Governing Climate Change Post-2012: The Role of Global Cities - Melbourne

8/3/2019 Governing Climate Change Post-2012: The Role of Global Cities - Melbourne

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Governing Climate Change Post-2012:

The Role of Global Cities - Melbourne

Harriet Bulkeley and Heike Schroeder

September2009

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research Working Paper 138


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Governing Climate Change Post-2012: The Role of Global Cities - Melbourne

Harriet Bulkeley and Heike Schroeder

Tyndall Working Paper 138, September 2009

Please note that Tyndall working papers are "work in progress". Whilst they are

commented on by Tyndall researchers, they have not been subject to a full peer review.

The accuracy of this work and the conclusions reached are the responsibility of the

author(s) alone and not the Tyndall Centre.


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Abstract

Whileinternationalnegotiationsforaclimatechangepolicyframeworkpost-2012continue,thereis

increasingrecognitionthatarangeofactivitiestoreducegreenhousegasemissionsaretakingplace

beyondthisformalarena.ThisworkingpapercontributestotheresearchoftheTyndallCentre

programme1byfocusingonagroupofnonnation-stateactors-globalcitiesandtheirroleinclimate

governance.Citiesareacriticalsourceofman-madecarbondioxideemissionsaccountingforasmuch

as78%bysomeaccounts(Stern2006)andplaceswherevulnerabilitytoclimatechangemaybeacute.

Theprojectincludesfourcase-studies:London,LosAngeles,MexicoCityandMelbourne.Thisworking

paperdocumentstheexperienceofMelbourne.ItchartstheemergenceandevolutionofMelbournes

climatechangepolicyintheperiod19982008.ItreportsthatacrossmetropolitanMelbourneclimate

policyhasbecomeanincreasinglyimportantpolicyissue,markedbythedevelopmentofinitiativesfor

addressingclimatechangewhichfallintothreecorecategories:leadership;infrastructuralchange;and

changingpractice.

InMelbourne,municipalleadershiphasbeenanimportantdriverforactionaslocalpoliticiansand

officialshavesoughttodemonstratetheirintentiontogettheirownhouseinorderdespitethe

recalcitranceofthenationalgovernmenttoaddressclimatechangeattheinternationallevel.Interms

ofreplacingorrenewingurbaninfrastructures,actionshavealsofocusedprimarilyonthemunicipality

itself,withactionsconcentratedonretrofittingenergyefficiencymeasuresinmunicipalbuildingsand

thedevelopmentofenergyefficientstreetlightingsystems,althoughimportantsecondaryareasof

workhavebeeninthecommercialbuiltenvironmentandincreasinglydomesticsectors.Seekingto

changethewaysinwhichenergyisusedhasbeenoneareainwhichmunicipalauthoritiesandother

actorswithinthecityhavegonebeyondtheusualboundariesofjurisdictionalauthority.Herewefind

twoapproachesthathavebeenadopted:first,thedevelopmentanduseofdataconcerningenergyuse

asaninstrumenttofacilitatebehaviouralchange;andsecond,thedevelopmentofschemesfor

engagingcommunitiesinnewformsoflow-carbonpractice.

Thesethreeareasofactionhavedependedonamixtureofgoverningmodes,orapproaches,including

traditionalgovernmentfunctionsofcontrolandcompliance(e.g.planningcodes),providingnewforms

ofservice(e.g.homeenergyaudits)andenabling(e.g.partnerships).Thisiscreatinginnovative

responsestoclimatechangeinthecity,butconsiderablechallengeshavealsobeenencountered.First,

intermsofleadership,municipalitieshaveencounteredresistancetotheirleadershiponclimatechange

inthefaceofrestrictedbudgetsandotherpolicyprioritiesandhaveriskedthecreationofambitious

targetsonwhichitisdifficulttodeliverreductionsofGHGemissions.Intermsofinfrastructuralchange,

thedeep-seateddependenceofAustraliasenergynetworksoncoal-basedenergygenerationhasmeant

thatdevelopingmoreenergyefficientsystems,suchasstreetlighting,ormicro-generationtechnologies

hasbeenaslowandcomplexprocess.Atthesametime,alackofpartnershipworkingbetweenthelocal

governmentandcommercialsectorsmayalsohaveslowedthepaceofchangewithrespecttoboth

energysystemsandtheretrofittingofbuiltenvironments.Third,asisthecaseelsewhereintheworld,

strategiesthathavefocusedonseekingbehaviouralchangethroughthegatheringandprovisionofdata


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onenergyusehavefoundthatsuchinformationhaslimitedpurchaseondailydecisionsandeveryday

practice.Rather,ithasbeenschemeswhichhavesoughttoengagewithcommunitiesonamoreholistic

basisthathavehadmoresuccessinaddressinghowenergyisusedinthehomeandincommercial

environments.

Asregardstheimpactsof,andinfluenceupon,thepost-2012internationalclimatepolicyframework,

threeconclusionsfromthisreportareparticularlysalient.First,aswehavefoundinothercase-studies,

thespecificdetailsofanyinternationalagreementareoflessimportancethanitsgeneralfeatures.In

short,forMelbourneasfortheotherglobalcitiesincludedinthisstudy,anyagreementwillbebetter

thannone.Second,anysuchagreementislikelytohaveanindirectbutstillsignificantimpacton

Melbournesclimatepolicy.Historically,boththefailureoftheAustraliangovernmenttoengagewith

theinternationalpolicyprocessduringthepastdecadeanditsrecentconversiontothiscausehavehad

significantinfluenceoverhowclimatechangeresponseshavedevelopedinMelbourne.Asinternational

negotiationsproceedandAustraliasinternationalanddomesticpositionbecomesclearer,thereare

potentiallysignificantimplicationsforhowmunicipalitiesconductclimatepolicy,notleastinthefaceof

theintroductionofanationalemissionstradingscheme.Third,Melbournehasalimitedandindirect

impactontheinternationalpolicyframework.ThroughitsmembershipoftheC40network,Cityof

Melbourneisinvolvedwiththecreationofanetworkthatmightaffectthewaysinwhichdomestic

climatepolicyisdevelopedinseveralkeycountriesoverthenextfewyears.However,itsroleinthis

networkhastodatebeenrelativelymarginal,andforthemajorityofmunicipalitiesinmetropolitan

Melbournesuchinternationalnetworksareinterestinginprinciplebuthavelittleimpactonthe

developmentofpolicyandactiononadaytodaybasis,aprocessthatreliesinsteadonpartnerships

betweenpublicauthoritiesandincreasinglycivilsocietyactors.


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1.Introduction

Whilenegotiationstowardsaninternationalframeworkforclimatechangeactioncontinue,thereis

increasingrecognitionthatarangeofactivitiestoreducegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsaretakingplacebeyondtheformalarenaofinternationalnegotiations.ThepurposeofTyndallProgramme1isto

examinethesignificanceoftheactivitiesofnon(nation)stateactorsinaddressingclimatechange,and

toassesshowtheyareaffectingandwillbeaffectedbythepost-2012internationalpolicyframework.

Internationalclimatechangepolicyhasdevelopedsignificantlyoverthepasttwentyyears.In1992,the

UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangewasagreedatRiowithcountriespledgingto

preventdangerousinterferencewiththeclimatesystem.In1997,theKyotoProtocolgavecountriesin

theOECDandformerEasternEuropeandSovietUnionmandatorytargetstoreduceemissionsof

greenhousegasesby2008-2012,togetherwitharangeofeconomicinstrumentsdesignedtoassistwith

thisgoal.Overthepastdecade,negotiationshavecontinuedasthefinerdetailsoftheKyotoProtocol,theeconomicinstrumentstheCleanDevelopmentMechanism,EmissionsTradingandJoint

Implementationandissuesofenforcementarehammeredout.Althoughfewcountrieshavemettheir

targetsundertheKyotoProtocol,andtheUSAremainsoutsideit,negotiationsarenowunderwayto

developapost-2012agreement.Todate,mostanalysishasfocusedontheroleofnation-statesinthe

design,promotionandimplementationofvariouspost-2012policyarchitecturesandinstruments.This

TyndallCentreProgrammesuggeststhatthereareother,non(nation)stateactorswhomaybecritical

inbothshapingthepost-2012climateagreementandinitsimplementation.

Thisresearchprojectfocusesononesuchgroupofactors:globalcities.Citiesacrosstheworldhave

beenrespondingtothechallengeofclimatechangeforoveradecade(BetsillandBulkeley2007).Recentyearshavewitnessedanincreasingimportanceofurbanresponsestoclimatechange,withthe

gradualinvolvementofurbanpoliticalleaders(e.g.theUSMayorsClimateChangeAgreementandthe

BaliWorldMayorsandLocalGovernmentsClimateProtectionAgreement)andmajor,globalandmega-

citiesinclimatechangepolicy(e.g.throughthenetworksMetropolisandC40).Thisshifthasbeen

accompaniedbythegrowingrecognitionofcitiesasthepredominantsourceofanthropogeniccarbon

dioxideemissionsperhapsasmuchas78%bysomeaccounts(Stern2006)andasplaceswhere

vulnerabilitytoclimatechangemaybeacute.Fortheworldsmajorcities,climatechangeistherefore

becominganissueofincreasingpoliticalandenvironmentalsignificance.Criticalquestionsremain,

however,abouthowfarsuchconcernsarebeingtranslatedintoactionandhowtheinternationalpolicy

frameworkfacilitatesorimpedesactionatthislevelofgovernance.Astheinternationalnegotiations

unfold,wehaveidentifiedfourareaswhichmaybesignificantforurbanlevelclimatepolicy,andwhere

globalcitiesmayhaveanimpactontheimplementationoffutureclimatepolicy:

Targetsandtimetables:theinclusion,levelandnatureoftargetsforreducingemissionsofgreenhousegases


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Membership:whichnation-statesdoordonotsignuptoanewinternationalagreement Carbonfinanceandmarkets:accesstotheCDMand/oremissionstradingschemesfor

municipalitiesand/orcarbonfinancingforurbanprojects

Adaptation:accesstofinanceforadaptationforcitiesintheGlobalSouth

Inthiscontext,theresearchprojectseekstoaddressthreecentralquestions:

1. Whatactionistakingplaceinglobalcitiesonclimatechangeandwhy?2. Whatbarriersandopportunitieshavebeenencountered?3. Howrelevantispost-2012climatepolicyforglobalcities,andhowinturnmightdevelopments

attheurbanlevelaffectinternationalclimatepolicy?

Inordertoaddressthesequestions,theprojectfocusesonfourcase-studies:London,LosAngeles,

MexicoCityandMelbourne.ThisreportdocumentstheexperienceofMelbourne.Itisbasedonthe

analysisofpolicydocumentsandinterviewswithrepresentativesofthepublicandprivatesectorin

MelbourneconductedinJuly-August2008. 1Thenextsectionoutlinestheresearchcontextfor

Melbourne,includingthenationalpolicycontextandthehistoryofclimatepolicyinthecity.Itprovides

anoverviewoftheactiontakingplaceandthedriversbehindpolicydevelopment.Section3provides

detailonsomespecificinitiativesandoftheopportunitiesandchallengeswhichtheyhaveencountered.

Section4considerstheopportunitiesandchallengesarisingfromworkingwithotherpublicandprivate

sectoractors.Section5focusesonthequestionoftheroleandimportanceoftherelationbetween

post-2012internationalclimatepolicyandMelbourne.Section6providesashortconclusion.

