Goody Watt 1968 Consequences

7/17/2019 Goody Watt 1968 Consequences

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LITERACY

IN TRADITIONAL

SOCIETIESEDITED BY

JACK GOODY

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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSCAMBRIDGE

LONDON NEW YORK NEW ROCHELLE

MELBOURNE SYDNEY

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>eh"&io7! with the !em"i.i.#-e"t7!e% o- %oi") )i-e'F

1 I am gra teful t t!e mem"er# f t!e #em$%ar % l$tera&' at t!e Afr$&a%

Stu($e# Ce%tre

Cam"r$(ge $% 1)*+ fr t!e$r l$,el' $%tere#t a%( &mme%t# a%(

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Au(re' R$&!ar(# a%( E#t!er G('0 Mar El,$%/ Mat!e. H(gart/ Ia%

Watt a%(

Wu%(erle' Stau(er !a,e ma(e !el-ful &mme%t# a%( #ugge#t$%#0



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THE CONSE2UENCES O3LITERACY

by 4a& g(' and $a% .att

The "epte$ t!ip"!tite $i&i%io.% o- the -o!m") %t7$y o- m".6i.$% p"%t".$ o- hi% p!e%e.t "!e to " o.%i$e!">)e ete.t >"%e$o. m".% $e&e)opme.t?!%t o- )".#7"#e ".$ )"te! o- w!iti.#' Loo6e$ "t i. the

pe!%peti&e o- time1m".% >io)o#i") e&o)7tio. %h"$e% i.to p!ehi%to!y whe.he >eome% ")".#7"#e/7%i.# ".im")8 "$$ w!iti.#1 ".$ hi%to!y p!ope!>e#i.%' Loo6e$"t i. " tempo!") pe!%peti&e1 m". "% ".im") i% %t7$ie$p!im"!i)y >y the3oo)o#i%t1 m". "% t")6i.# ".im") p!im"!i)y >y the".th!opo)o#i%t1 ".$ m"."% t")6i.# H ".$ w!iti.# ".im") p!im"!i)y >y the%oio)o#i%t' Th"t the $i=e!e.ti"tio. >etwee. the%e "te#o!ie%

%ho7)$ >e -o7.$e$ o.$i=e!e.t mo$e% o- omm7.i"tio. i% )e"!)y"pp!op!i"te8 it w"% )".#7"#eth"t e.">)e$ m". to "hie&e " -o!m o- %oi")o!#".i3"tio. who%e !".#e ".$omp)eity we!e $i=e!e.t i. 6i.$ -!om th"t o- ".im")%8whe!e"% the %oi")o!#".i3"tio. o- ".im")% w"% m"i.)y i.%ti.ti&e ".$#e.eti"))y t!".%mitte$1th"t o- m". w"% )"!#e)y )e"!.e$ ".$ t!".%mitte$&e!>"))y th!o7#h the 7)t7!")he!it"#e' The >"%i% -o! the )"%t two $i%ti.tio.%1 tho%e

>"%e$ o. the $e&e)op/me.t o- w!iti.#1 i% e97"))y )e"! to the ete.t th"t "%i#.i?".t 97".tityo- w!itte. !eo!$% "!e "&"i)">)e1 the p!ehi%to!i". yie)$%to the hi%to!i".8".$ to the ete.t th"t ")ph">eti") w!iti.# ".$ pop7)"!)ite!"y imp)y .ew



mo$e% o- %oi") o!#".i3"tio. ".$ t!".%mi%%io.1 the".th!opo)o#i%t te.$% toyie)$ to the %oio)o#i%t'

B7t why A.$ how The!e i% .o "#!eeme.t ">o7tthi% 97e%tio.1 .o!e&e. ">o7t wh"t the "t7") >o7.$"!y )i.e% >etwee..o./)ite!"te ".$ )ite!"te7)t7!e% "!e' At wh"t poi.t i. the -o!m")i3"tio. o- pito#!"ph% o! othe!#!"phi %i#.% ". we t")6 o- :)ette!%1 o- )ite!"y A.$

wh"t p!opo!tio. o- the %oiety h"% to w!ite ".$ !e"$ >e-o!e the 7)t7!e "%" who)e ". >e$e%!i>e$ "% )ite!"te The%e "!e %ome o- the m".y !e"%o.% why the ete.t

to whih the!e i%".y $i%ti.tio. >etwee. the "!e"% ".$ metho$%pe7)i"! to ".th!opo)o#y".$ %oio)o#y m7%t >e !e#"!$e$ "% p!o>)em"ti8 ".$the $iJ7)ty "=et%.ot o.)y @the >o7.$"!ie% o- the two $i%ip)i.e% >7t ")%othe ."t7!e o- the

i.t!i.%i $i=e!e.e% i. thei! %7>@et m"tte!'F

The!ee.t t!e.$ h"% >ee. -o!1 Sme .r$ter# ($#t$%gu$#! t!e 5el( f #&$al a%t!r-lg' frm t!at f

#&$lg' % t!e

"a#$# f 4$t# #u"4e&t matter 6$0e0 t!e #tu(' f %%7l$terate r %%7

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Anthropology

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ACK GOODY AND IAN ATT

".th!opo)o#i%t% to %p!e"$ thei! .et mo!e wi$e)y ".$ e.#"#e i.the %t7$yo- i.$7%t!i") %oietie% %i$e >y %i$e with thei! %oio)o#i")o))e"#7e%' e". .o )o.#e! "ept the &iew th"t ".th!opo)o#i%t% h"&e "%thei! o>@eti&ethe %t7$y o- p!imiti&e m".1 who i% h"!"te!i3e$ >y ":p!imiti&e mi.$1whi)e %oio)o#i%t%1 o. the othe! h".$1 o.e!. them%e)&e%with i&i)i3e$m".1 who%e "ti&itie% "!e #7i$e$ >y :!"tio.") tho7#ht ".$te%te$ >y(

)o#io/empi!i") p!oe$7!e%' The !e"tio. "#"i.%t %7heth.oe.t!i&iew%1 howe&e!1 h"% .ow #o.e to the poi.t o- $e.yi.# th"tthe $i%ti.tio.>etwee. .o./)ite!"te ".$ )ite!"te %oietie% h"% ".y %i#.i?".t&")i$ity' Thi%po%itio. %eem% o.t!"!y to o7! pe!%o.") o>%e!&"tio.8 ".$ %o ith"% %eeme$wo!thwhi)e to e.97i!e whethe! the!e m"y .ot >e1 e&e. -!omthe mo%tempi!i") ".$ !e)"ti&i%t %t".$poi.t1 #e.7i.e i))7mi."tio. to >e$e!i&e$ -!om" -7!the! o.%i$e!"tio. o- %ome o- the hi%to!i") ".$ ".")ytip!o>)em%o..ete$ with the t!"$itio.") $ihotomy >etwee. .o./)ite!"te ".$ )ite!"te%oietie%'THE CULTURAL TRADIT ION IN NON7LITERATE SOCIETIES

o! !e"%o.% whih wi)) >eome )e"! it %eem% >e%t to >e#i.with " #e.e!")i3e$$e%!iptio. o- the w"y% i. whih the 7)t7!") he!it"#e i%t!".%mitte$ i..o./)ite!"te %oietie%1 ".$ the. to %ee how the%e w"y% "!eh".#e$ >y thewi$e%p!e"$ "$optio. o- ".y e"%y ".$ e=eti&e me".% o- w!itte. om/

m7.i"tio.'he. o.e #e.e!"tio. h".$% o. it% 7)t7!") he!it"#e to the

.et1 th!ee-"i!)y %ep"!"te item% "!e i.&o)&e$' i!%t1 the %oiety p"%%e% o.it% m"te!i")p)".t1 i.)7$i.# the ."t7!") !e%o7!e% "&"i)">)e to it%mem>e!%' Seo.$)y1 itt!".%mit% %t".$"!$i3e$ w"y% o- "ti.#' The%e 7%tom"!y



TE CONSEUENCES O LITERACY

F

w"y% o- >eh"&i.#"!e o.)y p"!t)y omm7.i"te$ >y &e!>") me".%8 w"y% o- oo6i.# -oo$1 o- #!owi.# !op%1 o- h".$)i.# hi)$!e. m"y >e t!".%mitte$ >y$i!et imit"tio.'B7t the mo%t %i#.i?".t e)eme.t% o- ".y h7m". 7)t7!e "!e7.$o7>te$)yh"..e))e$ th!o7#h wo!$%1 ".$ !e%i$e i. the p"!ti7)"! !".#eome".i.#%".$ "ttit7$e% whih mem>e!% o- ".y %oiety "tt"h to thei!&e!>") %ym>o)%'

The%e e)eme.t% i.)7$e .ot o.)y wh"t we h">it7"))y thi.6 o- "% 7%tom"!y>eh"&io7! > 7t ")%o %7h item% "% i$e"% o- %p"e ".$ time1#e.e!")i3e$ #o")%".$ "%pi!"tio.%1 i. %ho!t the Weltanschauung o- e&e!y %oi")#!o7p' I.D7!6heim% wo!$%1 the%e "te#o!ie% o- the 7.$e!%t".$i.# "!e:p!ie)e%%i.%t!7me.t% o- tho7#ht whih the h7m". #!o7p% h"&e)">o!io7%)y -o!#e$th!o7#h the e.t7!ie% ".$ whe!e they h"&e "7m7)"te$ the>e%t o- thei!

i.te))et7") "pit") ;D7!6heim F<F F<0' The !e)"ti&eo.ti.7ity o- the%e"te#o!ie% o- 7.$e!%t".$i.# -!om o.e #e.e!"tio. to ".othe!i% p!im"!i)ye.%7!e$ >y )".#7"#e1 whih i% the mo%t $i!et ".$omp!ehe.%i&e ep!e%%io.o- the %oi") epe!ie.e o- the #!o7p' The t!".%mi%%io. o- the &e!>") e)eme.t% o- 7)t7!e >y o!")

me".% ". >e&i%7")i3e$ "% " )o.# h"i. o- i.te!)o6i.# o.&e!%"tio.%>etwee. mem>e!%o- the #!o7p' Th7% ")) >e)ie-% ".$ &")7e%1 ")) -o!m% o-

6.ow)e$#e1 "!eomm7.i"te$ >etwee. i.$i&i$7")% i. -"e/to/-"e o.t"t8".$1 "% $i%ti.t-!om the m"te!i") o.te.t o- the 7)t7!") t!"$itio.1 whethe! it>e "&e/p"i.ti.#% o! h".$/"e%1 they "!e %to!e$ o.)y i. h7m".memo!y'




+

The i.t!i.%i ."t7!e o- o!") omm7.i"tio. h"% "o.%i$e!">)e e=et7po. >oth the o.te.t ".$ the t!".%mi%%io. o- the 7)t7!")!epe!toi!e' I.the ?!%t p)"e1 it m"6e% -o! " $i!et.e%% o- !e)"tio.%hip>etwee. %ym>o) ".$!e-e!e.t' The!e ". >e .o !e-e!e.e to :$itio."!y $e?.itio.%1.o! ".wo!$% "7m7)"te the %7e%%i&e )"ye!% o- hi%to!i"))y&")i$"te$ me".i.#%1whih they "97i!e i. " )ite!"te 7)t7!e' I.%te"$1 the me".i.#

o- e"hQwo!$i% !"ti?e$ i. " %7e%%io. o- o.!ete %it7"tio.%1 "omp".ie$>y &o") i./etio.% ".$ phy%i") #e%t7!e%1 ")) o- whih om>i.e top"!ti7)"!i3e >othit% %pei? $e.ot"tio. ".$ it% "epte$ o..ot"ti&e 7%"#e%' Thi% p!oe%% o- $i!et %em".ti !"ti?"tio.1 o- o7!%e1 ope!"te% 7m7)"ti&e)y8".$ "% " !e%7)tthe tot")ity o- %ym>o)/!e-e!e.t !e)"tio.%hip% i% m!eimme$i"te)y e/pe!ie.e$ >y the i.$i&i$7") i. ". e)7%i&e)y o!") 7)t7!e1 ".$

i% th7% mo!e$eep)y %oi")i3e$'

