Xinhuamen or the New China Gate is the formal

entrance to Zhongnanhai-the south and central seas that

are part of the former imperial park. Just inside the gate

stands, in Chairman Mao Zedong’s calligraphy, the

slogan wei renmin fuwu (serve the people). The People’s

Republic means “serving the people”. 

The Mao Zedong Years (1948-1976)

  The Chinese Communist Party took power at the

end of the Chinese Civil War and had led a

communist revolution, in a particular sort.

  First (Peasant Revolution) - literally means the

 “property-less class”, including poor and landless

peasants.

  Second (Chinese Communist Party came to

power at the head of an army) – the party and

army were deeply fused in a way that was not

the case in many other communist regimes.

Later on, the party leadership over the army

gave way to an arrangement approaching

military rule.

  Third (Chinese Communist

Revolution/Nationalist Revolution) – a victory for

Chinese nationalism, against the Japanese who

had invaded China, and bringing an end to the

 “century humiliation”. 

  Fourth (Chinese Communist Regime to build a

wealthy and powerful China) – This enduring

aim has taken center stage under the leadership

of Deng Xiaoping in the late 70’s. 

  The three decades that followed the Mao years

were tumultuous but it is possible to understand

their key features by following a conventional

periodization while stressing structural parallels

that run across the periods.

  The regime was flush with the success of

nationalist revolutionary triumph and the

legitimacy that came with it.

  The major events of the period reflected these

insecurities. They included campaigns with

archetypically Maoist:

The Three Anti-Campaign

The Five Anti-Campaign

The Campaign against Counter Revolutionaries

Overhauling China from Prior Regime

   A period of planning, blooming and contending.

  The regime had achieved considerable additional

success rapidly consolidating power over the

long fragmented country.

  Eliminating many of the vestiges of the prior

regime and socializing the ownership of the

means of production. Including taking over

factories and commercial firms and collectivizing

agricultural land and production.

  This period saw adoption of broadly Soviet-Style

economic policies.

  In other words, the focus of revolutionary

change in this period was on the means and

relations of production-building up economic

production and especially industrial capacity and

transforming ownership to state and collective

ownership, thereby, eliminating the capitalist

and semi feudal structures of the prior order.

  This was also an era of major construction of

political institution.

  The First People’s Republic of China constitution

was adopted. Major laws were written.

  Relatively stable government-put fully in place,

including ministries of the central government,

provincial and local government organs.

  Despite these major accomplishments, the

period was also marked by worries and

perceived dangers.

  One is, the regime was losing its revolutionary

zeal.

  Emerging complaints from the “Intellectuals” -a

notoriously critical and politically suspect group

about the way the party-sate rules.

 

  In response to these concerns, Mao launched

the Hundred Flowers Campaign, and invited

people in general and the intellectuals to voice

their concerns.

  This period of openness lasted only briefly. The

political winds shifted abruptly.

The Shut Down

  This shut down of “blooming and contending”

had been shockingly harsh and out of control. 

  The political and social effects were significant 

  The following period was dominated by the

Green Leap Forward. 

  Flush with the success of rapid version of

communism. 

   At the same time, Mao and his colleagues

discerned dangers to be addressed. 

  The rise of what was called “bureaucratism” and

the problem of a “new class” of party cadres. 

  These gave rise to a sense that communism

might be in trouble generally and in China

specifically. 

  What followed was a remarkable and ultimately

disastrous attempt to leap dramatically forward

in both level of development, thus the

establishment of “giant communes”. 

Another Aim; Another Try

  The aim was to create a landscape of large scale

of agricultural with some industry collective that

were fairly low tech but largely self sufficient

and highly productive.

  The idea of what revolutionary progress meant

had shifted from developing the forces of

production to a belief in the power of human

organization to achieve great things.

Loss of Confidence; Reason

  The combination of bad policy with the bad luck

of bad weather and the failure to reverse failed

policies promptly led to massive starvation and

malnutrition, contributing to millions of deaths.

  The political consequences were dire, with vast

peasantry suffering terrible devastation and a

severe loss of confidence in the regime.

  Mao then came down hard on perceived

challenges to his leadership, undertaking the

first top-level purge and arguably paving the

way for the more widespread assault on senior

leaders.

The Last Period

   After a few years of recovery from the Great

Leap Forward, China began to move toward the

last major period of the Mao Era – the Great

Proletarian Cultural Revolution.

  Given the disaster of the Great Leap, it seems

odd to describe the Cultural Revolution as

coming upon the heels of a preceding period’s

successes.

  With Mao and radical ideas in temporary eclipse,

the regime adopted moderate economic policies

that would later prove so successful in the early

years of the Reform Era – the decentralization to

smaller scale production units in the

countryside, greater reliance on material

incentives, allowing peasants to farm small plots

and so on.

  Politically and institutionally, there were also

attempts to re-instill top-down discipline and

accountability and to address ongoing problems

of corruption and laxness in party-state

structures.

Retrenchment/ Rebuilding

  There was a sense that China had recover from

many of the horrors of the Great Leap Forward.

  There is the rising determination of the so called

Great Helmsman to undertake one last great

intervention to steer the Chinese Revolution in a

more radical direction

  China’s Youth: Said Mao, young people had no

personal experience of revolution and thus were

at risk of becoming insufficiently revolutionary.

In his view, they need to “learn to make

revolution by making revolution”. 

  To address these problems, Mao unleashed the

Cultural Revolution by first ousting Pheng Zhen

and topples Liu and Deng and many others.

  The methods again were striking and chilling.

Members of the top-elites were subjected to

humiliating and sometimes brutal struggle

sessions in which, they were coerced to confess

their political errors.

  Much of the violence was initially undertaken by

Red Guard Groups (a group of students). Mao

unleashed the students encouraging them to

attack leaders of schools.

  Factional groups emerged in and disrupted

virtually every institution in society.

 

  Thus, the consequences were dramatic – 

conflicts paralyzed and shutdown state and

party institutions across the country.

The End of the Cultural Revolution

  The Cultural Revolution meant a good many

things. In terms of the focus and meaning of the

revolution, the revolution had migrated fully into

 “superstructure”.

  In Mao last years, the key agenda was not

building up the means of production or

exploiting the power of political organization;

politics was about ideological standpoint, the

power of having the right thoughts which could

be re-defined retroactively.

  Therefore, the political and social effects of the

Cultural Revolution were transformative.

The Reform Era

  Unfolded as “not that” politics. 

  It was a reaction against the Cultural Revolution

as chaos and brought substantial rebuilding of

party and state institutions and a commitment

to prevent relapses into social disorder.

  It was also a reaction against Cultural

Revolution as tyranny, which meant abandoning

demands that citizens zealously embrace a hard

ideology and establishing legal and other

restraints on abusive behaviour by local officials

and some private actors as well.

  Its fundamental shift in economic policies and

the related adoption of a pragmatic style of

governance and policymaking, particularly in

shaping and implementing development-

promoting economic policies.