2.ResearchContext

2.1ClimatechangepolicyinAustralia

Inthelate1980sandearly1990s,asinternationalmomentumtoaddressclimatechangegrewfirst

throughthe1988TorontoConferenceontheChangingAtmosphereandthesubsequentprocessof

negotiatingtheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange,theAustralianFederal

Governmentexpresseditscommitmenttoaddressingthechallengeofclimatechangebyadoptinga

targetofreducingemissionsofgreenhousegasesby20%by2005.Significantly,andinamovethatwas

tocometocharacterizeclimatepoliticsduringthe1990sand2000s,thiswasaccompaniedbythe

caveatthatinattemptingtoreachsuchtargetsthereshouldbenoadverseeffectontheAustralian

economy,andupontradecompetitivenessinparticular,intheabsenceofsimilaractionbyother

countries(Bulkeley2001a:158).AlthoughAustraliawasoneoftheearlysignatoriestotheUNFCCC,as

negotiationstowardstheKyotoProtocolbeganin2005thepositionadoptedbytheFederal

1Wearegratefultoallthosewhogavetheirvaluabletimeandinsightstothestudy.Wethanktherestofthe

TyndallProgramme1teamChuksOkereke,AlexHaxeltine,DuncanRussell,DianaLivermanandHeatherLovell

fortheirinputintoourresearch.Theviewsexpressedinthisreportarethoseoftheauthorsalone.


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Governmentchangedfromoneofcautioussupporttogrowingopposition.Influencedbyapowerful

groupofenergyandresource-basedindustryrepresentatives,whoapparentlylabeledthemselvesthe

greenhousemafia(Pearse2007),2andsupportedbyindustry-sponsoredeconomicmodelingthat

suggestedthattheimpactsontheAustralianeconomyofmeetingcommontargetsforreducing

emissionsofGHGwouldbesubstantial,theAustraliangovernmentbegantoargueinternationallythat

anytargetsagreedatKyotoshouldbedifferentiatedtoaccountforthespecificcircumstancesof

differentnation-states(Bulkeley2001a,2001b).Intheevent,thewithdrawalofUSsupportforuniform

targetsunderKyoto,togetherwiththepoliticalpressuretoreachanagreement,leadtotheadoptionof

differentiatedtargets,suchthatAustraliawasoneofonlythreecountrieschargedwithcontaining

emissionsgrowth(ratherthanachievingoverallreductions)at8%above1990levelsby2008-2012.

Despitethisfavourableoutcome,andtheinclusionofprovisionsforincludingthepreventionofland

clearanceasameansofavoidingfutureemissionswithintheprocessofaccountingforemissions

reductions,in2002theHowardGovernmentannounceditsintentionnottoratifytheKyotoProtocol,

choosinginsteadtoalignitselfwiththeUSpositionopposingmandatorytargetsandtimetablesand

supportingtheAsia-PacificPartnershiponCleanDevelopmentandClimateasanalternativevenuefor

pursuingitsapproach(Crowley2007).

Despitethisinternationalstance,atthedomesticlevelvariousprogrammesforaddressingclimate

changewereestablished.Underarhetoricofnoregretsthatismeasuresthatwouldhavenoadverse

impactsontheAustralianeconomy,andinparticularregionsandsectorsdependentontheuseoffossil

fuels(Bulkeley2001a)theHowardgovernmentannouncedaseriesoffundingandpolicypackages

includingthe1997SafeguardingtheFuture:AustraliasResponsetoClimateChange,the1998National

GreenhouseResponseStrategy,andthe2004SecuringAustraliasEnergyFuture(Bulkeley2001a;

Crowley2007).Underthesepoliciesvariousinitiativesincluding,amongothers,voluntaryprogrammes

forindustrytoreduceGHGemissions,thedevelopmentoftheCitiesforClimateProtectionprogramme

inAustralia(towhichwereturnbelow),ademonstrationsolarcitiesprogramme,aMandatory

RenewableEnergyTargetofrequiringelectricityretailerstosourceanadditional2%oftheirelectricity

fromrenewablesources(Jones2009)andabroadrangeofapplianceandefficiencystandards,building

codes,labelingschemes,fuelqualityregulationsandlicensingagreementsmostlyintroducedin

cooperationwiththestates(Crowley2007:135).Bythemid-2000s,however,itwasclearthatsuch

initiativeswerenotsufficienttoaddressgrowingdomesticcriticismoftheHowardgovernmentsstance

onclimatechange.Coalitionsofnon-governmentalorganisations,scientistsandbusinessinterestswere

emergingseekingtochallengetheHowardgovernmentspositiononclimatechangescience,andonthe

economicimpactsofaddressingclimatechange.Forexample,theAustralianBusinessRoundtableon

ClimateChang(ABROCC),foundedbytheAustralianConservationFoundation,BPAustralasia,Insurance

AustraliaGroup,OriginEnergy,SwissRe,VisyIndustriesandWestpac,foundintheir2006report A

BusinessCaseforEarlyActionthatdelaysinintroducingmeasures toreduceGHGemissionswould

2ThistermwasalsopopularisedbytheAustralianBroadcastingCorporationprogrammeFourCornerswhich

broadcastaprogrammewiththesametitleexposingtherelationsbetweenkeyindustriesandthedevelopmentof

Australiasclimatepolicyin2006.See: http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2006/s1566257.htm


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increasecostsforbusinessandthecommunityintermsofabatementmeasuresandenergycosts

(Jones2009:3).Atthesametime,stategovernmentsweremobilizingontheissueofclimatechange

andinparticularcallingforthedevelopmentofanationalemissionstradingschemewhileputtingin

placeinitialstepstodevelopsuchaschemebetweenthestatesandterritories.Bowingtopressure,the

Howardgovernmentestablishedajointgovernment-businesstaskforceonemissionstrading,whichin

February2007supportedtheestablishmentofadomesticcapandtradescheme(Crowley2007:135).

Bythetimeofthe2007federalelection,andaftersomeelevenyearsoftheHowardadministration,the

issueofclimatechangehadbecomeoneofwidespreadpopularconcern.Intheelectioncampaign,the

commitmentoftheoppositionLabourpartyledbyKevinRuddtosigntheKyotoProtocolifelectedwas

wasoneofthefewcleardifferencesbetweenthemajorparties(Rootes2008:473).Ifnotdecisivein

shapingtheoutcomeoftheelection,clearwaterappearedtohavebeenestablishedbetweenthe

outgoingHowardgovernmentandthenewRuddadministrationwiththefirstofficialactofthenew

PrimeMinisterbeingtoratifytheKyotoProtocol(Rootes2008).Evenbeforetheelection,Ruddandthe

Labour-controlledstategovernmentscommissionedtheGarnautReview,toassessthepotential

impactsofclimatechangeinAustraliaandthemediumandlong-termpolicyoptions(Curran2009).

Reportingin2008,tosignificantmediacoverageandwell-attendedpublicmeetings,centraltothe

recommendationsofthereporthasbeentheestablishmentofadomesticemissionstradingscheme

togetherwithsupportforrenewableenergyandcarboncaptureandstoragetechnologies.Followingthe

Review,theRuddGovernmentannouncedinJuly2008itsintentiontoimplementacapandtrade

scheme,theCarbonPollutionReductionScheme(CPRS),by2010,andintheWhitePaperofthesame

nameinDecember2008itsintentiontoreduceemissionsby5-15%below2000levelsby2020.

Subsequently,inthewakeofconcernsovertheglobaleconomythedatefortheintroductionofthe

CPRSwasputbackto2011,althoughtheGovernmenthasalsoindicateditswillingnesstoadoptatarget

of25%reductionofGHGemissionson2000levelsby2020aspartofanyinternationalagreement

reachedatCopenhageninDecember2009.3

2.2ClimatechangepolicyinVictoria

Duringthe1990s,theVictoriangovernment,aLiberalpartyadministrationunderthePremiershipof

Kennet,undertookvariousreformstoprivatizetheenergysectorandtopromoteeconomicgrowthwith

littleregardforenvironmentalconsequences(JessupandMercer2001).Whileclimatechangewas

acknowledgedasapolicyissuewiththepublicationin1998ofthe VictoriasGreenhouseAction:

RespondingtoaGlobalWarmingstrategy,itwasregardedbysomeaslittlemorethanapublic

relationsexercise(JessopandMercer2001:23).Since1999,theLabouradministration,initiallyunder

BracksandmorerecentlyBrumby,hasdevelopedamorecomprehensiveapproachtoclimatepolicy.

The2002VictorianGreenhouseStrategysetoutarangeofmeasurestoencouragethedevelopmentand

useofrenewableenergyandreducedemandforenergy,includingthedevelopmentofenergyefficiency

standardsforbuildingssothatnewdevelopmentswererequiredtoattaina5*ratingfrom2005,the

3See:http://www.climatechange.gov.au/emissionstrading/index.html(accessedJune2009)


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promotionofGreenPowerenergy,supportfortheCitiesforClimateProtectionprogrammeinregional

andruralAustralia,andtheformationofregionalpartnershipsbetweenlocalgovernmentstopool

effortsandresourcesinaddressingclimatechange,anapproachwhichwediscussinfurtherdetail

below.In2004,thefocusturnedexplicitlytotheenergysectorwiththepublicationof TheGreenhouse

ChallengeforEnergy,whichintroducedafurthersuiteofpoliciesandmeasures,inparticularstatingthe

supportofthestategovernmentforanemissionstradingschemewithinAustralia,developingastrategy

forthepromotionofrenewableenergysothat10percentofVictoriaselectricityconsumptionis

providedbyrenewableenergyby2010(StateofVictoria2004:13),andthedevelopmentofaVictorian

EnergyEfficiencyStrategy.In2005,the VictorianGreenhouseStrategyActionPlanUpdatewas

published,containing,amongstothers,furthersupportforrenewableenergytechnologiesand

measurestoextendprogrammesforcommunityandregionalpartnerships,explorethepossibilitiesof

mandatoryemissionsreportingbylargeemitters,anddevelopingworkintheareaofclimateimpacts

andadaptation(StateofVictoria2005).

By2006,someofthesemeasureswereincorporatedintostatelegislation,withthe VictorianRenewable

EnergyAct2006establishingtheVictorianRenewableEnergyTarget(VRET)schemethatmandated

Victoriasconsumptionofelectricityfromrenewablesourcesto10%by2016andwhichenteredinto

forceatthestartof2007(Jones2009:11),andthe VictorianEnergyEfficiencyTargetAct2007,which

setsmandatorytargetsforenergysavings,initiallyintheresidentialsector,andrequiresenergy

retailerstomeettheirowntargetsthroughenergyefficiencyactivities,suchasprovidinghouseholds

withenergysavingproductsandservicesatlittleornocost.4Inaddition,atthe2006election,the

VictorianGovernmentpledgedtointroduceaClimateChangeBilltoensurethatactionstakenon

climatechangearebackedbylegislationandprotectedunderVictorianlaw.5However,todatethishas

notbeenforthcoming.Nonetheless,duringthisperiodtheVictoriangovernmenthasshownitselftobe

relativelyprogressiveinthefieldofclimatepolicy,andhasundertakenvariousinitiativesworkingwith

otherpartnersthroughTheClimateGroupinternationallyaswellaswithlocalgovernmentsand

privateactorsinVictoriatoaddresstheissue.Atpresent,thefocusofactionisontherecentClimate

ChangeGreenPaperpublishedinJune2009inresponsetothedevelopmentofFederalgovernment

policydiscussedinSection2.1.Ineffect,theGreenPapersignalsanewapproachtoVictorianclimate

policyinwhich,ratherthanseekingtopioneernewpoliciesandmeasures,thestategovernmentis

insteadseekingtoworkwithinthenewnationalpolicyframework,andinparticulartheintroductionof

carbonpricing,heraldedbytheCPRS.