O.e w"y o- i))7%t!"ti.# thi% i% to o.%i$e! how the !".#e o- &o">7)"!y i." .o./)ite!"te %oiety !eet% thi% mo$e o- %em".ti!"ti?"tio.' It h"% o-te.>ee. o>%e!&e$ how the e)">o!"tio. o- the &o">7)"!y o- %7h" %oiety !e/et% the p"!ti7)"! i.te!e%t% o- the peop)e o.e!.e$' Thei.h">it".t% o- the P"i? i%)".$ o- Le%7 h"&e .ot o.e1 >7t " $o3e. o! %o1wo!$% -o! pi#%

;Pow$e!m"6e! F< +<+8 e.)e F< /F01 "o!$i.# to%e1 o)o7!1".$ whe!e they ome -!om" p!o)iity whih mi!!o!% theimpo!t".e o- pi#% i. " $ome%ti eo.omy th"t othe!wi%e i.)7$e% -ew%o7!e% o- p!otei.' The o!o))"!y o- thi% p!o)iity i% th"t whe!e ommo. emph"%e%




".$ i./te!e%t%1 whethe! m"te!i") o! othe!wi%e1 "!e .ot %pei?"))yi.&o)&e$1 the!ei% )itt)e &e!>") $e&e)opme.t' M")i.ow%6i !epo!te$ th"t i. the T!o>!i".$%the o7te! wo!)$ w"% o.)y ."me$ i. %o -"! "% it yie)$e$ 7%e-7)thi.#%1 7%e-7)1th"t i%1 i. the &e!y >!o"$e%t %e.%e8F ".$ the!e i% m7h othe!te%timo.yto %7ppo!t the &iew th"t the!e i% ". i.tim"te -7.tio.")"$"pt"tio. o- )"./

#7"#e i. .o./)ite!"te %oietie%1 whih o>t"i.% .ot o.)y -o! the!e)"ti&e)y%imp)e ".$ o.!ete %ym>o)/!e-e!e.t% i.&o)&e$ ">o&e1 >7t")%o -o! themo!e #e.e!")i3e$ : "te#o!ie% o- 7.$e!%t".$i.# ".$ -o! the7)t7!") t!"$itio."% " who)e'

I. ". e%%"y he w!ote i. o))">o!"tio. with M"7%%1 * De97e)97e% -o!me%

1 Br%$#la.= Mal$%.#$/ > T!e ?r"lem f Mea%$%g $% ?r$m$t$,e La%guage# @/ $%

C0 K0

Og(e% a%( I0 A0 R$&!ar(#/ The Meaning of Meaning 6L%(%/ 1)*8/ --0 <)*7*/

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-0 10 But #ee al# t!e &r$t$&al &mme%t# "' Clau(e L,$7Strau##/ La Penséesauvage

6?ar$#/ 1)*<8/ --0 */ 1;71*0

p!imiti&e% $e )"%%i?"tio.1F D7!6heim t!"e% thei.te!o..etio.% >etwee.the i$e"% o- %p"e ".$ the te!!ito!i") $i%t!i>7tio. o- theA7%t!")i". ">o!i#i.e%1the 7.i o- the P7e>)o "!e" ".$ the Sio7 o- the G!e"t P)"i.%' Thi% i.te!/me%hi.# o- wh"t he "))e$ the o))eti&e !ep!e%e.t"tio.% withthe %oi")mo!pho)o@#y o- " p"!ti7)"! %oiety i% )e"!)y ".othe! "%peto- the %"me$i!et.e%% o- !e)"tio.%hip >etwee. %ym>o) ".$ !e-e!e.t' 7%t"% the mo!eo.!ete p"!t o- " &o">7)"!y !eet% the $omi.".t i.te!e%t%o- the %oiety1%o the mo!e ">%t!"t "te#o!ie% "!e o-te. )o%e)y )i.6e$ to the"epte$te!mi.o)o#y -o! p!"#m"ti p7!%7it%' Amo.# the LoD"#"" o-




4

.o!the!.Gh"."1 $"y% "!e !e6o.e$ "o!$i.# to the i.i$e.e o- .ei#h>o7!i.#m"!6et% 8 the &e!y wo!$ -o! $"y ".$ m"!6et i% the %"me1 ".$the * wee6)y *y)e i% " %i/$"y !e&o)7tio. o- the mo%t impo!t".t m"!6et% i.the &ii.ity1" y)e whih ")%o $e?.e% the %p"ti") !".#e o- e&e!y$"y"ti&itie%'+

The w"y i. whih the%e &"!io7% i.%tit7tio.% i. ". o!") 7)t7!e"!e 6ept

i. !e)"ti&e)y )o%e "ommo$"tio. o.e to ".othe! %7!e)y>e"!% $i!et)yo. the 97e%tio. o- the e.t!") $i=e!e.e >etwee. )ite!"te ".$.o./)ite!"te%oietie%' A% we h"&e !em"!6e$1 the who)e o.te.t o- the%oi") t!"$itio.1"p"!t -!om the m"te!i") i.he!it".e%1 i% he)$ i. memo!y' The%oi") "%pet%o- !emem>e!i.# h"&e >ee. emph"%i3e$ >y %oio)o#i%t% ".$p%yho)o#i%t%1p"!ti7)"!)y >y M"7!ie ")>w"h%' h"t the i.$i&i$7")!emem>e!% te.$%

to >e wh"t i% o- !iti") impo!t".e i. hi% epe!ie.e o- them"i. %oi")!e)"tio.%hip%' I. e"h #e.e!"tio.1 the!e-o!e1 the i.$i&i$7")memo!y wi))me$i"te the 7)t7!") he!it"#e i. %7h " w"y th"t it% .ewo.%tit7e.t% wi))"$@7%t to the o)$ >y the p!oe%% o- i.te!p!et"tio. th"t B"!t)ett"))%:!"tio.")i3i.# o! the :e=o!t "-te! me".i.#8 ".$ wh"te&e!p"!t% o- it h"&ee"%e$ to >e o- o.tempo!"!y !e)e&".e "!e )i6e)y to >ee)imi."te$ >y the

p!oe%% o- -o!#etti.#' The %oi") -7.tio. o- memo!y".$ o- -o!#etti.#". th7%

>e %ee. "%the ?.") %t"#e o- wh"t m"y >e "))e$ the homeo%t"tio!#".i3"tio. o- the7)t7!") t!"$itio. i. .o./)ite!"te %oiety' The )".#7"#e i%$e&e)ope$ i.




i.tim"te "%%oi"tio. with the epe!ie.e o- the omm7.ity1".$ it i% )e"!.e$

1 L'Année sociologique/ ,u 61)<78/ --0 17+<0 See al# S0 C<am.#$t >Le

mr&elleme%t

(e l@te%(ue et #a l$m$tat$% (a%# la rel$g$% et la mag$e Actes du congrès

international

d'histoire des religions 6?ar$#/ 1)<;8/ 1/ --0 )7;)0< Ja& G('/ u%-u"l$#!e( 5el( %te#/ 1);7<0 See al# E0 E0 E,a%#7?r$t&!ar(/ The

Nuer

6Ofr(/ 1)8/ &!a-0 / > T$me a%( S-a&eF/ a%( Da,$( Ta$t/ The on!o"#a of

Northern

$hana 6L%(%/ 1)*18/ --0 1+ 0 3r a ge%eral treatme%t f t!e #u"4e&t/ #ee A0

Ir,$%g

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socio)

logique% Fe #r$e/ 1 61)78/ --0 $71++ La Mé"oire collective 6?ar$#/ 1);80 See

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f $(ea#

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6Cam7

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TE CONSEUENCES O LITERACY>y the i.$i&i$7") i. -"e/to/-"e o.t"t with the othe!mem>e!%' h"to.ti.7e% to >e o- %oi") !e)e&".e i% %to!e$ i. the memo!ywhi)e the !e%ti% 7%7"))y -o!#otte. ".$ )".#7"#ep!im"!i)y &o">7)"!yi%the e=eti&eme$i7m o- thi% !7i") p!oe%% o- %oi") $i#e%tio. ".$e)imi."tio. whihm"y >e !e#"!$e$ "% ".")o#o7% to the homeo%t"tio!#".i3"tio. o- the h7m".>o$y >y me".% o- whih it "ttempt% to m"i.t"i. it% p!e%e.t

o.$itio. o- )i-e'I. $!"wi.# "tte.tio. to the impo!t".e o- the%e "%%imi)"ti.#

meh".i%m%i. .o./)ite!"te %oietie%1 we "!e $e.yi.# .eithe! theo7!!e.e o- %oi")h".#e .o! yet the :%7!&i&")% whih it )e"&e% i. it% w"6e' No!$o we o&e!/)oo6 the ei%te.e o- m.emo.i $e&ie% i. o!") 7)t7!e% whiho=e! %ome!e%i%t".e to the i.te!p!et"ti&e p!oe%%' o!m")i3e$ p"tte!.%o- %peeh1!eit") 7.$e! !it7") o.$itio.%1 the 7%e o- $!7m% ".$ othe!

m7%i") i./%t!7me.t%( e emp)oyme.t o- p!o-e%%io.") !emem>!".e!%")) %7h-"to!% m"y %hie)$ "t )e"%t p"!t o- the o.te.t o- memo!y-!om the t!".%/m7ti.# i.7e.e o- the imme$i"te p!e%%7!e% o- the p!e%e.t' The ome!iepi%1 -o! i.%t".e1 %eem to h"&e >ee. w!itte. $ow. $7!i.#the ?!%t e.t7!yo- G!ee6 )ite!"t7!e >etwee. ".$ , B0C0 / >7t :they )oo6to " $ep"!te$e!"1 ".$ thei! %7>%t".e i% 7.mi%t"6">)y o)$ ;i.)ey F<4

+,0'ith the%e 97")i?"tio.%1 howe&e!1 it %eem% o!!et to

h"!"te!i3e thet!".%mi%%io. o- the 7)t7!") t!"$itio. i. o!") %oietie% "%homeo%t"ti i.&iew o- the w"y i. whih it% emph"%i% $i=e!% -!om th"t i.)ite!"te %oietie%'



TE CONSEUENCES O LITERACY The $e%!iptio. o=e!e$ h"%1 o- o7!%e1 >ee. et!eme)y">%t!"t8 >7t " -ew*i))7%t!"ti&e e"mp)e% i. o.e impo!t".t "!e"th"t o- how thet!i>") p"%ti% $i#e%te$ i.to the omm7.") o!ie.t"tio. o- the p!e%e.tm"y %e!&e tom"6e it )e"!e!'