DespitetheprogressandinnovationevidentinthedevelopmentofVictoriasclimatechangestrategy

overthepastdecade,underlyingdependenceonfossilfuelsforthegenerationofelectricityandforkey

4See:http://www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/Greenhouse/wcmn302.nsf/childdocs/-

38DA600D396E2565CA2575BE001E7B2E-35B62606F3551EE2CA2575C30083032D?open (accessedJune2009)5See:

http://www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/Greenhouse/wcmn302.nsf/LinkView/AE81F366406C56E5CA2575C500093F

DD63A847AC3FD0C6C9CA2575C40007A668 (accessedJune2009)


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industrialsectorshavecontinuedtodriveemissionsofGHGupwards(Figure1).Astherecentreport

fromtheClimateChangeTaskforceoftheCommitteeforMelbourneexplains:

OneofthecompetitiveadvantagesthathasunderpinnedMelbourneseconomicprosperityis

itsaccesstorelativelylowcostenergygeneratedbytheLatrobeValleysvastbrowncoal

reserves.Asaresult,Victoriageneratesthelargestemissionsnationallyfromstationaryenergy

(80.5mtCO2equivalentin2005)andcarbonintensityofenergy(amountofcarbonburnedas

fossilfuelperunitofenergy).Theproductionanduseofenergyaccountsformorethan70%of

Victoriasnetemissions,withelectricitygenerationaloneaccountingformorethan50%ofnet

emissions.(ClimateChangeTaskforce2008:24)

TheresultofthiseconomicdependenceoncheapfossilfuelenergyhasnotonlybeengrowingGHG

emissions,butapoliticalreluctancetoreducethisdependency,withcontinuingprovisionforfossil-fuel

basedenergyinfrastructuremostrecentlyintheformofcarboncaptureandstoragetechnologies

continuingtoreceivesupportatthestategovernmentlevelalongsidenewinvestmentsinrenewable

energyanddemandmanagement.WhilemanyofthepoliciesadoptedbytheVictoriangovernment

havethereforebeenprogressive,andprovidedanenablingcontextforlocalresponsestoclimate

change,continuedcommitmenttofossilfuelinfrastructureshasbeenseenbysomeasunhelpfulinthis

regard.

Figure1:TrendsinVictoriasnetgreenhousegasemissions1990to2006.

Source:StateofVictoria2009:24


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2.3MetropolitanMelbournesprofile

Melbournewasfoundedin1835,establishedasacityin1847,andconsequentlybecamethecapitalof

theStateofVictoria.ItservedasthecapitaloftheCommonwealthofAustraliafromitsfoundationin

1901untilthepresentdaycapitalwasestablishedinCanberrain1927.TheMetropolitanareaof

Melbournecoversapproximately8,000km

2

andinthe2001censuswashometo3.3millionpeople(nowestimatedtobecloseto4million),some27%ofwhomspeakalanguageotherthanEnglishat

home(StateofVictoria2006a)6.TheGrossRegionalProductofthemetropolitanregionisestimatedat

morethan$85.5billion,7withthemostimportantindustriesintermsofcontributiontoMelbournes

incomebeingmanufacturingandproperty/businessservices(Figure2).

Figure2:IndustriescontributingtoeconomicdevelopmentinMelbourne

Source:StateofVictoria2006b

Intermsofitsgovernment,metropolitanMelbourneincludes31localauthorities(Figure3).Local

governmentsinAustraliahavetraditionallybeenregardedasacreatureofthestategovernmentsupon

whichtheirfoundationandbasisdepends,andconcernedwithalimitednumberoffunctions,know

proverbiallyasroads,ratesandrubbish(BulkeleyandBetsill2003:XX).However,greaterdirect

involvementfromFederalgovernmentintheformoffinancialassistanceandaseriesofreforms

designedtoimprovetheefficiencyandeffectivenessofservicedelivery,aswellastheself-governing

statusoflocalauthoritiesandtheirdemocraticrationale,duringthe1990shaveservedtochangethe

roleoflocalgovernmentandinparticulartointroduceageneralcompetenceforimprovinglocal

6See:https://www.businessmelbourne.com.au/info.cfm?top=301&pg=2917(accessedJune2009)

7See:https://www.businessmelbourne.com.au/info.cfm?top=301&pg=2917(accessedJune2009)


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communities(Marshalletal.1999).AsBulkeleyandBetsill(2003:XX)suggest,althoughbythe1990s,

localgovernmentinAustraliahasestablisheditselfasaself-governingentity,itsroleremainsdependent

ontheresourcesprovided,andtherequirementsmade,bystateandfederalgovernments.Local

governmentsinMelbournearealsodiverseintermsoftheeconomicresourcesandpressuresthatthey

face,rangingfromcapitalcityauthoritieswheretheresourcebaseisrelativelyhighsuchasCityof

Melbourneinnercityauthoritieswherebusinessratesmaybefallingandthechallengesofworking

withintheexistingurbaninfrastructureareparamount,tosuburbanauthoritiesdealingwithpressures

ofgrowthanddevelopment.Inordertocapturethediverserangeoflocalgovernmentinmetropolitan

Melbourneandthewaysinwhichthisaffectsresponsestothechallengesofclimatechange,agroupof

localgovernmentswaschosenforthisresearchthatincludedtheCityofMelbourne,inner-cityand

suburbanauthorities.Asmentionedabove,inthemid-2000stheVictoriangovernmentsponsoredthe

developmentofregionalnetworksoflocalauthoritiesworkingonclimatechangeanditisonthelocal

authoritiesinvolvedinonesuchinitiativetheNorthernAllianceforGreenhouseAction(NAGA)that

thisresearchfocuses.ThemembersofNAGAincludetheCitiesofBanyule,Darebin,Hume,

Manningham,Melbourne,Moreland,Whittlesea,Yarra,NillumbikShireCouncilandtheMoreland

EnergyFoundationLimited(MEFL) 8(seeFigure3),whichtogethercomprisesome25%ofthe

populationofVictoria(NAGA2008).

Figure3:LocalauthoritiesinMetropolitanMelbourne.

Source:StateofVictoria2006c

8See:http://www.naga.org.au/naga/


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Asastate,VictoriasemissionsofGHGaresubstantial,atatotalof117.0milliontonesmorethanthe

totalemissionsofmanynations,includingindustrialisednationswithsignificantlyhigherpopulations

suchasAustria,Hungary,Portugal,Slovakia,SwedenandSwitzerland(StateofVictoria2005:6).While

figuresformetropolitanMelbournearenotavailable,withsometwo-thirdsofthepopulation,thecityis

likelytoaccountforagoodproportionoftheseemissions.Emissionsacrossthestateandmetropolitan

areahavebeenrisingoverthepastdecade,withthe2001HouseholdUtilityConsumptionSurvey

showingthatMelbournesaveragehouseholdannualelectricityconsumptionincreasedby19.4%

between1996and2001(StateofVictoria2006d).Furthermore,ecologicalfootprintanalysisof

Melbournesgreenhousegasemissionsfromelectricityshowsahigherecologicalfootprintinthecentral

andinnerregions.Whilehigherinthewestthantheeast,thedifferenceacrossMelbourneisquite

small,withemissionsrangingbetween2.35-3.25%ofthetotal(StateofVictoria2006d).Intermsofthe

specificcaseoftheCityofMelbourne,theemissionsprofileisratherdifferentfromotherlocal

authoritieswhereresidentialenergyusedominateswithalargeproportionofGHGemissions

originatingfromenergyuseinthecommercialsector,reflectingtheeconomicmake-upofthecity

(Figure4).Throughacombinationofchangesintheboundariesofthecity,in-migrationandgrowing

levelsofemissionsperpersonandperemployee,emissionsofGHGintheCityofMelbournehave

increasedby59%overtheperiod20022008,raisingparticularchallengesformitigatingclimate

changeinthecity.

Figure4:GreenhousegasemissionsbysectorfortheCityofMelbourne200506.

Source:CityofMelbourne2008:11.

2.4.TheevolutionofclimatepolicyinNorthMetropolitanMelbourne


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WhilesomemunicipalitiesacrossMelbournehadbeeninvolvedinissuesofenergyefficiencyand

renewableenergyduringthe1980sand1990s,itwasthefoundationoftheCitiesforClimateProtection

programmeinAustraliain1997/1998thatgaveimpetustothedirectinvolvementoflocalauthoritiesin

thecitywiththeclimatechangeagenda.Ledbyagroupofcouncilswithpreviousexperienceinenergy

issuesand/orpolicyofficers/politicianswithparticularcommitmenttotheclimatechangeissue,during

theperiod1997-2002,allofthecouncilsinvolvedinthisstudyjoinedtheCCPprogramme.Inthewake

ofthe2002VictorianGreenhouseStrategy,NAGAwasformedasaninformalnetworkforsharing

informationanddevelopingnewprojectsamongstsixofthesepioneeringauthorities.Havingcompleted

themilestonesinvolvedintheCCPprogramme,bythemid-2000smunicipalitiesinthenorthof

MetropolitanMelbourne,andinparticularthosewhohadadoptedtheCCPprogrammeearlyon,began

todevelopmoreambitioustargetsandinnovativeapproaches.In2002,theCityofMelbourneadopted

atargetofreachingzeronetemissionsby2020,followedin2007byMoreland.Onthisbasis,NAGAhas

recentlydevelopedaresearchprojecttoascertainthepotentialforachievingzero-netemissionsacross

theregion(NAGA2008).DespitetherecentrecognitionbytheCityofMelbourneinitsUpdateofthe

2002strategythatthetargetofreachingzeronetemissionswillnotberealized,thepolicyambitionto

achievesignificantcutsinGHGemissionshasbeenreiteratedandappearstobespreadingacrossthe

NAGAcouncils.

Figure5:ClimateChangepolicyMilestonesforMetropolitanMelbourne

Milestone Goal Approach

1997/1998Darebin,

Manningham,

Melbourne,and

Morelandjoin

AustraliaCCP

Toreduceemissions

withinthecounciland/or

communityoftheorder

of20-30%by2010

MilestoneprogrammerunbyCCPofemissions

inventories,targets,plansandimplementation,

alongwithfinancialassistancefromFederal

government

1999-2002Banyule,

Hulme,Nillumbuik,

Whittleseaand

YarrajoinCCP

Australia

Toreduceemissions

withinthecounciland/or

communityoftheorder

of20-30%by2010

MilestoneprogrammerunbyCCPofemissions

inventories,targets,plansandimplementation,

alongwithfinancialassistancefromFederal

government

2001Moreland

EnergyFoundation

Ltd.founded

Toreducegreenhousegas

emissionsacross

Moreland

Anot-for-profitcompanyestablishedbyMoreland

CityCouncilafterthesaleoftheBrunswick

ElectricityCompany.Withcorefundingfromthe

counciluntil2010,itrunsaseriesofcommunityprogrammesaddressingGHGemissionsreductions

andotherissuesofenergypovertyandsecurity.

2002Darebin

ResourceEfficiency

Fundestablished

Toprovidefundingfor

energyefficientschemes

withinthecouncil

Afunddesignedforinvestmentsinthecouncil

buildingsandfacilities.


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14

2002Community

Powerscheme

established

Toprovideaccessto

greenpowerproductsfor

households

ApartnershipbetweenDarebin,Whitehorseand

MorelandCityCouncilsandtheMorelandEnergy

Foundation,mostrecentlywithOriginEnergy,to

provideaccreditedgreenpowerproductstogether

withinformationandadvicetolocalhouseholds

2002Victorian

Greenhouse

Strategy

Todevelopaframework

foraddressingclimate

changeacrossthestate;

toworkwithlocal

governmentstoreduce

emissionsofGHG

Amongstmanyothermeasures,establishesfunding

forco-ordinatorsofregionalpartnershipsoflocal

authoritiesinVictoria.

2002NAGA

established

Toachievesignificant

greenhouseabatementby

deliveringeffective

programsandleveraging

council,communityand

businessaction

Establishedasaninformalnetworkbetweensix

northernmunicipalitiesinmetropolitanMelbourne.

2002Cityof

MelbourneZeroNet

Emissionsby2020

Strategy

Aimstoreducethe

contributionoftheCityof

MelbournetoGHG

emissionsby2020.

Combinationofmeasuresfocusedonenergy

efficiencyinthebuiltenvironment,renewable

energysuppliesandcarbonoffsetting.

2005Victorian

Greenhouse

StrategyActionPlan

Update

Toconsolidateandext

endclimatechangepolicy

inthestate,includingto

expandtheregionalpartnershipinitiative.

ProvidedfundingforNAGAandisexpansiontothe

currentmembership.

2007Moreland

ClimateActionPlan

2007-20012

Adoptsazero-net

emissionstargetby2020

forthecounciland2030

forthecommunity

Combinationofmeasuresincludingengagingthe

communityinreducingemissions,switchingto

renewableenergysources,andoffsetting.

2007Commission

forMelbourne

ClimateChange

Taskforce

Toassesstheimpactsof

climatechangeon

Melbourne,thepotential

formitigation,and

opportunitiesforMelbourne.

Acoalitionofeightyprivateandpublicactors

commissionedandreviewedresearch,leadingto

thepublicationofFutureMapin2008.TheTaskforce

hassincedevelopedarangeofspecificinitiatives

(e.g.greenroofscompetition,stafftravelpolicy)andactiongroups(e.g.onretrofitting,cleancoal

technologies).

2008Cityof

MelbourneZeroNet

Emissionsby2020

Aimtoachievezero-net

emissionsforthecouncil

by2020,andareduction

Combinationofmeasuresfocusingonthe

commercialandresidentialsectors,passenger

transportanddecarbonisingenergysupply


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15

StrategyUpdate of50-60%acrossthe

community

2008TowardsZero

NetEmissions

project

Toquantifyregional

emissionsandassessthe

optionsforachievingzero

netemissions

ResearchprojectsponsoredbytheVictorian

SustainabilityFundandundertakenbyArupLtd,due

tobecompletedinautumn2009.

2008MorelandSolar

Cityinitiative

Todevelopasustainable

communityfocusedon

reducingemissionsof

GHGandthe

developmentof

renewableenergy

ApartnershipbetweenMEFL,MorelandCity

Council,theBrotherhoodofStLawrence,

SustainabilityVictoriatoretrofitlowincomehomes,

redevelopabrownfieldsite,engagecommunitiesin

reducingenergyuse,andestablishanenergy

servicescompany.Oneofsevensolarcitiesprojects

sponsoredbytheFederalGovernmentsolarcities

programme,itwillreceiveAU$4.9millionin

funding.

Inadditiontothedevelopmentofclimatechangestrategiesatthemunicipallevel,keymilestonesinthe

evolutionofpolicyinmetropolitanMelbournehaveinvolvedtheestablishmentofnewinstitutional

structuresandpartnershipssuchasMEFL,NAGAandtheClimateChangeTaskforceaswellasnew

sourcesoffundingincludingthoseprovidedbystateandfederalgovernment.Acrossthisgroupof

municipalities,itisthereforepossibletoidentifyfourkeydriversunderpinningtheemergenceofclimate

changepolicyinthemetropolitanarea:thepresenceofkeyindividualsinparticularmunicipal

authorities;theroleofintermediaryorganizationsinprovidingpolicyframeworksandmeansoflinking

activitiesacrossdifferentmunicipalities;resources,particularlyfundingincludingbothexternalfunding

fromfederalandstategovernmentsaswellasinternalschemessuchastheResourceEfficiencyFund

establishedbyDarebinCityCouncilinwhichfinancialsavingsgeneratedfromenergyefficiencyschemes

arereinvestedinnewschemesandinfrastructureswhichhasbeeninoperationsince2002andhas

achievedcumulativesavingsofaround600tonnesayear(DarebinCityCouncil2007:26);andprivate

sectorpartners.Ofthesefactors,theimportanceofintermediaryorganizationsandfundingschemes

cannotbeunderestimated.Onthebasisofthesedrivers,acrossmetropolitanMelbournethereis

evidenceforagrowingmomentumbehindthedevelopmentofpoliciesandinitiativestoaddressclimate

change,althoughtheunderlyingtrendsofgrowinglevelsofpercapitaandtotalemissionsremaina

significantchallenge.

Figure6:DriversandmotivationsforMelbournesclimatechangepolicy

Driver/motivation Examples

Criticalindividuals Policyofficersandpoliticalchampions

Intermediary CCPAustralia,NAGA,MEFL,ClimateChangeTaskforce


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16

organisations

Resources StateandFederalgovernmentfunding;internalfundingmechanisms(e.g.

MEFL,Darebinrevolvingenergyfund)

Partners e.g.OriginEnergyintheCommunityPowerscheme,BrotherhoodofSt

LawrenceinMorelandSolarCity

3.ClimateChangePolicyandAction

Thedriversandmotivationsidentifiedabovehavecontributedtothedevelopmentofastrongpolicy

agendaonclimatepolicyinthemunicipalauthoritiesinnorthmetropolitanMelbourne,primarily

focusedonissuesofmitigation.Inseekingtofulfilthesestrategiesandtheirobjectives,anumberof

goals,measuresandinitiativeshavebeenputintoplacetoreduceemissionsofgreenhousegases

(ResearchQuestion1;Figure5).Previousresearchsuggeststhatmunicipalitiesdeployarangeofmodes,

orways,governingaredeployedincitiestoaddressclimatechange(BulkeleyandKern2006;Bulkeleyet

al.2009).Fourmodesareparticularlysignificantintermsoftherolesthatlocalgovernmentplays: self-

governing,thecapacityoflocalgovernmenttogovernitsownactivities; provision,theshapingof

practicethroughthedeliveryofparticularformsofserviceandresource; regulation,theuseof

traditionalformsofauthoritysuchasregulationandplanninglaw;andenabling,theroleoflocal

governmentinfacilitating,co-ordinatingandencouragingactionthroughpartnershipwithprivateand

voluntarysectoragencies,andtovariousformsofcommunityengagement.Inaddition,itisincreasingly

commontofindprivateactorsundertakingactionstoaddressclimatechangeincitiesacrosstheworld,

eitherindependentlyorinpartnershipwithotherpublicactors(Bulkeleyetal.2009).Suchprivateactors

alsoengageinformsofself-regulation,thedevelopmentofvoluntaryregulationschemesforparticular

sectors,theprovisionofservices,especiallythroughtheimplementationofprojects,andvariousforms

ofenablingactionbyothers,suchaseducationcampaignsandthesharingofbestpractice.Inour

previouscase-studies,LondonandLosAngeles,wefoundthattheactionsdeployedthroughthese

differentmodesofgoverningwereconcentratedinthreemainareas,andforthesakeofcomparisonwe

divideouranalysishereintothesamecategories:leadershipactivities;attemptstoreconfigureenergy

infrastructureswithinthecity;andafocusonchangingthepracticesofindividualsandcorporations.

BelowweconsidertheinitiativesinFigure7inmoredetailundereachofthesecategoriesinorderto

examinethebarriersandopportunitiesthattheyhaveencountered(ResearchQuestion2).

Figure7:PolicymeasuresandinitiativesinnorthmetropolitanMelbourne

Policyinitiatives

(date)

Collaborating

organisations

Goalsandopportunities Challenges

InternalCH2

Building(2006)

CityofMelbourne 6*GreenStarRatedCityof

MelbourneCouncilHouse2

Developinganinner-city

site;ensuring

behaviouralchangeto

maximisebuildingdesign


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17

InternalHulme

CouncilOffice

(2007)

HulmeCityCouncil 5*GreenStarrated

administrativecentre

Ensuringbehavioural

changetomaximise

buildingdesign

Internal-Cityof

MelbourneGreen

(2006)

CityofMelbourne Greenguardianswithinthe

organisation,aWikiinterface

forinformationexchangeand

ideas,andincentivefor

reachinginternaltargetof0.5%

performancerelatedpay

EnergyQueen

VictoriaMarket

SolarEnergy

(2003)

CityofMelbourne Thelargestgrid-connected

solarsysteminthesouthern

hemisphere,canprovide

electricityfor46average

homes

Financialpaybackis

limited

EnergyPublic

LightingAction

Program(2006)

NAGAwithfunding

fromVictorian

Government

Buildcapacityandawareness

withinNAGAlocalcouncilsto

improveenergyefficiencyof

publiclighting

Resistancefrom

commercial

organisations;time

limitedopportunityforintervention(switchover

point)

EnergyGreen

Electricians

programme(2005)

NAGAwithfunding

fromtheAustralian

GreenhouseOffice

Informationsessionson

climatechangeandenergy

efficiencyservicestrainingfor

electricalcontractorsand

relatedservicesacrossthe

NAGAregion.

Energy

CommunityPower

BanyuleCity

Council,DarebinCity

Council,MorelandCityCounciland

MEFL

Provisionofrenewableenergy

tohouseholdersatadiscount

rateforoneyear

Withdrawalofinitial

commercialpartner;

take-upslowingasmessageonavailability

ofgreenpoweroptionsis

nowwidelyknown

Commercial

SavingsintheCity

(2005)

CityofMelbourne,

Sustainability

Victoria,Smart

WaterFund,EC3

Global

Involvementofthirtycity

hotelsinamilestoneand

rewardprogrammetoreduce

energyandwateruse

Lackofsupportfrom

industryassociations

whohavetheirown

voluntarygreenlabel

scheme

CommercialC60

planning

amendment(2005)

CityofMelbourne Mandatoryenergy

performancerequirementof

4.5*forofficedevelopmentsgreaterthan2,500m2

Neededapprovalfrom

thestategovernment

Commercial

Building

Improvement

Partnership

Program

CityofMelbourne,

Sustainable

MelbourneFund,

Victorian

Government

Improveenergy,waterand

wasteperformanceofbuildings

throughassessmentand

assistancewithretrofitoptions

Splitincentivesfor

investinginretrofitting

betweenbuildingowners

andleaseholders


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18

SustainabilityFund

Commercial

energyefficiency

retrofit1200

commercial

buildings(2008)

CityofMelbourne,

ClintonClimate

Initiative

Involvesapproximately5.2

millionsquaremetersof

commercialofficebuildingover

aneightyearperiodto4.5*

standard.Opportunitytowork

withtheCCIprogramme.

Barrierstoretrofitting

includesplitincentives

andupfrontcapitalcosts.