Li6e the Be$o7i. A!">% ".$ the e>!ew% o- the O)$ Te%t"me.t1 the Ti& peop)e o- Ni#e!i" #i&e )o.# #e.e")o#ie% o- thei! -o!e>e"!%1whih i.

thi% "%e %t!eth %ome twe)&e #e.e!"tio.% i. $epth >"6 to ".epo.ymo7%-o7.$i.# ".e%to!'F Neithe! the%e #e.e")o#ie%1 .o! theBi>)i") )i%t% o- the$e%e.$".t% o- A$"m1 we!e !emem>e!e$ p7!e)y "% -e"t% o- memo!y' They%e!&e$ "% m.emo.i% -o! %y%tem% o- %oi") !e)"tio.%' he. o.hi% $e"th>e$ "o> $e)i&e!e$ p!opheie% ">o7t the -7t7!e o- hi% twe)&e%o.%1 he %po6eo- them "% the twe)&e t!i>e% o! ."tio.% o- I%!"e)' It wo7)$%eem -!om the

"o7.t i!i Ge.e%i% th"t the #e.e")o#i") t">)e% he!e !e-e! too.tempo!"!y#!o7p% !"the! th". to $e"$ i.$i&i$7")%8+ the t">)e%p!e%7m">)y %e!&e to

1 Laura B!a%%a%/ >A Ge%ealg$&al C!arter@/ Africa% WWII 61);<8/ --0 171; Emr'#

?eter#/ >T!e ?rl$ferat$% f Segme%t# $% t!e L$%eage f t!e Be(u$% f

C're%a$&a@/

+ournal of the *oyal Anthropological ,nstitute% & 6$)*8/ --0 <)7;0 See al#

G(fre'

a%( M%$&a W$l#%/ The Analysis of Social &hange 6Cam"r$(ge/ 1);8/ -0 <+0< C!0 ) furt!er e,$(e%&e #u--rt$%g t!$# a##um-t$% $# fu%( $% t!e et'mlg' f

t!e

He"re. term Toledot% .!$&! r$g$%all' (e%te( >ge%ealg$e#@/ a%( a##ume( al#

t!e

mea%$%g f >#tr$e# a%( a&&u%t#@ a"ut t!e r$g$% f a %at$%0 FI% t!$# #e%#e t!e

term.a# al# a--l$e( t t!e a&&u%t f t!e &reat$% f !ea,e% a%( eart! @ 6Slm%

Ga%(/

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!e#7)"te %oi") !e)"tio.% "mo.# the twe)&e t!i>e% o- I%!"e) i. "m"..e!%imi)"! to th"t whih h"% >ee. we)) ".")y%e$ i. E&".%/P!ith"!$% wo!6;F<40 o.' the N7e! o- the %o7the!. S7$". ".$ o!te%*"o7.t ;F<40 o- the T"))e.%i o- .o!the!. Gh"."'

E"!)y B!iti%h "$mi.i%t!"to!% "mo.# the Ti& o- Ni#e!i" we!e"w"!e o- the#!e"t impo!t".e "tt"he$ to the%e #e.e")o#ie%1 whih we!eo.ti.7"))y

$i%7%%e$ i. o7!t "%e% whe!e the !i#ht% ".$ $7tie% o- o.em". tow"!$%".othe! we!e i. $i%p7te' Co.%e97e.t)y they too6 the t!o7>)eto w!ite $ow.the )o.# )i%t% o- ."me% ".$ p!e%e!&e them -o! po%te!ity1 %oth"t -7t7!e"$mi.%t!"to!% mi#ht !e-e! to them i. #i&i.# @7$#eme.t' o!tyye"!% )"te!1whe. the Boh"..".% "!!ie$ o7t ".th!opo)o#i") ?e)$ wo!6 i.the "!e"1thei! %7e%%o!% we!e %ti)) 7%i.# the %"me #e.e")o#ie%'F

owe&e!1 the%e

w!itte. pe$i#!ee% .ow #"&e !i%e to m".y $i%"#!eeme.t%8 the Ti& m"i.t"i.e$th"t they we!e i.o!!et1 whi)e the oJi")% !e#"!$e$ them "%%t"teme.t% o- -"t1 "% !eo!$% o- wh"t h"$ "t7"))y h"ppe.e$1 ".$ o7)$ .ot"#!ee th"tthe 7.)ette!e$ i.$i#e.e% o7)$ >e >ette! i.-o!me$ ">o7t thep"%t th". thei!ow. )ite!"te p!e$ee%%o!%' h"t .eithe! p"!ty !e")i3e$ w"%th"t i. ".y%oiety o- thi% 6i.$ h".#e% t"6e p)"e whih !e97i!e "o.%t".t !e"$@7%t/

me.t i. the #e.e")o#ie% i- they "!e to o.ti.7e to "!!y o7tthei! -7.tio."% m.emo.i% o- %oi") !e)"tio.%hip%' The%e h".#e% "!e o- %e&e!") 6i.$% tho%e "!i%i.# -!om the

t7!.o&e! i.pe!%o..e)1 -!om the p!oe%% o- :>i!th ".$ op7)"tio. ".$$e"th8 tho%e




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o..ete$ with the !e"!!".#eme.t o- the o.%tit7e.t 7.it% o- the %oiety1with the mi#!"tio. o- o.e #!o7p ".$ ?%%io. o- ".othe!8 ".$)"%t)y tho%e!e%7)ti.# -!om the e=et% o- h".#e% i. the %oi") %y%temit%e)-1 whethe!#e.e!"te$ -!om withi. o! i.iti"te$ -!om witho7t' E"h o- the%eth!ee p!o/e%%e% ;whih we m"y !e-e! to -o! o.&e.ie.e "% thep!oe%%e% o- #e.e!"/tio.")1 o!#".i3"tio.") ".$ %t!7t7!") h".#e0 o7)$ )e"$ to

")te!"tio.% o- the 6i.$ i8o whih the "$mi.i%t!"tio. o>@ete$'

It i% o>&io7% th"t the p!oe%% o- #e.e!"tio. )e"$% i. it%e)- to" o.%t".t)e.#the.i.# o- the #e.e")o#y8 o. the othe! h".$1 thepop7)"tio. to whihit i% )i.6e$ m"y i. -"t >e #!owi.# "t 97ite " $i=e!e.t !"te1pe!h"p% %imp)y!ep)"i.# it%e)-' So $e%pite it% i.!e"%i.# )e.#th the #e.e")o#ym"y h"&e to!e-e! to @7%t "% m".y peop)e "t the p!e%e.t time "% it $i$ ?-ty1" h7.$!e$1

o! pe!h"p% two h7.$!e$ ye"!% "#o' Co.%e97e.t)y the "$$e$$epth o- )i.e"#e% "7%e$ >y .ew >i!th% .ee$% to >e "omp".ie$ >y "p!oe%% o- #e.e")o#i") %h!i.6"#e8 the o7!!e.e o- thi% te)e%opi.#p!oe%%1 "ommo. e"mp)e o- the #e.e!") %oi") phe.ome.o. whih 'A' B"!.e%

> Oral Tra($t$% $% t!e B$"le @ in +e-ish Studies in Me"ory of $eorge A. ohut% e(0

Sal W0

Bar% a%( Alea%(er Mar/ Ne. Yr/ 1);/ -0 <*)8/1 A Ge%ealg$&al C!arter/ -0 10

h"% -e)iito7%)y te!me$ :%t!7t7!") "m.e%i"1 h"% >ee.

"tte%te$ i. m".y%oietie%1 i.)7$i.# ")) tho%e me.tio.e$ ">o&e ;B"!.e% F<4

4/,8 o!te%x944

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O!#".i3"tio.") h".#e% )e"$ to %imi)"! "$@7%tme.t%' The%t"te o- Go.@"i. .o!the!. Gh"." i% $i&i$e$ i.to " .7m>e! o- $i&i%io.")



hie-$om%1 e!t"i.o- whih "!e !eo#.i3e$ "% p!o&i$i.# i. t7!. the !7)e! o- thewho)e ."tio.'he. "%6e$ to ep)"i. thei! %y%tem the Go.@" !eo7.t howthe -o7.$e! o- the %t"te1 N$ew7!" "6p"1 "me $ow. -!om the Ni#e! Be.$ i.%e"!h o- #o)$1 o.97e!e$ the i.$i#e.o7% i.h">it".t% o- the "!e" ".$e.th!o.e$ him/%e)- "% hie- o- the %t"te ".$ hi% %o.% "% !7)e!% o- it% te!!ito!i")$i&i%io.%' At

hi% $e"th thie $i&i%io.") hie-% %7ee$e$ to the p"!"mo7.tyi. t7!.' he.the $et"i)% o- thi% %to!y we!e ?!%t !eo!$e$ "t the t7!. o- thep!e%e.t e.t7!y1"t the time( the B!iti%h we!e ete.$i.# thei! o.t!o) o&e! the"!e"1 "6p"w"% %"i$ to h"&e >e#otte. %e&e. %o.%1 thi% o!!e%po.$i.# tothe .7m>e! o- $i&i%io.% who%e he"$% we!e e)i#i>)e -o! the %7p!eme oJe >y&i!t7e o- thei!$e%e.t -!om the -o7.$e! o- the p"!ti7)"! hie-$om' B7t "tthe %"me time

"% the B!iti%h h"$ "!!i&e$1 two o- the %e&e. $i&i%io.%$i%"ppe"!e$1 o.e >ei.#$e)i>e!"te)y i.o!po!"te$ i. " .ei#h>o7!i.# $i&i%io. >e"7%eit% !7)e!% h"$%7ppo!te$ " M".$i.#o i.&"$e!1 S"mo!i1 ".$ ".othe! >e"7%eo- %ome>o7.$"!y h".#e% i.t!o$7e$ >y the B!iti%h "$mi.i%t!"tio.'Sity ye"!%)"te!1 whe. the myth% o- %t"te we!e "#"i. !eo!$e$1 "6p"w"% !e$ite$with o.)y ?&e %o.% ".$ .o me.tio. w"% m"$e o- the -o7.$e!%o- the two

$i&i%io.% whih h"$ %i.e $i%"ppe"!e$ -!om the po)iti") m"p'F

The%e two i.%t".e% -!om the Ti& ".$ the Go.@" emph"%i3eth"t#e.e")o#ie% o-te. %e!&e the %"me -7.tio. th"t M")i.ow%6i)"ime$ -o!myth8 they "t "% :h"!te!% o- p!e%e.t %oi") i.%tit7tio.%!"the! th". "%




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-"ith-7) hi%to!i") !eo!$% o- time% p"%t ;F<+, +1 40' They". $o thi%mo!e o.%i%te.t)y >e"7%e they ope!"te withi. ". o!") !"the!th". " w!itte.t!"$itio. ".$ th7% te.$ to >e "7tom"ti"))y "$@7%te$ toei%ti.# %oi")!e)"tio.% "% they "!e p"%%e$ >y wo!$ o- mo7th -!om o.emem>e! o- the%oiety to A.othe!' The %oi") e)eme.t i. !emem>e!i.# !e%7)t%i. the#e.e")o#ie% >ei.# t!".%m7te$ i. the o7!%e o- >ei.#

t!".%mitte$8 ".$ "%imi)"! p!oe%% t"6e% p)"e with !e#"!$ to othe! 7)t7!")e)eme.t% "% we))1 tomyth%1 -o! e"mp)e1 ".$ to %"!e$ )o!e i. #e.e!")' Deitie% ".$othe! %7pe!/."t7!") "#e.ie% whih h"&e %e!&e$ thei! p7!po%e ". >e97iet)y $!oppe$-!om the o.tempo!"!y p".theo.8 ".$ "% the %oietyh".#e%1 myth% too "!e-o!#otte.1 "tt!i>7te$ to othe! pe!%o."#e%1 o! t!".%-o!me$ i.thei! me".i.#'

O.e o- thHe mo%t impo!t".t !e%7)t% o- thi% homeo%t"ti

te.$e.y i% th"t1 Ja& G('/ u%-u"l$#!e( 5el( %te#/ 1);*7+ t!e !ea(# f t!e ($,$#$%# .!

&ul( %t

#u&&ee( t t!e -aramu%t&' al# &la$me( (e#&e%t frm #%# f t!e fu%($%g

a%&e#tr/

Ja-a/ "ut t!$# .a# %t a% $%tr$%#$& -art f t!e m't! a# u#uall' tl(/ a%( $% a%'

&a#e t!e$r

%um"er rema$%e( &%#ta%t (ur$%g t!e -er$( $% 9ue#t$%0



ACK GOODY AND IAN ATTthe i.$i&i$7") h"% )itt)e pe!eptio. o- the p"%t eept i. te!m%o- the p!e%e.t 8whe!e"% the "..")% o- " )ite!"te %oiety "..ot >7t e.-o!e "mo!e o>@eti&e!eo#.itio. o- the $i%ti.tio. >etwee. wh"t w"% ".$ wh"t i%'!".3 Bo"%w!ote th"t -o! the E%6imo the wo!)$ h"% ")w"y% >ee. "% it i%.ow'F It %eem%p!o>">)e1 "t )e"%t1 th"t the -o!m i. whih .o./)ite!"te%oietie% o.ei&ethe wo!)$ o- the p"%t i% it%e)- i.7e.e$ >y the p!oe%% o-

t!".%mi%%io.$e%!i>e$' The Ti& h"&e thei! #e.e")o#ie%1 othe!% thei! %"!e$t")e% ">o7tthe o!i#i. o- the wo!)$ ".$ the w"y i. whih m". "97i!e$ hi%7)t7!e'B7t ")) thei! o.ept7")i3"tio.% o- the p"%t "..ot he)p >ei.##o&e!.e$ >ythe o.e!.% o- the p!e%e.t1 me!e)y >e"7%e the!e i% .o >o$yo- h!o.o/)o#i"))y o!$e!e$ %t"teme.t% to whih !e-e!e.e ". >e m"$e' The Ti& $o.ot !eo#.i3e ".y o.t!"$itio. >etwee. wh"t they %"y .ow

".$ wh"t they%"i$ ?-ty ye"!% "#o1 %i.e .o e.$7!i.# !eo!$% ei%t -o! themto %et >e%i$ethei! p!e%e.t &iew%' Myth ".$ hi%to!y me!#e i.to o.e thee)eme.t% i. the7)t7!") he!it"#e whih e"%e to h"&e " o.tempo!"!y!e)e&".e te.$ to>e %oo. -o!#otte. o! t!".%-o!me$ 8 ".$ "% the i.$i&i$7")% o- e"h #e.e!"tio."97i!e thei! &o">7)"!y1 thei! #e.e")o#ie%1 ".$ thei! myth%1they "!e 7./"w"!e th"t &"!io7% wo!$%1 p!ope! ."me% ".$ %to!ie% h"&e

$!oppe$ o7t1 o!th"t othe!% h"&e h".#e$ thei! me".i.#% o! >ee. !ep)"e$'

KINDS O3 WRITING AND THEIR SOCIAL E33ECTS

The p"%t .e%% o- the p"%t1 the.1 $epe.$% 7po. " hi%to!i")%e.%i>i)ity whih". h"!$)y >e#i. to ope!"te witho7t pe!m".e.t w!itte.



ACK GOODY AND IAN ATT!eo!$%8 ".$w!iti.# i.t!o$7e% %imi)"! h".#e% i. the t!".%mi%%io. o- othe! item% o- the 7)t7!") !epe!toi!e' B7t the ete.t o- the%e h".#e% &"!ie%with the."t7!e ".$ %oi") $i%t!i>7tio. o- the w!iti.# %y%tem8 &"!ie%1th"t i%1 "o!$/i.# to the %y%tem% i.t!i.%i eJ"y "% " me".% o- omm7.i"tio.1 ".$"o!$i.# to the %oi") o.%t!"i.t% p)"e$ 7po. it1 th"t i%1 the$e#!ee to

whih 7%e o- the %y%tem i% $i=7%e$ th!o7#h the %oiety'E"!)y i. p!ehi%to!y1 m". >e#". to ep!e%% him%e)- i. #!"phi

-o!m8 ".$hi% "&e p"i.ti.#%1 !o6 e.#!"&i.#% ".$ woo$ "!&i.#% "!emo!pho)o#i"))y1".$ p!e%7m">)y %e97e.ti"))y1 the -o!e!7..e!% o- w!iti.#' By%ome p!oe%%o- %imp)i?"tio. ".$ %ty)i3"tio. they "ppe"! to h"&e )e$ to the&"!io7%6i.$% o- pito#!"ph% -o7.$ i. %imp)e %oietie% ;Ge)> F<++40' hi)epito#!"ph% them%e)&e% "!e ")mo%t 7.i&e!%")1 thei!

$e&e)opme.t i.to " %e)-/%7Jie.t %y%tem "p">)e o- ete.$e$ $i%o7!%e o7!% o.)y"mo.# theP)"i.% I.$i".% ;Voe#e)i. F<,F 41 <F0'

Pito#!"ph% h"&e o>&io7% $i%"$&".t"#e% "% me".% o- omm7.i"tio.'

1 3ra% Ba#/ >T!e 3llre f t!e E#$m/ +ournal of A"erican Fol!lore/ LWIV

61)8/

-0 <0 L ,$7Strau## treat# t!e a"#e%&e f !$#tr$&al %.le(ge a# %e f t!e

($#t$%&t$,e

feature# f la pensée sauvage $% &%tra#t t la pensée do"estiquée /La Pensée

sauvage/ -0 )84




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o! o.e thi.# " &"%t .7m>e! o- %i#.% "!e .ee$e$ to !ep!e%e.t")) the im/po!t".t o>@et% i. the 7)t7!e' o! ".othe!1 %i.e the %i#.% "!eo.!ete1the %imp)e%t %e.te.e !e97i!e% ". et!eme)y e)">o!"te %e!ie%o- %i#.% m".y%ty)i3e$ !ep!e%e.t"tio.% o- wi#w"m%1 -ootp!i.t%1 totemi".im")% ".$ %oo. "!e !e97i!e$ @7%t to o.&ey the i.-o!m"tio. th"t "p"!ti7)"! m". )e-t

the!e " -ew $"y% "#o' i."))y1 howe&e! e)">o!"te)y the %y%temi% $e&e)ope$1o.)y " )imite$ .7m>e! o- thi.#% ". >e %"i$'

The e.$ o- the -o7!th mi))e..i7m %"w the e"!)y %t"#e% o- the $e&e)opme.to- mo!e omp)e -o!m% o- w!iti.#1 whih %eem to >e ".e%%e.ti") -"to!i. the !i%e o- the 7!>". 7)t7!e% o- the O!ie.t' The m"@o!ity o- %i#.% i.the%e %y%tem% we!e %imp)y pit7!e% o- the o7t%i$e wo!)$1%t".$"!$i3e$!ep!e%e.t"tio.% o- the o>@et% %i#.i?e$ >y p"!ti7)"! wo!$%8 to

the%e we!e"$$e$ othei) $e&ie% -o! !e"ti.# wo!$ %i#.% o! )o#o#!"m%1whih pe!mitte$the ep!e%%io. o- wi$e! !".#e% o- me".i.#' Th7%1 i. E#ypti".hie!o#)yphi%the pit7!e o- " >eet)e w"% " o$e %i#. .ot o.)y -o! th"t i.%et>7t ")%o -o!" $i%o.ti.7o7% ".$ mo!e ">%t!"t !e-e!e.t :>e"me;Voe#e)i. F<,F /,0'

The >"%i i.&e.tio. 7%e$ to %7pp)eme.t the )o#o#!"m% w"%the pho.etip!i.ip)e1 whih -o! the ?!%t time pe!mitte$ the w!itte.

ep!e%%io. o- "))the wo!$% o- " )".#7"#e' o! e"mp)e1 >y the $e&ie o- pho.eti t!".%-e!the S7me!i".% o7)$ 7%e the %i#. -o! ti, ". "!!ow1 to %t".$ -o!ti, )i-e1 "o.ept .ot e"%y to ep!e%% i. pito#!"phi -o!m' I.p"!ti7)"!1 the .ee$




F4

to !eo!$ pe!%o.") ."me% ".$ -o!ei#. wo!$% e.o7!"#e$ the$e&e)opme.to- pho.eti e)eme.t% i. w!iti.#'

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". oJi") :#e.e!"))y !eo#.i3e$ tet* o- the To!"h w"%p7>)i%he$1 ".$ the>o$y o- the !e)i#io7% t!"$itio. e"%e$ to >e :p!"ti"))y'' '"%e")e$ >oo6".$ >e"me "e%%i>)e to ".yo.e who ho%e to %t7$y it;G".$3 F< +/40'

E&e. %o1 o- o7!%e1 "% the -!e97e.t $i"t!i>e% "#"i.%t the%!i>e% i. theGo%pe)% !emi.$ 7%1+ the!e !em"i.e$ " o.%i$e!">)e #"p>etwee. the )ite!"ti".$ the )"yme.8 the p!o-e%%io.")% who p)ie$ thei! t!"$e i. them"!6et/p)"e>e)o.#e$ to :-"mi)ie% o- %!i>e%1 pe!h"p% o!#".i3e$ "% #7i)$%1withi. whihthe my%teiy w"% h".$e$ $ow. -!om -"the! to %o.'

A.ythi.# )i6e pop7)"! )ite!"y1 o! the 7%e o- w!iti.# "% "."7to.omo7%mo$e o- omm7.i"tio. >y the m"@o!ity o- the mem>e!% o- %oiety1 i% .ot-o7.$ i. the e"!)ie%t %oietie% whih 7%e$ the Semiti w!iti.#%y%tem8 itw"%1 !"the!1 i. the %ith ".$ ?-th e.t7!ie% B 0C 0 i. the ity%t"te% o- G!eee".$ Io.i" th"t the!e ?!%t "!o%e " %oiety whih "% " who)eo7)$ @7%t)y >eh"!"te!i3e$ "% )ite!"te' M".y o- the !e"%o.% why )ite!"y>e"me wi$e/

%p!e"$ i. G!eee1 >7t .ot i. othe! %oietie% whih h"$ Semitio!1 i.$ee$1".y othe! %imp)e ".$ ep)iit w!iti.# %y%tem%1 .ee%%"!i)y )ieo7t%i$e the%ope o- thi% e%%"y8 yet o.%i$e!">)e impo!t".e m7%t %7!e)y>e "tt!i>7te$to the i.t!i.%i "$&".t"#e% o- the G!ee6 "$"pt"tio. o- theSemiti ")ph">et1

1 A&&r($%g t Ral-! E0 Tur%er/ The $reat &ultural Traditions 6Ne. Yr/ 1)18/ 1/

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". "$"pt"tio. whih m"$e it the ?!%t omp!ehe.%i&e)y ".$e)7%i&e)ypho.eti %y%tem -o! t!".%!i>i.# h7m". %peeh1F The %y%temw"% e"%y1ep)iit ".$ 7."m>i#7o7%mo!e %o th". the Semiti1 whe!ethe )"6 o- &owe)% i% !e%po.%i>)e -o! m".y o- the !7e% i. the Bi>)e -o!i.%t".e1%i.e the o.%o.".t i. the e>!ew wo!$% i% the %"me1 E)i@"hm"y h"&e >ee.

-e$ >y :!"&e.% o! :A!">%*'+ It% #!e"t "$&".t"#e o&e! the%y))">"!ie% )"y i.the !e$7tio. o- the .7m>e! o- %i#.% ".$ i. the ">i)ity to%pei-y o.%o.".t".$ &owe) )7%te!%' The %y%tem w"% e"%y to )e"!. P)"to %et%"%i$e th!eeye"!% -o! the p!oe%% i. the Laws,3 ">o7t the time t"6e. i.o7! %hoo)% to$"y 8".$ the m7h #!e"te! %pee$ with whih ")ph">eti w!iti.#". >e )e"!.e$i% %how.1 )iot o.)y >y %7h !epo!t% "% tho%e o- theI.te!."tio.") I.%tit7te

o- I.te))et7") Coope!"tio. i. F<414 >7t ")%o >y thei.!e"%i.# "$optio.o- the Rom". %!ipt1 ".$ e&e. mo!e wi$e)y o- ")ph">eti%y%tem% o- w!iti.#1th!o7#ho7t8 the wo!)$' The ete.%i&e $i=7%io. o- the ")ph">et i. G!eee w"% ")%o

m"te!i"))y"%%i%te$ >y &"!io7% %oi")1 eo.omi ".$ teh.o)o#i")-"to!%' I. the ?!%tp)"e1 the ei#hth e.t7!y %"w " #!e"t >7!%t o- eo.omi"ti&ity -o))owi.#the !e&i&") o- the e"%te!. t!"$e whih h"$ $e)i.e$ "-te! the

Mye."e".o))"p%e i. the twe)-th e.t7!y ;St"!! F<,F F</F<1 4<0'Seo.$)y1whi)e the G!ee6 %oiety o- the pe!io$ h"$1 o- o7!%e1 it%&"!io7% %oi")%t!"t"1 the po)iti") %y%tem w"% .ot %t!o.#)y e.t!")i3e$8