Problemsof

administrativecapacity

andcapacityinthe

energyperformance

contractindustry

Commercial-

Vic1000

Sustainable

Business

Management

Program

NAGA,VillageGreen

(consultancy),

Victorian

Governments

SustainabilityFund

Behaviouralchange

programmeforsmalland

mediumenterprises

Gatheringdatato

providebaseline

assessmentsand

measureprogress;SMEis

atimeandresourcepoor

sector

Domesticenergy

auditingand

retrofitting(2008)

CityofMelbourne Aimtodevelopabusinesscase

fortheaudit12,000

householdsFacilitateretrofittingfor

communalareasin75%high-

riseresidentialdevelopments

andheating/wateras

appropriateandtoprovidea

reputablepointofcontactfor

differentretrofittingschemes

thatareavailable

Failureofsmaller

programmethreeyears

ago,challengesofco-ordinatingacrossexisting

schemesandreducingup

frontcoststo

householders

Domestic

SustainableHomes

programme

BanyuleCity

Council,DarebinCC,

WhittleseaCC,withfundingfrom

Victorian

Government

Programmeaddressingenergy,

water,waste,biodiversityand

travelthroughworkshops,selfauditsandcommitmentsto

action,andfreeSustainability

StarterKits.

Sustainingthe

programmeand

followingthroughoninitialinterestfrom

householders

Domestic-

Sustainability

Street

NAGAwithfunding

fromVictorian

Government

NorthernMetropolitan

Melbourne

CommunityGreenhouseAction

Relativelysmallscaleand

impactonGHGemissions

isnotclear

Domestic

Greenhouse

OutreachWorkers

Darebin,Melbourne

andYarra,with

fundingfrom

AustralianGovernment

Attendcommunityeventsand

provideeducationabout

climatechange,energy

efficientlightsandshowertimers

Shorttermprogramme

(FebruaryMay2007)

Transport

decarbonising

energysupply

CityofMelbourne Aimtoprovidelowcarbonor

cleanenergyfor20%public

transportsystem

Existinginfrastructure

system

Transportcycle

scheme

CityofMelbourne Integratedbikehire,facilities

andinfrastructure

Reliantonrevenuefrom

aproposedcongestion


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19

chargeschemefor

centralMelbourneover

whichstategovernment

hassignificantcontrol

TransportLove

LivingLocal

programme

CityofDarebinand

fundingfrom

Victorian

Government

TravelSmart

Informcommunitiesabout

localserviceprovisionand

encouragetheirusetoreduce

cartravel

Educationcampaigns

oftenfacedwithlackof

impactonbehaviour

WaterClimate

NeutralWater

SavingScheme

CityofMelbourne Promotionofwatersaving

schemesthatdonotcontribute

toincreasedgreenhousegas

emissions

Victorianwaterpolicy

focusesonthe

developmentofnew

formsofwatersupply

3.1Leadership

AswiththecasesofLondonandLosAngeles,inMelbourneopportunitiestoprovideleadershiphavebeencriticaltothedevelopmentofclimatechangepolicy.Inparticular,forafewoftheauthorities

includedinthisstudy,notablytheCityofMelbourne,Darebin,ManninghamandMoreland,municipal

leadershiphascharacterisedtheirapproachtoclimatepolicy.Municipalleadershiphasbeen

demonstratedinthreeways.First,bysettingambitioustargetsforaddressingGHGemissionsand

undertakingearlyactionontheissue.ThesefourmunicipalitieswereamongthefirstinAustraliato

adopttheCCPprogramme,andhavesincesoughttoextendtheirpolicyambitionstowardszeronet

emissionstargets.Second,thereisastrongemphasisongettingourownhouseinorder,ofsignificant

reductionsofemissionsofGHGfromcounciloperations,aleadershipapproachsharedbyallofthe

municipalitiesinthisstudy.Third,therehavebeenvariousprojectstoshowcaseordemonstratethe

possibilitiesofactingonclimatechange,notablythroughthedevelopmentofcuttingedgebuildings,asisthecaseinCityofMelbourneandHulme.Forthemostpart,thisformofleadershiphasbeenachieved

throughvariousformsofinternalorself-governing,andhasbeenanexplicitrationalefortakingaction:

Itsalwaysbeenlockedinaplacewherewewanttobeseenasleaders.Itamazesmeatsome

levelsisthattheeconomicanalysisbehindwhatwevedoneisvery,verypoorIthink.Butit

doesntseemtomatter.Wecouldntshowhowmuchmoneywehavesavedintotalthrough

allofthesethings.Weprobablycantshow,Improbablybeingunfairbutweprobably

couldntshowhowmuchitcostuseither.Weknowasanorganizationthatwhatwevegained

reputationandweknowthatwearemakingMelbourneabetterplacetobeacompetitive

21st

centurycity(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008).

Inadditiontoafocusonmunicipalleadership,therehasbeenanemphasisoncommunityleadership.

ThisisparticularlyevidentinMoreland,whereithasbeenorchestratedinpartthroughtherelationship

betweentheCouncilandtheMEFL.Thishasbeenmanifestbyaparticularfocusonprogrammesto

engagethecommunityinaddressingclimatechange,affectedthroughtheuseofvariousenabling


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modesofgoverning.InthecaseoftheCityofMelbourne,therehasbeenarecentemphasison

internationalleadership,asthemunicipalityhasbecomepartoftheC40groupandtheClintonClimate

Initiative.AstherecentZeroNetEmissionsby2020StrategyUpdate (CityofMelbourne2008:13)

states,thereisgrowingrecognitionthattheCityofMelbourneneedstoalignwithotherlike-minded

climatechangecitiesglobally.Thisinvolvementwithaninternationalcoalitionofcitiesnotonly

providesaccesstoinformationandresources,butalsotothepoliticalkudosthatarisesaspartofbeing

partofaclubofglobalcitiesshowingleadershipontheissueofclimatechange.

Suchformsofleadershiparenot,however,withouttheirchallenges.Afirstissueidentifiedby

intervieweeswasthechallengeofworkingwithintheframeworkofmunicipalgovernance,where

theresonlyacertainamountofmoneythatgoesaround;youstillhavetorepairtheroadsandsweep

thestreets(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008)andquestionsareoftenraisedastowhether

municipalitiesshouldbeleadingonclimatechangeissues.Whileclimatechangeremainsperipheralfor

manymunicipalities,asoneintervieweesuggested,youreconstantlyatriskofdoingtokenchanges

(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008).Asecondchallengerelatedtotheconflictbetweenenvironmental

andeconomicagendas,anissuefoundtobeparticularlypressingattheurbanfringewhereimperatives

foreconomicgrowthanddevelopmentpressuresarestrong,andwherecouncilsputupbarriersto

developmentthatextendbeyond[minimumrequirements]thenpressureisbroughttobearagainst

thecaseforenvironmentalprotection(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008).Afinalchallengeconcerned

thefeasibilityanddeliveryofambitioustargets,andtheneedtoavoidthecreationofgoalssimplybeing

conceivedforpoliticalendswithlittleprospectofthembeingfulfilled.Thedilemmasofsettingrealistic

targets,managingexpectations,andstillseemingtoleadthefieldwereevidentinthediscrepancy

betweensomepolicyrhetoricconcerningtheimportanceoflocalactiononclimatechange,theprimary

focusoninternalemissionsreductionsformycouncils,andgrowinglevelsofemissionsinthe

metropolitancommunity.

3.2Reconfiguringinfrastructures

ifyoulookatwhatthecitiescandothereisnotthatmuchthecitywasbuiltintheearly

1900sandwevegotexistinginfrastructure,wevegotalltheproblemsthatLondonhasand

NewYork,wevegotsomelessbenefitsintermsofurbandestinyperhaps.Ifyoulookatthat

theyyousaywhatarethechoices,whatarethevariables?Thereisnotthatmany:getyour

buildingsright,getyourinfrastructureright.(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008)

Giventhecentralityofinfrastructures,suchasenergynetworksandbuiltenvironments,tothewaysin

whichenergyisconsumedandGHGemissionsareproduced,itisunsurprisingtofindthatreshaping

suchsystemshasbeenoneoftheapproachesadoptedincitiestoaddressclimatechange.In

metropolitanMelbourne,wefindthatintermsofthebuiltenvironment,attentionhasprimarilybeen

focusedonmunicipalbuildingsandinparticularonretrofittingenergyefficiencymeasurestogetherwith

theuseofenergyefficientappliances,althoughanimportantsecondaryareaofworkhasbeeninthe

commercialsector.Inrelationtoenergysystems,akeyissuehasbeenstreetlighting,anissuewith


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whichNAGAhasbeencentrallyconcerned,andtoalesserextenttheemergenceofsomesmall-scale

decentralisedenergygenerationtechnologies.Notably,thereislittleevidenceofanexplicitattemptto

reconfiguredomesticbuildingsinordertoreduceenergyconsumption.Inpartthisreflectsthefactthat

buildingstandardsfornewandrenovatedbuildingsaresetatthestategovernmentlevel(Climate

ChangeTaskforce2008:22),andinVictoriathishasbeenincreasedto5*includingarequirementforall

newstandalonedwellingstohavesolar-gasboostedhotwatersystemsinstalled(CityofMelbourne

2008:33),butalsothetendencyforapproachesinthissectortobefocusedonbehaviouralchange,an

issuewhichwediscussinSection3.3.

Builtenvironment

Thosemunicipalitiesincludedinthisresearchprojecthaveundertakenvariousmeasurestodeveloplow

carbonbuildings.Inthemunicipalsector,twostrategieshavebeenadoptednewdemonstration

buildingsand(retrofitting)energyefficienttechnologies.Municipalbuildingshavebeenusedas

demonstrationprojectstoshowcasetherangeoftechnologiesthatareavailableforaddressingissuesof

environmentalsustainability.ExamplesincludetheCouncilHouse2BuildingintheCityofMelbourne

andtheHulmeCityCouncilBuilding.Intermsoftheuseofenergyefficienttechnologies,inkeepingwith

theCCPfocusonmonitoringemissionsandmeetingtargetsforthereductionofGHGemissionswithin

thecouncil,attentionhasbeengiventomeasuringenergyuseandimplementingsolutionsthatwillbe

cost-effectiveintheshorttomediumterm.OnemechanismthathasbeenusedtodothisisEnergy

PerformanceContracting,whereacommercialorganisationundertakesenergyefficiencymeasureson

behalfofthecouncil,guaranteeingacertainrateofreturnontheinvestmentandinreturnforashare

ofthefinancialsavingsgeneratedbythereductioninenergyuse.Oneintervieweesuggestedthatthe

riseofcouncilslookingforsuchmeasurestobeimplementedaspartoftheCCPprogrammewasinpart

inresponsibleforthegrowingnumberofEnergyPerformanceContractingfirmsoperatingin

Melbourne.However,whilethisapproachmeansthatthecouncildoesnotbearthecapitalcostsofsuch

initiativesnortherisksofthemfailingtoproducefinancialsavings,somehavefoundthatvariationsin

servicelevelsandweatherconditionsmakeitdifficultandresourceintensivetoverifyandpursuelevels

ofguaranteedreturns.IthasnotprovedtobeofvaluetoCounciltopayapremiumforthisguarantee

(DarebinCityCouncil2007:33).Atthesametime,EPCmodelswereseenasoperatingatsomedistance

fromcouncilfacilities,potentiallymissingopportunitiesforreducingenergyuseorundertaking

inappropriatemeasuresbecauseofalackofdetailedknowledgeaboutcouncilfacilitiesandthewaysin

whichtheyareused.Incontrast,intervieweesspokeoftheimportanceofadetailedunderstandingof

thewaysinwhichenergywasusedwithinthebuilding,andtheimportantimpactthishadonthe

potentialtoreduceemissionsofGHG:

itsgotacommercialkitchenattheback,withabit6kWhotwaterboiler.Nowthatwasjust

tickingaway24/7andwasonlyreallyusedontheweekends.So...quitesimplyprocessof

linkingatime-delayswitchtothatan8hourtime-delay,soitcanbeusedonlywhenits

needed,andwhenitsnotitjustshutsdownanddoesntusethatenergy.Andthatsjusta

small,justanexampleofprobablyIthink,ifIrememberrightly,theresabout17similartypes


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22

ofunitsacrossthisprecinctthatarenowtimercontrolledsotheyonlyoperateduring

occupancyhours.Andofcoursepeopledontnoticethedifferencebecauseofcoursewefire

themupanhourbeforepeoplegethereinthemorningsotheresstillenoughhotwaterfora

cuppa.And,takingintoconsiderationissueslikelegionellabacteriayouknowwhenyouvegot

luke-warmwaterandthingslikethat,sowetakethatintoconsiderationwiththetiming

sequence(Interviewee,Melbourne,August2008).