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e%pei"))y i. theIo.i %ett)eme.t% the!e "ppe"!% to h"&e >ee. " #oo$ $e") o- ei>i)ity ".$i. them we $i%e!. the >e#i..i.#% o- the G!ee6 ity %t"te' Thi!$)y1 thei.!e"%e$ o.t"t with the E"%t >!o7#ht m"te!i") p!o%pe!ity".$ teh.o)o/#i") "$&".e' The wi$e! 7%e o- i!o.1 the "$&e.t o- the t!7eI!o. A#e1 w"%pe!h"p% o.e o- the !e%7)t% ;St"!! F<,F /1 0' Mo!e

)o%e)y o..ete$with )ite!"y w"% the -"t th"t t!"$e with E#ypt )e$ to theimpo!t"tio. o- p"py!7%8 ".$ thi% m"$e w!iti.# it%e)- e"%ie! ".$ )e%%epe.%i&e1 >oth -o!the i.$i&i$7") w!ite! ".$ -o! the !e"$e! who w".te$ to >7y>oo6%8 p"py!7%w"% o>&io7%)y m7h he"pe! th". p"!hme.t m"$e -!om%6i.%1 mo!epe!m".e.t( th". w" t">)et%1 e"%ie! to h".$)e th". the %to.eo! )"y o- Me%opot"mi" ".$ Mye."e'

The h!o.o)o#y ".$ ete.t o- the $i=7%io. o- )ite!"y i.G!eee !em"i." m"tte! o- $e>"te' ith the Mye."e". o))"p%e i. thetwe)-th e.t7!y1

1 > If t!e al-!a"et $# (e5%e( a# a #'#tem f #$g%# e-re##$%g #$%gle #u%(# f #-ee&!/ t!e%t!e 5r#t al-!a"et .!$&! &a% 4u#t$5a"l' "e # &alle( $# t!e Gree al-!a"et @6Gel"/ Study of 0riting% -0 1**80

< 1 K$%g# ,$$0 7* #ee A 4ictionary of the 1i#le00 /e(/ Jame# Ha#t$%g# 6Ne. Yr/1)71)8/ #0.0 t El$4a!0 1a0 3rm t!e age f te% t t!$rtee%0 L5Adoption% universelle des caractères latins 6?ar$#/ 1)8 fr mre re&e%t(e,el-me%t#a%( (&ume%tat$%/ #ee W$ll$am S0 Gra'/ The Teaching of *eading and 0riting6

An,nternational Survey% 7nesco Monographs on Funda"ental 8ducation% W 6?ar$#/1);*8/e#-0 --0 17*0



ACK GOODY AND IAN ATTw!iti.# $i%"ppe"!e$8 the e"!)ie%t G!ee6 i.%!iptio.% i. themo$i?e$ Semiti")ph">et o7! i. the )"%t two $e"$e% o- the ei#hth e.t7!y;St"!! F<,FF,<0' Ree.t "7tho!itie% %7##e%t the .ew %!ipt w"% "$opte$".$ t!".%/-o!me$ ">o7t the mi$$)e o- the ei#hth e.t7!y i. .o!the!.Sy!i"'F Theete.%i&e 7%e o- w!iti.# p!o>">)y "me o.)y %)ow)y i. the%e&e.th e.t7!y1>7t whe. it ?."))y "me it %eem% to h"&e >ee. "pp)ie$ i. "

&e!y wi$e !".#eo- "ti&itie%1 i.te))et7") "% we)) "% eo.omi1 ".$ >y " wi$e!".#e o- peop)e'+

It m7%t8 >e !emem>e!e$1 o- o7!%e1 th"t G!ee6 w!iti.#th!o7#ho7t the)"%%i") pe!io$ w"% %ti)) !e)"ti&e)y $iJ7)t to $eiphe!1 "%wo!$% we!e .ot!e#7)"!)y %ep"!"te$ ;Ke.yo. F<F ,08 th"t the opyi.# o- m".7%!ipt%w"% " )o.# ".$ )">o!io7% p!oe%%8 ".$ th"t %i)e.t !e"$i.# "%we 6.ow it w"%&e!y !"!e 7.ti) the "$&e.t o- p!i.ti.#i. the ".ie.t wo!)$

>oo6% we!e7%e$ m"i.)y -o! !e"$i.# ")o7$1 o-te. >y " %)"&e'Ne&e!the)e%%1 -!om the%ith e.t7!y o.w"!$% )ite!"y %eem% to >e i.!e"%i.#)yp!e%7me$ i. thep7>)i )i-e o- G!eee ".$ Io.i"' I. Athe.%1 -o! e"mp)e1 the?!%t )"w% -o!the #e.e!") p7>)i to !e"$ we!e %et 7p >y So)o. i. <4/ B0C0 8the i.%tit7/tio. o- o%t!"i%m e"!)y i. the ?-th e.t7!y "%%7me% " )ite!"teiti3e. >o$y,1 iti3e.% h"$ to w!ite the ."me o- the pe!%o. o. thei!

pot%he!$%>e-o!e he o7)$ >e >".i%he$ ;C"!opi.o F< +/FF08 the!ei% ">7.$".te&i$e.e i. the ?-th e.t7!y o- " %y%tem o- %hoo)% te"hi.#!e"$i.# ".$w!iti.# (Protagoras + $0 ".$ o- " >oo6/!e"$i.# p7>)i%"ti!i3e$ ")!e"$y>y A!i%toph".e% i. The Frogs;3 whi)e the ?.") -o!m o- the



ACK GOODY AND IAN ATTG!ee6 ")ph"/>et1 whih w"% e%t">)i%he$ -"i!)y )"te i. the ?-th e.t7!y1 w"%?."))y "$opte$-o! 7%e i. the oJi") !eo!$% o- Athe.% >y $e!ee o- theA!ho. E7)ei$e% i.4 B0C0

AL?HABETIC CULTURE AND GREEK THOUGHT

The !i%e o- G!ee6 i&i)i3"tio.1 the.1 i% the p!ime hi%to!i")e"mp)e o- thet!".%itio. to " !e"))y )ite!"te %oiety' I. ")) %7>%e97e.t "%e%whe!e the wi$e/%p!e"$ i.t!o$7tio. o- ". ")ph">eti %!ipt o7!!e$1 "% i.Rome -o! e/"mp)e1 othe! 7)t7!") -e"t7!e% we!e i.e&it">)y impo!te$ -!omthe )o".o7.t!y ")o.# with the w!iti.# %y%tem8 G!eee th7% o=e!% .oto.)y the?!%t i.%t".e o- thi% h".#e1 >7t ")%o the e%%e.ti") o.e -o!".y "ttempt toi%o)"te the 7)t7!") o.%e97e.e% o- ")ph">eti )ite!"y'

1 L0 H0 Jeer'/ The Local Scripts of Archaic $reece 6Ofr(/ 1)*18/ -0 <1 R0 M0 C

a%( A0 G0 W(!ea(/ >T!e D$u#$% f t!e Gree Al-!a"et@/ A"erican +ournal of

Archaeology / l$$$ 61);)8/ --0 1+;70 3r %rt! S'r$a/ #ee S$r Le%ar( Wlle'/ A

For)gotten ingdo" 6L%(%/ 1);80

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M$## Jeer' %te# t!at >.r$t$%g .a# %e,er regar(e( a# a% e#ter$& &raft $% earl'

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The -!"#me.t"!y ".$ "m>i#7o7% ."t7!e o- o7! $i!ete&i$e.e ">o7tthi% hi%to!i") t!".%-o!m"tio. i. G!ee6 i&i)i3"tio. me".% th"t".y #e.e!")i3"/tio.% m7%t >e et!eme)y te.t"ti&e ".$ hypotheti")8 >7t the-"t th"t thee%%e.ti") >"%i% >oth o- the w!iti.# %y%tem% ".$ o- m".yh"!"te!i%ti7)t7!") i.%tit7tio.% o- the e%te!. t!"$itio. "% " who)e "!e$e!i&e$ -!om

G!eee1 ".$ th"t they >oth "!o%e the!e %im7)t".eo7%)y1 wo7)$%eem to @7%ti-y the p!e%e.t "ttempt to o7t)i.e the po%%i>)e!e)"tio.%hip% >etwee.the w!iti.# %y%tem ".$ tho%e 7)t7!") i..o&"tio.% o- e"!)yG!eee whih"!e ommo. to ")) ")ph">eti"))y )ite!"te %oietie%'

The e"!)y $e&e)opme.t o- the $i%ti.ti&e -e"t7!e% o- e%te!. tho7#ht i%7%7"))y t!"e$ >"6 to the !"$i") i..o&"tio.% o- the p!e/So!"ti phi)o/%ophe!% o- the %ith e.t7!y B0C0 The e%%e.e o- thei!

i.te))et7") !e&o)7tio.i% %ee. "% i " h".#e -!om mythi") to )o#io/empi!i") mo$e%o- tho7#ht'S7h1 >!o"$)y %pe"6i.#1 i% e!.e! "e#e!% &iew8 ".$ E!.%tC"%%i!e! w!ite%th"t : the hi%to!y o- phi)o%ophy "% " %ie.ti? $i%ip)i.e m"y>e !e#"!$e$ "% "%i.#)e o.ti.7o7% %t!7##)e to e=et " %ep"!"tio. ".$)i>e!"tio. -!om myth F

To thi% #e.e!") pit7!e the!e "!e two 6i.$% o- theo!eti")o>@etio.' i!%t1th"t the !7i") i.te))et7") i..o&"tio.%i. C"%%i!e! "% i.

e!.e! "e#e!"!e i. the )"%t ".")y%i% "tt!i>7te$ to the %pei") me.t")e.$owme.t% o- theG!ee6 peop)e 8 ".$ i. %o -"! "% %7h te!m% "% : the G!ee6mi.$ ".$ : #e.i7% "!e not %imp)y $e%!ipti&e1 they "!e )o#i"))y $epe.$e.t 7po.et!eme)y97e%tio.">)e theo!ie% o- m".% ."t7!e ".$ 7)t7!e' Seo.$)y1




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%7h " &e!%io.o- the t!".%-o!m"tio. -!om :7.phi)o%ophi") to :phi)o%ophi")tho7#ht"%%7me% ". ">%o)7te".$ 7.te.">)e$ihotomy >etwee.the : mythi") tho7#ht o- p!imiti&e% ".$ the :)o#io/empi!i") tho7#ht o- i&i)i3e$ m".'