Suchinterventionshavenotbeenwithoutcontestation.Aparticularareaofconflictforonemunicipality

concernedsettingtheindoortemperature:

wesetthosetemperatureswithintheFederalGovtwork...guidelineswhichis19-22Cfor

indoorcomfort,butifyousetitatthelowerendofthosetwoparameters,itstoocold...the

samepeoplecomplain,theyknowitsgoingtobethesamethenextday,buttheydontcome

inandadjustthemselvesinanyshapeorform,theyrewearingexactlythesameclothes,which

areinappropriateforanindoorenvironment,butthatsthewaytheywanttobe.Andthey

wouldrathersomeoneelsedealwiththeproblem.Andtheywillsay:climatechangeisnotmy

problemjustgivemeacomfortableplacetoworkinandyoudealwithclimatechange.Ive

gotalittleplaqueouttheresayingwearappropriateclothing,andthisiswhatthetemperature

shouldbeandlittlethermometersonthewall,buttheywalkstraightpastit(Interviewee,

Melbourne,August2008)

Asthisexampleshows,interventionsaimedatreconfiguringinfrastructuresandthesupplyanduseof

energywithinbuildingsareintimatelyconnectedtoissuesofbehavior(ForesightSEMBEP2008),and

considerationsofwhatconstitutesanappropriatelevelofthermalcomfort.Whilelocalauthoritiesare

engaginginvariousformsofself-governanceinseekingtoreconfiguremunicipalinfrastructures,thisin

turnhasmeantengagingindividualswithinthemunicipalityintoparticularformsofpracticeatwork

whichareopentocontestation.OneofthewaysinwhichtheCityofMelbournehassoughtto

overcomesuchconflictsisthroughinvolvingstaffinthegenerationofideasforenergyefficiencyand

otherenvironmentalimprovementsthroughagreenguardiansscheme,andinteractiveWikiandthe

incentiveofa0.5%performancerelatedpayawardformeetingtargetsinthisarea.

Beyondafocusoncouncilbuildingsandformsofself-governing,modesofregulationandenablinghave

alsobeenusedtoseektomakechangestotheinfrastructureofthecommercialbuiltenvironment,

particularlyintheCityofMelbournewhichcontainsalargecommercialsector.UnderthePlanningand

EnvironmentAct1987(Victoria),theCityofMelbourneintroducedtheC60Planningamendmentto

stipulatethatallnewofficedevelopmentsover2,500squaremetersmustmeetanenergystar

performancerequirementof4.5*.However,byinternationalstandardsforenergyefficientbuildings

thisisnotaveryhighlevelofperformance,andtheirextensionisheavilydependentonthestate

governmentwhomustapproveanychangestoplanningregulationatthemunicipallevel.Oneexample

ofaschemewhichseekstoenablechangeinthecommercialsectorisSavingsintheCity,launchedby

theCityofMelbournein2005asapartnershipwithleadinghotelsinthecitytoreducewasteand


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23

improveenergyandwaterefficiencythroughaprogrammeofretrofittingbuildings.Itisestimatedthat

thethirtyparticipatinghotelssavedover24,000tonnesofGHGemissionsinthefirsttwoyearsofthe

scheme(CityofMelbourne2008:38).However,theschemehasrunintodifficultyinrecruiting

participantsandingettingtheindustryassociationsinvolved.Inpartthisreflectsthefactthatthesector

alreadyhas(lessrigorous)greenstandardsforhotelsinplaceandalsothatthesub-sectoris

comparativelydifficulttoinfluencebecausebusinessesarewaryoflosingtheircompetitiveedgeasa

resultofcostlyretrofitting,oraperceivedlossofamenity(CityofMelbourne2008:42).

EnergySystems

Inadditiontoworkinthebuiltenvironment,inmetropolitanMelbournethereisevidencethataction

hasfocusedonthedevelopmentoflow-carbonenergyinfrastructures.Reflectingthetendencyamongst

municipalitiesinthecitytofocusonissuesclosetotheircorebusinessandoverwhichtheyhavea

degreeofdirectinfluence,akeyissuehasbeenpubliclighting.Publicorstreetlightingrepresentsa

significantproportionofcorporateemissionsformunicipalitiesinMelbourneafterthebuilt

environment:

ItsthesecondbiggestbyalongwayandmostofthecouncilsinVictoriawouldbethesame.

Infactits41%ofthecorporategreenhousegasemissionsfromcouncilandtheironyofthatis

thatits41%wherebuildingsIthinkare43%...andthat41%wehaveabsolutelynocontrol

over.Wepayforit,we...providepubliclightingbutwehavenocontroloverwhat

technologyisusedandhowitsmaintainedandoffered(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008)

InVictoria,themajorityofpublicstreet-lightsareownedandmaintainedbydistributors(Darebin

CityCouncil2007:28),whichincludethelargestenergycompaniesinAustralia.Whilemunicipalities

haveadutytoprovideadequatepubliclightingandpayforitsprovision,theythereforehavelittlesay

overhowitisdelivered.Oneofthereasonswhytheissueiscurrentlyhighontheagendaof

municipalitiesacrossMelbourneisthatinseveralmunicipalitiesthelarge-scalechange-overof

lightbulbs,whichtakesplaceeverytwentyyearsorso,isimminent.Switchingtoenergyefficiencybulbs

couldsavesignificantlevelsofGHGemissionsperyear(estimatedbyonecouncilat4,000tonnesayear)

aswellasreducingoperatingcosts,butwillhaveahighcapitaloutlayupfront.Forthisreason,some

municipalitieshavefounditdifficulttoarguethecaseforlow-carbonpubliclighting,andhavefound

theirargumentsforaddressingclimatechangeinthismanneropposedbylocalpoliticianswhotendto

bemoreskepticalofclimatechangeasanissueandprimarilyfocusedoncostconcerns.Thisisanareain

whichNAGAhavebeenparticularlyactive,poolingexpertisefromacrossthemunicipalities,developing

sustainablepubliclightingactionplansformunicipalities,gainingfundingtoundertaketechnicaland

economicstudiesofthefeasibilityofenergyefficientlighting,andlobbyingforchangeinstate

regulationsandamongsttheenergydistributors.Inthismanner,NAGAhasbeenabletoprovidea

consistentandcollectivevoiceontheissue,andonethatisregardedasmoreconvincingandless


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imbuedwiththeinternalpoliticsofindividualcouncils.9However,todateitsimpactintermsofshaping

thechangeovertoenergyefficientpubliclightingismoredifficulttodiscern,withintervieweescitingthe

legacyofinefficientinfrastructuresestablishedinaneraofcheapandplentifulbrowncoalandthe

currentpressuresofcostasparamountinshapingthedecisionstakeninindividualmunicipalities.

Outsideofthearenaofpubliclighting,therehasbeencomparativelylittlediscussioninMelbourneover

thedevelopmentofalternativesystemsofenergyprovisioninthecity.Stateandfederalgovernment

programmeshaveprovidedfinancialandregulatoryincentivesfortheuptakeofsolarhotwaterand

photovoltaicsystemsbyhouseholders,suchassubsidiesandtheinclusionofsolarhotwaterasa

requirementforreachingtherequiredenergystarratingsfornewbuildhomes[check].However,

photovoltaicandothermicro-generationschemes(suchaswind)remainuneconomic,andtherehas

beenrelativelylittlepromotionoruptakeamongstmunicipalitiesofthesetechnologiesasidefromsome

demonstrationprojects(e.g.QueenVictoriaMarketintheCityofMelbourne).Thedevelopmentof

feed-intariffsthatfavoursuchtechnologies,allowingthemtofeedelectricitybackintothegridfor

financialgain,iscurrentlyunderconsiderationandmayservetochangetheeconomicsaroundsomeof

thesetechnologies.However,undercurrentconditionsintervieweesstressedtheneedtofocuson

energyefficiencyratherthanthedevelopmentofalternativetechnologiesofenergysupply.Atthesame

time,thedebateonthedecentralisationofenergysupplysystems,orthedevelopmentofco-generation

schemesforheating,coolingandlighting(CombinedCoolingHeatandPower)hasnotbeensignificant.

Whilesomeleisurecentreshaveusedco-generationschemes,wheretheeconomicsofprovidinghot

water,spaceheatingandelectricityisinfavourofsuchapproaches,awiderdebateaboutthepotential

ofdecentralisedenergygenerationisyettotakeplace,reflectingonceagainthelegacyofanenergy

supplysystemdominatedbyplentifulandcheapfossilfuelresources.

3.3Changingpractice

AthirdkeyfeatureoftheapproachadoptedforaddressingclimatechangeinmetropolitanMelbourne

hasbeentheuseofvariousstrategies,primarilyinanenablingmode,tochangeeverydaypracticesin

ordertoreduceGHGemissions.Therearetwoapproachesthathavebeenadopted:first,the

developmentanduseofdataconcerningenergyuseasaninstrumenttofacilitatebehaviouralchange;

andsecond,thedevelopmentofschemesforengagingcommunitiesinnewformsoflow-carbon

practice.Werevieweachinturn.

Amongstthemunicipalitiesandotheractorsinvolvedinthisresearchproject,data,andinparticular

accuratedataconcerningenergyuse,GHGemissionsandcosts,wasseentobeofkeyimportancein

facilitatingbehaviouralchange.Thedevelopmentofanunderstandingoftheemissionsprofileand

trajectoryhasbeenakeypartoftheCCPcampaignanditsfivemilestonesforaddressingclimatechange

atthelocallevel.Interestingly,forseveralofthemunicipalitiesinterviewedforthisstudy,theCCP

programmewasnotseenasofferingsufficienttoolsforthecollectionofaccurateandusefuldata,

9See:http://www.naga.org.au/naga/project/152/formoreonthepubliclightingprojectatNAGA.