The $ihotomy1 o- o7!%e1 i% it%e)- &e!y %imi)"! to LX&y/B!7h)% e"!)ie!theo!y o- the * p!e)o#i") me.t")ity o- p!imiti&e peop)e%1

whih h"% >ee.wi$e)y !itii3e$' M")i.ow%6i ".$ m".y othe!% h"&e$emo.%t!"te$ theempi!i") e)eme.t% i. .o./)ite!"te 7)t7!e%1+ ".$ E&".%/P!ith"!$ ;F<0h"% "!e-7))y ".")y%e$ the :)o#i") ."t7!e o- the >e)ie- %y%tem% o- theA3".$e o- the S7$".8 whi)e o. the othe! h".$ the i))o#i")".$ mythi")

1 The Philosophy of Sy"#olic For"s 6Ne. Ha,e%/ 1);#8/ u/ -0 $$$ a%( An 8ssay on

Man

6Ne. Y/ 1);8/ e#-0 --0 1*7/ <170 3r Wer%er Jaeger/ #ee e#-0 The

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8gypt% 11 61)8/ --0 17*0 I% !$# later .r/ L,'7Bru!l m($5e( t!e r$g$($t' f

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."t7!e o- m7h e%te!. tho7#ht ".$ >eh"&io7! i% e&i$e.t to".yo.e o./temp)"ti.# eithe! o7! p"%t o! o7! p!e%e.t'

Ne&e!the)e%%1 ")tho7#h we m7%t !e@et ".y $ihotomy




>"%e$ 7po. the"%%7mptio. o- !"$i") $i=e!e.e% >etwee. the me.t")"tt!i>7te% o- )ite!"te".$ .o./)ite!"te peop)e%1 ".$ "ept the &iew th"t p!e&io7%-o!m7)"tio.%o- the $i%ti.tio. we!e >"%e$ o. -"7)ty p!emi%e% ".$i."$e97"te e&i$e.e1the!e m"y [ti)) ei%t #e.e!") $i=e!e.e% >etwee. )ite!"te ".$.o./)ite!"te%oietie% %omewh"t ")o.# the )i.e% %7##e%te$ >y Le&y/B!7h)'

O.e !e"%o.-o! thei! ei%te.e1 -o! i.%t".e1 m"y >e wh"t h"% >ee.$e%!i>e$ ">o&ethe -"t th"t w!iti.# e%t">)i%he% " $i=e!e.t 6i.$ o- !e)"tio.%hip >etwee. thewo!$ ".$ it% !e-e!e.t1 " !e)"tio.%hip th"t i% mo!e #e.e!") ".$mo!e ">%t!"t1".$ )e%% )o%e)y o..ete$ with the p"!ti7)"!itie% o- pe!%o.1p)"e ".$time1 th". o>t"i.% i. o!") omm7.i"tio.' The!e i% e!t"i.)y "#oo$ $e")to %7>%t".ti"te thi% $i%ti.tio. i. wh"t we 6.ow o- e"!)y

G!ee6 tho7#ht' Tot"6e1 -o! i.%t".e1 the "te#o!ie% o- C"%%i!e! ".$ e!.e! "e#e!1 it i% %7!e)y%i#.i?".t that it w"% o.)y i. the $"y% o- the ?!%t wi$e%p!e"$")ph">eti7)t7!e th"t the i$e" o- :)o#io- ". imm7t">)e ".$impe!%o.") mo$e o- $i%o7!%e/"ppe"!% to h"&e "!i%e.8 ".$ it w"% ")%o o.)y the.th"t the %e.%eo- the h7m". p"%t "% ". o>@eti&e !e")ity w"% -o!m"))y$e&e)ope$1 " p!oe%%ih whih the $i%ti.tio. >etwee. :myth ".$ :hi%to!y too6 o.

$ei%i&eimpo!t".e'

Mth and histor No./)ite!"te peop)e%1 o- o7!%e1 o-te. m"6e " $i%ti.tio.>etwee. the)i#hte! -o)6/t")e1 the #!"&e! myth1 ".$ the 97"%i/hi%to!i"))e#e.$ ;e'#' the




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T!o>!i".$%8 M")i.ow%6i F<+, 0' B7t .ot %o i.%i%te.t)y1 ".$-o! ".o>&io7% !e"%o.' A% )o.# "% the )e#e.$"!y ".$ $ot!i.")"%pet% o- the7)t7!") t!"$itio. "!e me$i"te$ o!"))y1 they "!e 6ept i. !e)"ti&eh"!mo.ywith e"h othe! ".$ with the p!e%e.t .ee$% o- %oiety i. twow"y% th!o7#hthe 7.o.%io7% ope!"tio.% o- memo!y1 ".$ th!o7#h the"$@7%tme.t o- the

!eite!% te!m% ".$ "ttit7$e% to tho%e o- the "7$ie.e >e-o!ehim' The!ei% e&i$e.e1 -o! e"mp)e1 th"t %7h "$"pt"tio.% ".$omi%%io.% o7!!e$ i.the o!") t!".%mi%%io. o- the G!ee6 7)t7!") t!"$itio.' B7t o.ethe poem%o- ome! " i$ e%io$1 whih o.t"i.e$ m7h o- the e"!)ie!hi%to!y1 !e)i#io.".$ o%mo)o#y o- the G!ee6%1 h"$ >ee. w!itte. $ow.1%7ee$i.# #e.e!"/tio.% we!e )"e$ with o)$ $i%ti.tio.% i. %h"!p)y "##!"&"te$-o!m how -"!

w"% the i.-o!m"tio. ">o7t thei! #o$% ".$ he!oe% )ite!"))yt!7e ow o7)$it% p"te.t i.o.%i%te.ie% >e ep)"i.e$ A.$ how o7)$ the>e)ie-% ".$Attit7$e% imp)ie$ >e >!o7#ht i.to )i.e with tho%e o- thep!e%e.t The $i%"ppe"!".e o- %o m".y e"!)y G!ee6 w!iti.#%1 ".$ the

$iJ7)tie%#&$e%&e f t!e &%&rete@/ t!e -ra&t$&al %.le(ge f t!e !a%(' ma% 6#ricoleur 8/

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o- $"ti.# ".$ ompo%itio. i. m".y th"t %7!&i&e1 m"6e".ythi.# )i6e " )e"!!eo.%t!7tio. impo%%i>)e' G!ee6 h"$ o- o7!%e >ee. w!itte.1i. " &e!y)imite$ w"y1 $7!i.# Mye."e". time%' At ">o7t F+ B'C'w!iti.# $i%/"ppe"!e$1 ".$ the ")ph">et w"% .ot $e&e)ope$ 7.ti) %ome-o7! h7.$!e$ye"!% )"te!' Mo%t %ho)"!% "#!ee th"t i. the mi$$)e o! )"teei#hth e.t7!y the




+

G!ee6% "$"pte$ the p7!e)y o.%o.".t") %y%tem o- Phoe.ii"1po%%i>)y "tthe t!"$i.# po!t o- ") Mi." ;Po%ei$o.0' M7h o- the e"!)yw!iti.# o./%i%te$ o- :ep)"."to!y i.%!iptio.% o. ei%ti.# o>@et%$e$i"tio.% o.o=e!i.#%1 pe!%o.") ."me% o. p!ope!ty1 epit"ph% o. tom>%1."me% o- ?#7!e%i. $!"wi.#% ;e=e!y F<,F 4,0' The ome!i poem% we!ew!itte. $ow.

>etwee. ".$ , B'C'1 ".$ the %e&e.th e.t7!y %"w ?!%tthe !eo!$i.#o- )y!i &e!%e ".$ the. ;"t the e.$0 the eme!#e.e o- the#!e"t Io.i". %hoo)o- %ie.ti%t% phi)o%ophe!%'F Th7% withi. " e.t7!y o! two o- thew!iti.#$ow. o- thZ ome!i poem%1 m".y #!o7p% o- w!ite!% ".$te"he!% "ppe"!e$1?!%t i. Io.i" ".$ )"te! i. G!eee1 who too6 "% thei! poi.t o- $ep"!t7!e the>e)ie- th"t m7h o- wh"t ome! h"$ "pp"!e.t)y %"i$ w"%i.o.%i%te.t ".$

7.%"ti%-"to!y i. m".y !e%pet%' The )o#o#!"phe!%1 who %etthem%e)&e% to!eo!$ the #e.e")o#ie%1 h!o.o)o#ie% ".$ o%mo)o#ie% whihh"$ >ee.h".$e$ $ow. o!"))y -!om the p"%t1 %oo. -o7.$ th"t the t"%6)e$ them to7%e thei! !iti") ".$ !"tio.") powe!% to !e"te " .ewi.$i&i$7") %y.the%i%'I. .o./)ite!"te %oiety1 o- o7!%e1 the!e "!e 7%7"))y %omei.$i&i$7")% who%ei.te!e%t% )e"$ them to o))et1 ".")y%e ".$ i.te!p!et the7)t7!") t!"$itio.

i. " pe!%o.") w"y8 ".$ the w!itte. !eo!$% %7##e%t th"t thi%p!oe%% we.to.%i$e!">)y -7!the! "mo.# the )ite!"te X)ite% o- E#ypt1B">y)o. ".$ Chi."1-o! e"mp)e' B7t1 pe!h"p% >e"7%e i. G!eee !e"$i.# ".$w!iti.# we!e )e%%!e%t!ite$ to ".y p"!ti7)"! p!ie%t)y o! "$mi.i%t!"ti&e #!o7p%1the!e %eem%




to h"&e >ee. " mo!e tho!o7#h#oi.# i.$i&i$7") h"))e.#e tothe o!tho$o7)t7!") t!"$itio. i. %ith/e.t7!y G!eee th". o7!!e$e)%ewhe!e'e"t"e7%1 -o! e"mp)e1 p!o)"ime$ "t ">o7t the t7!. o- thee.t7!y1: h"t I w!ite i% the "o7.t I >e)ie&e to >e t!7e' o! the%to!ie% the G!ee6%te)) "!e m".y ".$ i. my opi.io. !i$i7)o7%Q ;"o>y F<F01 ".$o=e!e$

hi% ow. !"tio.")i3"tio.% o- the $"t" o. -"mi)y t!"$itio.% ".$)i.e"#e% whihhe h"$ o))ete$' A)!e"$y the mytho)o#i") mo$e o- 7%i.# thep"%t1 themo$e whih1 i. So!e)% wo!$%1 m"6e% it :" me".% o- "ti.# o.the p!e%e.t;7)me F<4F F,8 Re$?e)$ F< F+01 h"% >e#7. to$i%"ppe"!'

Th"t thi% t!e.$ o- tho7#ht h"$Qm7h )"!#e! imp)i"tio.% ".>e %ee.

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ge%ealg$&al a--ra&! t %ature eem-l$5e( "' t!e He#$($& Theogony 5 6-0 +80

o..ete$ with %imi)"! !iti") $ep"!t7!e% -!om the i.he!ite$t!"$itio.% o- the p"%t8 "% ' B' Ye"t% w!ote1 with ".othe! t!"$itio. i. mi.$:Sie.ei% the !iti97e o- myth%1 the!e wo7)$ >e .o D"!wi. h"$ the!e>ee. .o

!oo" o- Ge.e%i% ;o.e F<4+ 41 o7! it")i%0' Amo.# thee"!)y p!e/So!"ti% the!e i% m7h e&i$e.e o- the )o%e o..etio.>etwee. .ew i$e"%".$ the !itii%m o- the o)$' Th7% We.oph".e% o- Co)opho. ;#'c$ 4 B0C08

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".th!opomo!phi#o$% o- ome! ".$ e%io$ who $i$ :e&e!ythi.# th"t i%$i%#!"e-7) ".$>)"mewo!thy "mo.# me. with " %7p!eme #o$1 :.ot "t ")) )i6emo!t")%$% >o$y ".$ mi.$1F whi)e e!")it7% o- Ephe%7% (#$ c$ B0C08 / the ?!%t#!e"t phi)o%ophe! o- the p!o>)em% o- 6.ow)e$#e1 who%e%y%tem i% >"%e$o. the 7.ity o- oppo%ite% ep!e%%e$ i. the Logos o! %t!7t7!")

p)". o- thi.#%1 ")%o !i$i7)e$ the ".th!opomo!phi%m ".$ i$o)"t!y o- the O)ympi".!e)i#io.'+

The !iti") ".$ %epti") p!oe%% o.ti.7e$1 ".$1 "o!$i.#to Co!.-o!$1: " #!e"t p"!t o- the %7p!eme #o$% >io#!"phy h"$ to >e-!".6)y !e@ete$ "%-")%e1 o! !ei.te!p!ete$ "% "))e#o!y1 o! o.temp)"te$ with!e%e!&e "% my%te!io7%myth too $"!6 -o! h7m". 7.$e!%t".$i.# ;Co!.-o!$ F<+ &/&i8 B7!.et

\F< F0' O. the o.e h".$ the poet% o.ti.7e$ to 7%e thet!"$itio.") )e#e.$%-o! thei! poem% ".$ p)"y%8 o. the othe! the p!o%e w!ite!%"ttempte$ to w!e%t)ewith the p!o>)em% with whih the h".#e% i. the 7)t7!")t!"$itio. h"$ -"e$them' E&e. the poet%1 howe&e!1 h"$ " $i=e!e.t "ttit7$e tothei! m"te!i")'Pi.$"!1 -o! e"mp)e1 7%e$ %thoi i. the %e.%e o- t!"$itio.")%to!ie%1 withthe imp)i"tio. th"t they we!e .ot )ite!"))y t!7e8 >7t )"ime$th"t hi% ow.