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dependentasitisonthedownscalingofemissionsfromregionaltolocallevelsontheuseofsomebasic

indicators.Somemunicipalities,includingDarebin,MorelandandCityofMelbourne,havedeveloped

tailor-madeapproachesforestimatingcorporateand/orcommunityemissions.Indeed,suchapproaches

havebeencriticaltothedevelopmentofpolicyapproachesinthesemunicipalities.Insomecases,it

seemsthatthelackofgoodqualitydataagainstwhichprogressinaddressingemissionsatthe

communitylevelcanbetrackedisactingasasignificantbarriertoundertakinginitiativestoreduce

emissionsoutsideofthecouncilitself(DarebinCityCouncil2007:22).Elsewhere,similarapproaches

basedontheuseofdataasameansofenactingbehavioralchangehavebeenadoptedthroughthe

developmentofschemestoaudithouseholdorcommercialenergyuseasafirststeptowards

retrofittingorothersortsofpracticalchanges.Twoprogrammesseekingtoworkwithsmalland

mediumsizedenterprisesinMelbournetoimproveenvironmentalefficiencyandcreatefinancial

savingsGrownMeTheMoneyandCarbonDownalsoworkonthebasisofgatheringdataonexisting

resourceuseinordertodeviseactionplansforreducingresourceuseandwaste.Whilesuch

approachesmakeintuitivesensefrequentlycapturedinthephrase,ifyoucantmeasureit,youcant

manageitamongstintervieweestheyalsohavesignificantdrawbacks.First,dataavailabilityisakey

challenge,asoneofthoseinvolvedwiththeGMTMschemeexplained:

thereisanactualprogrammewithstepsthattheyneedtogothrough.Sotheystartoff,they

register,theygiveusdetailsabouttheirbillsinthepast...andthatsbeenadifficultthingtoget

informationfromthemtostartoffwithitsdifficultbecauseifyoudonthavethatthenyou

dontreallyhaveanythingattheendintermsofresults,but,wevehad,outofthose500

wevehad50businesseswhovegottothepointwheretheyvegivenusanactionplanof

thingstheyregoingtodo(Interviewee,Melbourne,August2008)

Atthescaleofmunicipalcommunities,dataonenergyconsumptionanduseisnotreadilyavailable

andtherearesignificantcostsinvolvedingettingthedatafromenergycompaniesandmakingit

usableforlocalauthorities.Furthermore,havingthedataisinsufficientthereneedtobe

mechanismsfortranslatingthisknowledgeintopolicyandaction:

weveengagedaconsultanttogetourdatafromtheelectricitycompaniessotheyre

actuallygettingallofourdataelectronicallyandputtingitintoasoftwarepackageandthen

givingittous.Anditbreaksdowneverythingfrombuildings,type,usagedaily...allthosesorts

ofthings...buttheotherthingis...itsonethingtohavethedataitsanothertoactuallyuseit

tohavesomeonewhoactuallycaresaboutitsowerekindoflinkingthesethingsintothe

sustainablebuildingsprogrammeandKPI[keyperformanceindicators](Interviewee,


Asthisquotesuggests,informationalonehaslittleimpactonpracticeandbehaviouralchangeratherit

isthewayinwhichitisusedandbywhomthatmatters.Thisdistinctionisclearlyrecognizedacrossthe

localauthoritiesinvolvedinthisresearchproject,andindeedonecentralaimforthesemunicipalities

hasbeentocreatemoreflexibledatasetsthatcanbeusedinanumberofwaysfordifferentpurposes.


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Morefundamentally,however,researchontheroleofknowledgeanddatainthepolicyprocessraises

questionsabouttheextenttowhichsignificantchangesareachievedthroughtheaccumulationof

knowledge,whileworkonthedriversofbehavioralchangeequallypointtothemarginalrolethat

informingthepubliccanhaveonachievingsignificantchangesinpractice(Owens2000).Rather,dataof

thiskindcanplayanimportantpoliticalandsymbolicroleinmakingthecaseforactingonclimate

change,ondemonstratingpotentialeconomicefficienciesandinopeningcommunicationbetween

householdsorbusinessesandlocalauthorities.Equally,toomuchofafocusonthegatheringofdataas

thefirststepinaddressingclimatechangemayinfactbedetrimentaltoachievingactionbecauseit

drawsattentiontothoseactionsthatcanbeaccountedfor(inpartexplainingtheoverwhelmingfocus

oninternalemissionsreductionsacrossmunicipalitiesinmetropolitanMelbourne)andcanbeusedby

thoseopposedtotakingactionasareasonnottoproceed.Thissuggeststhatwhileanemphasison

rigorousdatacollectionandanalysiscanempoweractiononclimatechangeatthelocallevel,actingto

informpolicyandtomakemunicipalitiesaccountablefortheirefforts(Interviewee,Melbourne,July

2008),itcanalsounderminetheseeffortsandinitiativesthatoperateonthisbasiswillneedtoproceed

withcaution.

ManyoftheinitiativesaimedatsecuringbehaviorchangeinMelbourne,asinourothercase-study

cities,arebasedondifferentformsoftheenablingmodeofgovernanceundertakenbymunicipalities.

Whilemanyfocusontheprovisionofdataandinformationabouthowhouseholdsandbusinessescan

makeenergyimprovementssuchasaudits,workshops,andhomevisitsorconsultationsaboutthe

technicalmeasuresavailableothersoperateonthebasisofofferingincentivesfortakingaction.One

exampleinmetropolitanMelbourneistheCommunityPowerscheme,currentlyalocalinitiativeof

Darebin,WhitehorseandMorelandCityCouncilsandtheMorelandEnergyFoundation,whichaimsto

reducecommunitygreenhousegasemissionsbyincreasingtheuptakeofGreenPowerandpromoting

energyconservation.10

OriginatedbyDarebin,severaldifferentmunicipalitiesinMelbournehavebeen

involvedintheschemesinceitsinceptionin2003.Designedasameansofpromotingtheuptakeof

renewableenergy,theschemeinvolved:

Encourag[ing]peopletobuygreenpoweranditwasthesoftapproachsoessentiallyifyou

signuptocommunitypower,whichisendorsedbythecouncil,theproviderofthatpowerwill

giveyoua20%greenpoweroptionatnoextracostforthefirst12months.Soitstogetyou

usedtobuyinggreenpower...afterthat12monthperiodyoudgoontopaythenormalrate

(Interviewee,Melbourne,August2008)

Despiteinitialenthusiasmforthescheme,somesuggestthatuptakehasfalteredmorerecently,inpart

causedbythehiatusintheprogrammeduetothewithdrawaloftheoriginalcommercialpartner(AGL)

andtheslowprocessofforminganewpartnershipwithOriginEnergy,butalsobecausethemessage

concerningtheavailabilityofgreenpowerisnowwidespread(Interviewee,Melbourne,August2008).

Themixedsuccessofthisschemesuggeststhat,alongwithbetterinformation,economicincentivesare

10

See:http://www.communitypower.org/(accessedJune2009)


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onlypartofthemeansthroughwhichcommunity-basedactiononclimatechangecanbeenabled.As

somemunicipalitiesandotherorganizationsinMelbournerecognize,creatingbehaviouralchangeisa

complexmatterwhichrequiresmultipleformsofengagement.Oneschemewhichtryingamoremulti-

faceted approach is the Sustainable Homes scheme, in which Banyule, Darebin and Whittlesea

participate,andwhichinvolvesacombinationofhomeaudits,workshops,prizesandotherincentives,

andseekingcommitmentsforactiononthepartofhouseholdersinvolved(DarebinCityCouncil2007:

61).Whatisparticularlynotableabouttheprogrammeisitsfocusnotonenergyandclimatechangeper

se,butonthebroadercontextwithinwhichhouseholdpracticesaredetermined:

whenIfirststartedwewerestillfocusingonthesaveenergy[message]andnowitscreating

insteadof conserving tocreatea sustainablehome so its amore positive label. Being

involvedinsomethingmoreexciting than just switchingoff lights.AndIm tryingto connect

peoplewith architects,with plumbers, with thesort of professionals that they actually like

accessto,butcostalot(Interview,Melbourne,August2008)

By seekingto engagehouseholderswith a setof aspirational practices andconnecting them with

professional expertise, this programme acknowledges the ways in which energy behaviours are

influencedbyarangeofotherdriversandfactors.Similarly,MEFLacknowledgethatinundertaking

home energy audits, theyare frequently facednot with issues ofdata,knowledge, incentivesor

technologies,butwitheverydaypractice:

WhenEuanWilliamsonfromMEFLvisitedtomakeanenergyauditontheirsmallterrace

houseinBrunswick,hewasfacedwithadifficulttaskthathadnothingtodowithenergy

saving,andalltodowithcustoms,habitsandexpectationsofcomfort.11

Governingthroughenablingisthereforeacomplextaskformunicipalities,involvingnotonlythe

provisionofinformationandincentives,butalsoamorefundamentalunderstandingofthewaysin

whichenergyconservationisfacilitatedandconstrainedbyroutinesandeverydaypractice.

4.Workingtogether?

Urbanresponsestoclimatechangecannotbeneatlycontainedwithintheboundaryofthecitylimitsor

thecorridorsofmunicipalgovernment.Rather,citiessuchasMelbournearerequiredtoworktogether

witharangeofpartners,withstateandnationalgovernment,andinthecontextofinternationalpolicy.

Theseinteractionscanprovideadditionalbarriersandopportunitiesforactionatthecity-scale

(ResearchQuestion2),aswediscussbelow.

4.1Partnership:public-privateandpublic-publicco-operation

11

See:http://www.mefl.com.au/household/project/12/(accessedJune2009)


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Unlikesomeothercitiesincludedinthisproject,notablyLondon,partnershipsbetweenmunicipal

authoritiesandtheprivate(corporate)sectorseekingtoaddressclimatechangearerelativelyrarein

Melbourne.Inpartthisreflectsahistoricallackofengagementbetweenthesetwogroupsofactorsand

acontinuingproblemofcommunicationwhereactorsintheprivatesectorperceivegovernment(atall

levels)toberatherdistantandself-contained,whilemunicipalitiesoftenregardprivatesector

organisationsasdisinterestedintheissuesofclimatechangeandsustainability.Thereare,nonetheless,

someexamplesofemergingpublic-privateformsofpartnershipwithinthecityaddressingclimate

change.OneexampleisthatofCommunityPower,discussedabove.Morerecently,theCommitteefor

MelbourneestablishedaClimateChangeTaskforcetoassesstherisksofclimatechangetothecityand

theopportunitiesforaction.Attractingsomeeightyparticipants,representingadiversesetofprivate

andpublicbodiesacrossthecity12

,theTaskforcepublishedFutureMap:Melbourne2030in2008,and

hassincebeeninvolvedinvariousschemestoengagemembersmoredirectlyinaddressingclimate

change.Bymakingclimatechangealocalissue,theCommitteeforMelbournefoundthatitwas

possibletodevelopinterestandfocusontheissue:

Whentheseissuesseembigandglobalanddisconnecteditslessinspiringormotivatingor

urgent.Whentheyarelocalandconnectedthenyougetmoreattentionandfocusandweare

hopingthatpeoplewillgetintoit.Infactpartoftheopportunitiessectionweare

encouragingourmemberstoactuallygetinvolvedinthingsratherthanjustcontinually

[lobbying]theGovernmentforregulationchanges(Interviewee,Melbourne,August2009).

Followingthereport,severalworkinggroupsonissuesasdiverseascleancoaltechnologies,staff

travel,greenprocurementandthechallengesfacinglow-incomerentershavebeenestablished

throughwhichtocontinuethepartnershipanddevelopresponsestoclimatechange.13

Thissuggests

thatpublic-privatepartnershipapproachestogoverningclimatechangeinMelbourneareembryonic,

and,inparticularinrelationtotheCityofMelbournewheremostlargecommercialorganizationsin

thecityarebased,likelytogrowoverthenextfewyears.

Therelativelackofpartnershipsacrossthepublic/privatedividedoesnot,however,meanthat

partnershiphasbeenabsentfromthestrategiesdeployedtogovernclimatechangeinMelbourne.A

criticalaspectofgoverningclimatechangeinthecityhasbeentheuseofpublic-publicpartnerships,

betweenmunicipalitiesandbetweenmunicipalauthoritiesandnon-governmentalorganizations.A

keyorganizationthathasorchestratedtheresponseoflocalauthoritiesinthenorthernmetropolitan

regionofMelbourneisNAGA.Initiatedinformallyasaagroupofwilfulindividuals(Interviewee,

MelbourneJuly2008),NAGAsfoundingmembersaretheCitiesofBanyule,Darebin,Hume,

Moreland,Whittlesea,NillumbikShireCouncilandtheMorelandEnergyFoundationLimited(MEFL);

inearly2006[withfundingfromtheVictorianGovernment],theCitiesofManningham,Melbourne

andYarrajoinedNAGA(NAGA2006).IncontrasttotheCCPprogramme,whichwhilecriticalin

12

See:http://www.melbourne.org.au/taskforces/project/climate-change-taskforce1/foralistofmembers13

See:http://www.melbourne.org.au/taskforces/project/climate-change-taskforce1/


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initiatingcity-basedactiononclimatechangewasseenlargelytohaverunitscourseforthis

particularsetoflocalauthorities,NAGAwasregardedasacrucialforumforclimatechangeworkfor

threereasonstheexchangeofideasandinformation,itsstrategicrole,anditsabilitytoleverage

additionalfundingforthosemunicipalitieswhoareinvolved:

justatareallybasiclevel,iswegettogetherandwetalkabouteverything:whatsgoing

on,whatarethebigissues...sowetalkaboutsupporting...asupportingnetwork.Its...quite

technicallyaware...aquitestrategic...angleonitandthinkaboutwhatthebigissuesarehow

weregonnagetthere,whatthebarriersaresowepulltogetherprojectsthatarereally

meaningfultous.Thenweapplytothestateforfundingandwerealwayssuccessfulbecause

theyreprojectsthatareworthwhileandmeaningful...(Interviewee,Melbourne,August,

2008).

Oneofthemostinnovativeexamplesofpartnershipbetweenthepublicsectorandnon-governmental

organisationscanbefoundintheMorelandSolarCityinitative,wherethemunicipality,MEFL,and

SustainabilityVictoriaareworkingwiththeBrotherhoodofStLawrence(BSL),anotforprofit

organisationestablishedinthe1930stoaddressissuesofpoverty.Inthisinitiative,onepartofthe

schemewillfocusondeliveringenergyauditsandretrofitstolow-incomehouseholdsinMoreland.In

responsestoclimatechangeatthecitylevel,itisraretoseeafocusonissuesofpovertyandsocial

inclusioncombinedwithaddressingissuesofenergyconservation,asthisprojectandotherinitiativesin

whichBSLisinvolvedseektodo.14

Whilepartnershipisthereforenotaprimarymeansthroughwhich

governingclimatechangeinMelbourneistakingplace,thereareinnovativeexamplesofbothpublicand

privateformsofpartnershipwhichcouldsettheagendaforothercitiesintheworld.

4.2Multilevelambiguity:therolesofstateandfederalgovernments

GiventhehistoryoftheAustralianFederalgovernmentsresponsetoclimatechange(Section2),the

relationshipbetweenlocal,stateandfederalgovernmentsontheissuehasbeensometimespositive,

occasionallyantagonistic,atothermomentsambiguous,andcurrentlyinastateofsomeflux.With

relativelylittleinfluenceoverthekeyinfrastructures,economicdriversandregulatorymeasuresthat

shapetheprovisionofenergyanditsusewithinthecity,municipalitiesrecognizedtheimportantroleof

federalandstategovernmentsinshapingthecontextwithinwhichmunicipalpoliciesoperated,andalso

theirkeyroleinfinancingmuchofwhathashappenedattheurbanscaleonclimatechangeoverthe

pastdecade.Ingeneral,thestanceoftheRuddgovernmenttowardsclimatechangeandtherecent

signatureoftheKyotoProtocolwaswelcomedbythoseinterviewedinMelbourne,butwithanoteof

caution:

Therewasquitealotofanticipationinthiscountrycertainlyfromourpointofviewandthe

communitypointofviewwiththechangeofFederalgovernmentlastNovemberbutitsquite

14

See:http://www.bsl.org.au/main.asp?PageId=5390(accessedJune2009)


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differentnow,wesortoffeellikethegovernmentmadealotofpromisesandtheyredropping

theballabit...(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008).

Onetheonehand,thenewapproachtotheinternationalarenabythefederalgovernmentwasseenas

thelastnailinthecoffinofargumentsconcerningtherealityofclimatechangeoroftheimportanceof

takingactionontheissue,andhencewelcomedbymunicipalitiespursuingthisagenda.Ontheother

hand,therewasconcernabouttheextenttowhichthefederalgovernmentwasgoingtofollowthrough

onitspromisesandalsoaboutthewaysinwhichthiswasbeingdone.Inparticular,concernswere

expressedaboutthepossibleintroductionofanemissionstradingscheme,atthetimeunder

considerationbytheGarnautReview,anditsimplicationsforlocalauthorities.Whilesomewelcomed

themove,whichitwasconsideredwouldincreaseenergypricesandthereforemakethecaseforenergy

efficiencyclearer,otherswereconcernedabouttheimpactonmunicipalbudgetsandonpoorer

sectionsofthecommunity.Equally,confusionoverthegovernmentspolicyinrenewableenergy,

includinghowdifferenttechnologieswouldbetreatedundertherevisedMRETscheme,anditsfitwith

anypossibleemissionstradingschemewerealsoexpressed.Therewasawidespreadfeelingthatthe

leadershipontheissueofclimatechangethatsomanymunicipalitieshadbeenpressingforhadyetto

beforthcoming:

PeoplegenerallywantleadershipfromFederalGovernmentinthisspaceandthereisalittle

bitofshallwewait,shallwego,shallwewait.Sothereisalittlebitofwaitandsee

(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008).

Atthestategovernmentlevel,participantsequallyrecognisedtheimportantrolethattheVictorian

governmenthadplayedinchampioningclimatechangeintheabsenceoffederalgovernment

leadership,inintroducingenablinglegislationaroundrenewableenergyandenergyefficiency,andin

providingfundingforregionalpartnerships(inthiscase,NAGA),aswellasspecificprogrammesand

schemes.Municipalitiesrecognisedtheirdependenceonthestategovernmentintheserespects,but

alsoquestionedwhetherstategovernmentpolicywassufficientlyjoinedupinternally:

IthinktheStateGovernmenttalksagoodtalk.Ithinktheyarestillgenuinelyabitconfused

Wewillneedtheirsupportandwewillneedtoworkinpartnershipineverythingthatwedo

wecanonlyachievesomuchwithouttheirsupport.Wecanpushthemalittlebitharder.It

wouldbegreatifitgottoapointwheretheywererunningfasterthanwewerebutwenotin

thatstate(Interviewee,Melbourne,July2008)

WerehavingmoretroublewiththeStategovernmentatthemoment...theyvejustbrought

inanetfeed-intariff[but]theyhavetobelessthan2kWanditsonlyforresidential[and]

theyvejustannouncedanewcoalfiredpowerstation...ohandtheyretalkingaboutputting

an18laneroadtunnelfromtheeasttothewest...theyjustloveroads...theresalways

freewayonthegoinVictoria(Interviewee,Melbourne,August2008).


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Inpart,thisreflectsthepressurethatstate(andfederal)governmenthasexperiencedfrominterest

groupsseekingtoopposeadditionalcostsorchangeestablishedwaysofdoingbusiness(Bulkeley

2001a),andanticipatednegativeresponsesfromthepublictomeasuresthatmightrestrictdemand

forenergyandmobility.Forexample,theintroductionofmandatory5*standardsfornewresidential

housingattractedsignificantoppositionfromthehousingindustrywhosoughttooverturnthe

decisionthroughappealtothefederalgovernment.Ontheotherhand,itreflectsthedeeply

ingrainednatureofdependenceoffossilfuelsinAustraliaandperverseincentivestoconsume

energy.Inturn,thisdependenceonafossilfueleconomyinturnraisesconcernsatthestateand

federalgovernmentlevelsabouttheimpactonparticularsectorsoftheworkforceandparticular

regionsofpoliciestoaddressclimatechange.

5.Internationalclimatepolicyandthenewurbanglobal

Thethirdresearchquestionposedbythisprojectrelatestothesignificanceofpost-2012climatepolicy

forglobalcities,andhowdevelopmentsattheurbanlevelmightaffectinternationalclimatepolicy.In

Melbourne,aswithourcase-studiesofLondonandLosAngeles,theinternationalclimatepolicyarena

wasseentohavelittledirectimpactonclimatechangepolicyresponsesandtheprocessofinternational

negotiations,andinparticularthedetailofwhatwasorwasnottobeincludedinapost-Kyoto

agreement,wasseentobeoflittlesignificance.

However,the indirectimpactofinternationalclimatepolicywasnotable.First,theresponseonthepart

oftheinternationalcommunitytoaddressclimatechangeprovidedthemainimpetusforactionatthe

municipallevelamongpioneerlocalauthoritiesinthelate1990sandabasisforsustainingtheir

argumentthatsuchactionwasbothnecessaryandmorallyappropriateinthefaceofrecalcitranceon

thepartoftheAustralianfederalgovernment.Second,asdiscussedabove,therecentengagementon

thepartoftheRuddadministrationwiththeinternationalpolicyprocess,andthesuiteofmeasuresto

beintroduceddomesticallyasaresultofthisnewdirection,havesignificantimplicationsformunicipal

authoritiesandareleadingtosomethingofahiatusinmunicipalresponsesastheywaitforclear

directionfromthefederallevel.Inthismanner,boththefailureoftheAustraliangovernmenttoengage

withtheinternationalpolicyprocessanditsrecentconversiontothiscausehavehadsignificant

influenceoverhowclimatechangeresponseshavedevelopedinMelbourne.

Atthesametime,aswealsowitnessedinLondonandLosAngeles,inMelbournethereisagrowing

emphasisontheemergenceofanurbanglobalarenawithrespecttoclimatechange,withinwhich

citiesareconstructingaparticularsetofresponsestothechallengesofclimatechange:

ThereisalsorecognitionoftheneedfortheCityofMelbournetoalignwithotherlikeminded

climatechangecities.Ataninternationallevelasignificantnumberofcityauthorities,suchas

theGreaterLondonArea,NewYorkCityandTokyohavenowdevelopedandareimplementing

climatemitigationstrategiesthatmovebeyondthosedefinedwithintheoriginalZeroNet

2002(CityofMelbourne2008:2)


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FortheCityofMelbourne,andsomeoftheprivatesectorpartnersinvolvedwiththeClimateChange

Taskforce,thepresenceofICLEI-Oceania,C40andtheClintonClimateInitiativeinthecityareimportant

signsofthepotentialrolethatMelbournecanplaygloballyinaddressingclimatechange,aswellas

sourcesofpoliticalsupportandleverage:

basedinMelbourneisICLEI.WevehadClintonClimateinitiativebasedhereIthinkhaving

thosesortofprogrammesbasedheredoesillustrateourdesiretogetonwiththings

MelbourneisoneoftheC40andreallythesizeofthecitywouldnormallyprecludeusfrom

thatandIthinkthereareonlyacoupleofcityoursizethatareinthatgroup(Interviewee,


Ratherthanbeingbaseddirectlyonanengagementwiththeinternationalprocessofclimatechange

negotiations,anotherglobalarenainwhichMelbournemayplaykeyroleisthereforeattheheart

ofthemunicipalresponsetoclimatechange.However,asattentionshiftsfromtheICLEICCP

programmetootherformsofpartnershipandcollaboration,thisisanarenainwhichonlytheCityof

Melbourneisanactivepartici

Documents

Governing Climate Change Post-2012: The Role of Global Cities - Melbourne