poem% h"$ .othi.# i. ommo. with the -">)e% o- the p"%t ;F%tO)ympi".O$e0' A% -o! the p!o%e w!ite!%1 ".$ i.$ee$ %ome o- the poet%1they h"$ %eto7t to !ep)"e myth with %omethi.# e)%e mo!e o.%i%te.t1with thei! %e.%eo- the logos1 o- the ommo. ".$ "))/e.omp"%%i.# t!7th whih!eo.i)e%




"pp"!e.t o.t!"$itio.%'!om the poi.t o- &iew o- the t!".%mi%%io. o- the 7)t7!")

t!"$itio.1 the"te#o!ie% o- 7.$e!%t".$i.# o..ete$ with the $ime.%io.% o- time ".$%p"e h"&e " p"!ti7)"! impo!t".e' A% !e#"!$% ". o>@eti&e$e%!iptio. o- %p"e1 A."im".$e! ;>' ,F B 0C 0 8 ".$ e"t"e7% (#$ c$ F/4<01 m"6i.#7%e o- B">y)o.i". ".$ E#ypti". teh.i97e%1 $!ew the ?!%t

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J!% Bur%et/ 8arly $ree! Philosophy 6<%( e(0 L%(%/ 1)8/ --0 11/ 171/ a%(

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%7>@ete$ to " )o.# p!oe%% o- !itii%m ".$ o!!etio.>ye!o$ot7%(&istor', i&1 ,/40 ".$ othe!%8 ".$ -!om thi% eme!#e$ themo!e %ie.ti?"!to#!"phy o- A!i%tot)e1 E!"to%the.e% ".$ thei! %7e%%o!%;"!mi.#to.F<4 &ii1 )i0'

The $e&e)opme.t o- hi%to!y "ppe"!% to h"&e -o))owe$ "!"the! %imi)"!o7!%e1 ")tho7#h the "t7") $et"i)% o- the p!oe%% "!e %7>@etto m7h o./t!o&e!%y' The t!"$itio.") &iew #"&e p!io!ity to )o") hi%to!ie%1whih we!e-o))owe$ >y the mo!e 7.i&e!%") "o7.t% o- e!o$ot7% ".$ Th7y$i$e%'Dio.y%i7% o- ")i"!."%7% w!ite% o- the p!e$ee%%o!% o- the%ehi%to!i".%who1 * i.%te"$ o- o/o!$i."ti.# thei! "o7.t% with e"hothe!1''' t!e"te$ o- i.$i&i$7") peop)e% ".$ itie% %ep"!"te)y''' They ")) h"$ the o.e%"me o>@et1




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to >!i.# to @ the #e.e!") 6.ow)e$#e o- the p7>)i the w!itte.!eo!$% th"tthey -o7.$ p!e%e!&e$ i. temp)e% o! i. %e7)"! >7i)$i.#% i. the-o!m i. whihthey -o7.$ them1 .eithe! "$$i.# .o! t"6i.# "w"y ".ythi.#8"mo.# the%e!eo!$% we!e to >e -o7.$ )e#e.$% h"))owe$ >y the p"%%"#e o- time''' ;Pe"!%o. F<< 0'

"o>y1 howe&e!1 h"% i.%i%te$ :the who)e i$e" i% w!o.# th"t

G!ee6 hi%/to!io#!"phy >e#". with )o") hi%to!y* ;F<4< 40' A% -"! "%Athe.% i% o./e!.e$1 hi%to!y >e#i.% with the -o!ei#.e! e!o$ot7%1 who1 .ot)o.# "-te!the mi$$)e o- the ?-th e.t7!y1 i.o!po!"te$ p"!t% o- the %to!yo- the tow.i. hi% wo!6 >e"7%e he w".te$ to ep)"i. the !o)e it p)"ye$ i.the #!e"to.it >etwee. E"%t ".$ e%t1 >etwee. E7!ope ".$ A%i"' The "im o- e!o$ot7%* &istor w"% to $i%o&e! wh"t the G!ee6% ".$

Pe!%i".% :-o7#hte"h othe! -o! (&istor'$ F1 F8 i.)ey F<<408 ".$ hi% metho$w"% historia1pe!%o.") i.97i!y o! !e%e"!h i.to the mo%t p!o>">)e &e!%io.%o- e&e.t%"% they we!e to >e -o7.$ i. &"!io7% %o7!e%' i% wo!6 !e%te$o. o!") t!"$i/tio. ".$ o.%e97e.t)y hi% w!iti.#% !et"i.e$ m".ymytho)o#i") e)eme.t%'So too $i$ the wo!6 o- the )o#o#!"phe!1 e))".i7% o- Le%>o%1who "t thee.$ o- the ?-th e.t7!y w!ote the ?!%t hi%to!y o- Atti" -!om

, to thee.$ o- the Pe)opo..e%i". w"! i. 44' e))".i7% ")%o t!ie$ to!eo.%t!7tthe #e.e")o#ie% o- the ome!i he!oe%1 >oth >"6w"!$% to the#o$% ".$-o!w"!$% to the G!eee o- hi% ow. time8 ".$ thi% i.e&it">)yi.&o)&e$h!o.o)o#y1 the o>@eti&e me"%7!eme.t o- time' A)) he o7)$




$o1 howe&e!1w"% to !"tio.")i3e ".$ %y%tem"ti3e )"!#e)y )e#e.$"!ym"te!i")% ;Pe"!%o.F<< F<1 \++0' The $e&e)opme.t o- hi%to!y "% "$o7me.te$ ".$ ".")yti"o7.t o- @ the p"%t ".$ p!e%e.t o- the %oiety i. pe!m".e.tw!itte. -o!mtoo6 ". i!!ipo!t".t %tep -o!w"!$ with Th7y$i$e%1 who m"$e "$ei%i&e$i%ti.tio. @>etwee. myth ".$ hi%to!y1 " $i%ti.tio. to whih

)itt)e "tte.tio.i% p"i$ i. .o./)ite!"te %oiety ;M")i.ow%6i F<++ +</0' Th7y$i$e%w".te$ to #i&e " who))y !e)i">)e "o7.t o- the w"!% >etwee.Athe.% ".$Sp"!t"8 ".$ thi% me".t th"t 7.&e!i?e$ "%%7mptio.% ">o7t thep"%t h"$ to>e e)7$e$' So Th7y$i$e% !e@ete$1 -o! e"mp)e1 theh!o.o)o#y th"te))".i7% h"$ wo!6e$ o7t -o! the p!ehi%to!y o- Athe.%1 ".$o.?.e$ him/%e)- &e!y )"!#e)y to hi% ow. .ote% o- the e&e.t% ".$ %peehe%

he !e)"te$1 o!to the i.-o!m"tio. he %o7#ht o7t -!om eyewit.e%%e% ".$ othe!!e)i">)e%o7!e% ;Th7y$i$e% I1 +/+1 <0'F

A.$ %o1 .ot )o.# "-te! the wi$e%p!e"$ $i=7%io. o- w!iti.#th!o7#ho7tthe G!ee6 wo!)$1 ".$ the !eo!$i.# o- the p!e&io7%)y o!")7)t7!") t!"$itio.1the!e "!o%e ". "ttit7$e to the p"%t &e!y $i=e!e.t -!om th"tommo. i..o./)ite!"te %oietie%' I.%te"$ o- the 7.o>t!7%i&e "$"pt"tio.o- p"%t t!"$i/

tio. to p!e%e.t .ee$%1 " #!e"t m".y i.$i&i$7")% -o7.$ i. thew!itte. !eo!$%1whe!e m7h o- thei! t!"$itio.") 7)t7!") !epe!toi!e h"$ >ee.#i&e. pe!/m".e.t -o!m1 %o m".y i.o.%i%te.ie% i. the >e)ie-% ".$"te#o!ie% o- 7.$e!%t".$i.# h".$e$ $ow. to them th"t they we!e impe))e$to " m7h




mo!e o.%io7%1 omp"!"ti&e ".$ !iti") "ttit7$e to the"epte$ wo!)$pit7!e1 ".$ .ot">)y to the .otio.% o- Go$1 the 7.i&e!%e ".$the p"%t'M".y i.$i&i$7") %o)7tio.% to the%e p!o>)em% we!e them%e)&e%w!itte.$ow.1 ".$ the%e &e!%io.% -o!me$ the >"%i% -o! -7!the!i.&e%ti#"tio.%'+

I. .o./)ite!"te %oiety1 it w"% %7##e%te$1 the 7)t7!")t!"$itio. -7.tio.%

"% " %e!ie% o- i.te!)o6i.# -"e/to/-"e o.&e!%"tio.% i. whihthe &e!y o./$itio.% o- t!".%mi%%io. ope!"te to -"&o7! o.%i%te.y >etwee.p"%t ".$p!e%e.t1 ".$ to m"6e !itii%mthe "!ti7)"tio. o- i.o.%i%te.y)e%%)i6e)y to o7!8 ".$ i- it $oe%1 the i.o.%i%te.y m"6e% " )e%%pe!m".e.tImp"t1 ".$ i% mo!e e"%i)y "$@7%te$ o! -o!#otte.' hi)e%eptii%m m"y>e p!e%e.t i. %7h %oietie%1 it t"6e% " pe!%o.")1 .o./7m7)"ti&e -o!m8 it

$oe% .ot )e"$ to " $e)i>e!"te !e@etio. ".$ !ei.te!p!et"tio. o- %oi") $o#m"%o m7h "% to " %emi/"7tom"ti !e"$@7%tme.t o- >e)ie-'

I. )ite!"te %oiety1 the%e i.te!)o6i.# o.&e!%"tio.% #o o.8>7t they "!e1 3r a -$&ture f %te7ta$%g 6hypo"ne"ata8 am%g At!e%$a%#/ #ee Theaetetus%

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*e#ellion

in South)8ast Africa 6T!e 3raer Le&ture/ 1);<8/ Ma%&!e#ter/ 1);0

.o )o.#e! m".% o.)y $i")o#7e8 ".$ i. %o -"! "% w!iti.#p!o&i$e% ". ")te!/."ti&e %o7!e -o! the t!".%mi%%io. o- 7)t7!") o!ie.t"tio.% it-"&o7!% "w"!e/.e%% o- i.o.%i%te.y' O.e "%pet o- thi% i% " %e.%e o- h".#e".$ o- 7)t7!"))"#8 ".othe! i% the .otio. th"t the 7)t7!") i.he!it".e "% "who)e i% om/po%e$ o- two &e!y $i=e!e.t 6i.$% o- m"te!i")8 ?tio.1 e!!o! ".$%7pe!%titio.o. the o.e h".$8 ".$1 o. the othe!1 e)eme.t% o- t!7th whih". p!o&i$e

the >"%i% -o! %ome mo!e !e)i">)e ".$ ohe!e.t ep)"."tio. o- the #o$%1 theh7m". p"%t ".$ the phy%i") wo!)$'

Plato and the eects o literac

O.e "!e" o-8 thi% p!oe%% ". >e $e%!i>e$ "% the!ep)"eme.t o- myth >yhi%to!y8 >7t @ o- o7!%e historia i. the G!ee6 %e.%e1 me".i.# :i.97i!y1 ". >ee.&i%"#e$ m7h mo!e >!o"$)y "% ". "ttempt to $ete!mi.e!e")ity i. e&e!y"!e" o- h7m". o.e!.8 ".$ i. m".y o- the%e "!e"% it w"% theG!ee6% whop!o&i$e$ 7% with the -7.$"me.t") p!emi%e% o- o7! p!e%e.t"te#o!ie% o- 7.$e!%t".$i.#'

The "t7") !o)e o- w!iti.# i. the $e&e)opme.t o- thi%o.ept7") -!"me/wo!6 i% mo!e )"!#e)y " m"tte! o- i.-e!e.e th". i. the




4

p"!ti7)"! "%e o- hi%to!y p!ope!8 >7t whe. we t7!. -!om the p!oe%%e% o- o))eti&e $e&e)op/me.t ".$ t!".%mi%%io. i. thei! h!o.o)o#i") pe!%peti&e tothe p"!ti7)"!p!oe%% o- t!".%mi%%io. -!om o.e i.$i&i$7") to ".othe!1 we". ?.$ %ome/thi.# " )itt)e mo!e $e?.ite th". i.-e!e.e to #o o.8 -o! i. thew!iti.#% o- the G!ee6 who %how% mo%t o.%io7%.e%% o- the $i=e!e.e

>etwee. o!")".$ )ite!"te tho7#htw"y%1 P)"to1 the #!e"te! omp)ete.e%%".$ i.te.%ity o- o!") t!".%mi%%io. "!e $i%7%%e$ ".$ emph"%i3e$'

P)"to w"% >o!. ">o7t 4+ B 0 C0 / )o.# "-te! the wi$e%p!e"$$i=7%io. o- the")ph">et i. the G!ee6 wo!)$' M".y o- the h"!"te!i%tii.%tit7tio.% o- )ite!"te 7)t7!e h"$ ")!e"$y "ppe"!e$ the!e we!e %hoo)% -o!hi)$!e. -!omthe "#e o- %i "!i$ 7pw"!$% ;M"!!o7 F<4 ,/F+08 ".$p!o-e%%io.")

%ho)"!% ".$ phi)o%ophe!%1 %7h "% the Sophi%t%1 h"$ !ep)"e$the t!"$i/tio.") epo7.$e!% o- the )o!e o- the p"%t1 %7h "% theu)atridai, .o>)e-"mi)ie% i. whom h"$ e"!)ie! >ee. &e%te$ the !i#ht to i.te!p!etthe )"w%'Both the %hoo)% ".$ the Sophi%t% "!e $i%7%%e$ i. ". e"!)yP)"to.i $i")o#7e1the Protagoras, whe!e So!"te% i% %how. to >e %7%piio7% o- the .ew p!o/-e%%io.") te"@3he!% ".$ "7tho!% who h"&e t7!.e$ wi%$om i.to" m"!6et/p)"e

ommo$ity1(" ommo$ity whih i% $".#e!o7% 7.)e%% the>7ye! ")!e"$y h"%:7.$e!%t".$i.# o- wh"t i% #oo$ ".$ e&i) (Protagoras, F0'B7t it i% i.the P"aedrus ".$ the *e+enth Letter th"t we ?.$ the mo%tep)iit !itii%mo- w!iti.# "% " me".% o- o.&eyi.# tho7#ht% ".$ &")7e%'

I. the Phaedrus So!"te% t"6e% 7p the :."t7!e o- #oo$ ".$




4F

>"$ %pe"6i.#

".$ w!iti.#* ".$ te))% how the E#ypti". 6i.# Th"m7%!e>76e$ the Go$ The7th -o! )"imi.# th"t hi% i.&e.tio. o- w!iti.# wo7)$ p!o&i$e:" !eipe-o! memoi!y ".$ wi%$om* :I- me. )e"!. thi%1 Th"m7%o.)7$e%1 :itwi)) imp)".t -o!#et-7).e%% i. thei! %o7)%8 they wi)) e"%e toee!i%e memo!y

>e"7%e they !e)y o. th"t whih i% w!itte.1 "))i.# thi.#% to!emem>!".e.o )o.#e! -!om withi. them%e)&e%1 >7t >y me".% o- ete!.")m"!6%8 wh"tyo7 h"&e ;$i%o&e!e$ i% " !eipe .ot -o! memo!y1 >7t -o!!emi.$e!' A.$ iti% .o t!7e wi%$om th"t yo7 o=e! yo7! $i%ip)e%1 >7t o.)y it%%em>)".e8-o! >y te))i.# them o- m".y thi.#% witho7t te"hi.# them yo7wi)) m"6ethem %eem to 6.ow m7h1 whi)e -o! the mo%t p"!t they 6.ow.othi.#8

".$ "% me. ?))e$1 .ot with wi%$om1 >7t the o.eit o- wi%$om1they wi))>e " >7!$e. to thei! -e))ow%'*F

The emph"%i% o. memo!y1 the !epó%ito!y o- the 7)t7!")t!"$itio. i.o!") %oiety1 i% %i#.i?".t8 ".$ it i% "pp!op!i"te th"t So!"te%%ho7)$ $e)i&e!hi% "tt"6 o. w!iti.# i. the -o!m o- " -">)e o! myth1 i. "$i%ti.ti&e)y o!")".$ .o./)o#i") mo$e o- $i%o7!%e ;Notopo7io% F< 4,/<0' The e./%7i.# $i%7%%io.1 ".$ %e&e!") othe! $i%7%%io.%1 o- whih the

mo%t impo!t".to7!% i. the *e+enth Letter 1 m"6e )e"! th"t the o>@etio.% tow!iti.# "!etwo-o)$ it i% i.he!e.t)y %h"))ow i. it% e=et%8 ".$ the e%%e.ti")p!i.ip)e%o- t!7th ". o.)y >e "!!i&e$ "t $i")eti"))y'

!iti.# i% %h"))ow i. it% e=et% >e"7%e !e"$i.# >oo6% m"y#i&e "




+

%peio7% %e.%e o- 6.ow)e$#e1 whih i. !e")ity ". o.)y >e"tt"i.e$ >y o!")97e%tio. ".$ ".%we!8 ".$ %7h 6.ow)e$#e i. ".y "%e o.)y#oe% $eep whe.it :i% w!itte. i. the %o7) o- the )e"!.e!* ;Phaed%s1 +, "0' The!e"%o.% whihP)"to1 o! hi% %po6e%m". So!"te%1 #i&e% -o! ho)$i.# $i")eti to>e the t!7emetho$ o- p7!%7i.# e%%e.ti") 6.ow)e$#e "!e &e!y )o%e to thepit7!e #i&e.

">o&e o- the t!".%mi%%io. o- the 7)t7!") t!"$itio. i. o!")%oiety' o! the$i")eti metho$ i%1 "-te! "))1 ". e%%e.ti") %oi") p!oe%%1 i.whih thei.iti"te% p"%% o. thei! 6.ow)e$#e $i!et)y to the yo7.#8 "p!oe%%1 i.$ee$1i. whih o.)y " )o.# pe!%o.") !e)"tio.%hip ". t!".%e.$ thei.he!e.t i./"p"ity o- me!e wo!$% to o.&ey 7)tim"te t!7th%the -o!m%o! i$e"% whih")o.e ". #i&e 7.ity ".$ ohe!e.e to h7m". 6.ow)e$#e' A%P)"to p7t% it

i. the *e+enth Letter 1 %7h 6.ow)e$#e ". >e p"%%e$ o. o.)ywhe.1 : "-te!pe!%o.") "%%i%t".e i. the%e %t7$ie% -!om " #7i$e1 "-te! )i&i.#-o! %ome timXwith th"t #7i$e1 %7$$e.)y " "%h o- 7.$e!%t".$i.#1 "% it we!e1i% 6i.$)e$>y " %p"!6 th"t )e"p% "!o%%1 ".$ o.e it h"% ome i.to >ei.#withi. the%o7) it p!oee$% to .o7!i%h it%e)-'+

h"t i% "t i%%7e he!e i% .ot o.)y the i.tim"te 7.$e!%t".$i.#whih ome%

1 <;) e <+7;0 3rm Reg$%al( Ha&frt!@# tra%#lat$% $% !$# Plato's Phaed"s6Cam"r$(ge/

1);<).< 1 &7( 6tra%#0 R0 S0 Blu&/ Plato's Life and Thought% L%(%/ 1))80

-!om )o.# pe!%o.") o.t"t1 >7t ")%o the i.he!e.t "$&".t"#e%whih )i&i.#%peeh i% #i&e. o&e! the w!itte. wo!$ >y &i!t7e o- it% mo!eimme$i"teo..etio. with the "t o- omm7.i"tio. it%e)-' The ?!%t"$&".t"#e i%




+<

th"t po%%i>)e o.-7%io.% o! mi%7.$e!%t".$i.#% ". ")w"y% >e)e"!e$ 7p>y 97e%tio. ".$ ".%we!8 whe!e"% :w!itte. wo!$%1 "% So!"te%te))%Ph"e$!7%1 : %eem to t")6 to yo7 "% tho7#h they we!ei.te))i#e.t1 >7t i- yo7"%6 them ".ythi.# ">o7t wh"t they %"y1 -!om " $e%i!e to >ei.%t!7te$1 they#o o. te))i.# yo7 @7%t the %"me thi.# -o! e&e!*' The %eo.$i.t!i.%i

"$&".t"#e i% th"t the %pe"6e! ". &"!y hi% :type o- %peeh %oth"t it i%:"pp!op!i"te to e"h ."t7!e'' '"$$!e%%i.# " &"!ie#"te$ %o7) i." &"!ie#"te$%ty)e'''".$ " %imp)e %o7) i. " %imp)e %ty)e' A.$ %o1 i. thePhaedrus1So!"te% o.)7$e% th"t : ".yo.e who )e"&e% >ehi.$ him "w!itte. m".7")1".$ )i6ewi%e H ".yo.e who t"6e% it o&e! -!om him1 o. the%7ppo%itio. th"t%7h w!iti.#0 wi)) p!o&i$e %omethi.# !e)i">)e ".$ pe!m".e.t1m7%t >e e/

ee$i.#)y %iihp)e/mi.$e$ (Phaedrus, + $8 + 8 + 0' To %ome ete.t P)"to% "!#7me.t% "#"i.%t w!iti.# "!e%pei? !eetio.%o- the i."p"ity o- wo!$% ")o.e to o.&ey the I$e"%1 ".$ o- the i.iti"te%7%7") !e)7t".e to %h"!e hi% e%ote!i )o!e eept o. hi% ow.te!m% ;D"&i$/Nee) ".$ Yo.#$e. F<<08 whi)e i. the pe!%peti&e o- the )"te!hi%to!y o- epi%temo)o#y1 P)"to% po%itio. m7%t >e %ee. "% ". i.$i"tio.o- hi% p!e%ie.t"w"!e.e%% o- the $".#e! o- 7%i.# ">%t!"t wo!$% ">o7t who%e

!e-e!e.t% .oommo. "#!eeme.t o! i$e.tity o- 7.$e!%t".$i.# h"% >ee.e%t">)i%he$'P)"to% !e%e!&"tio.% ">o7t w!iti.# m7%t ")%o >e %ee. i.!e)"tio. to thep!e-e!e.e whih G!ee6 7)t7!e %h"!e% with Rom". -o! themo!e )i&i.#97")ity o- the %po6e. "% oppo%e$ to the w!itte. wo!$ ;G!ee.




F<F +/<0the #e.e!") "!#7me.t "t thi% p"!ti7)"! poi.t i. the Phaedrusi% o.e!.e$with the "$&".t"#e% o- etempo!e "% omp"!e$ with w!itte.%peehe%'

Ne&e!the)e%%1 the Phaedrus ".$ the *e+enth Letter %eem top!o&i$e #oo$e&i$e.e th"t P)"to o.%i$e!e$ the t!".%mi%%io. o- the7)t7!") t!"$itio.w"% mo!e e=eti&e ".$ pe!m".e.t 7.$e! o!") o.$itio.%1 "t

)e"%t "% !e#"!$%the i.$i&i$7")% i.iti"tio. i.to the wo!)$ o- e%%e.ti") &")7e%' The e.$)e%%-e!me.t o- hew i$e"% "t the e.$ o- the ?-th e.t7!y i. Athe.%1".$ the#!owi.# %eptii%m ">o7t !e)i#io. ".$ ethi%1 >o!e e)o97e.twit.e%% tohow w!iti.# $ow. the "7m7)"te$ )o!e o- the p"%t h"$-o%te!e$ " !iti")"ttit7$e8 >7t wh"te&e! the $i%m"y o- P)"to "t %ome -e"t7!e% o- the p!oe%%1he him%e)- o7)$ .ot e%"pe it' P)"to1 o- o7!%e1 w"% )"!#e)y

!iti") i. hi%tho7#ht' The m"@o!ity o- hi% $i")o#7e% "!e "!#7me.t% "#"i.%tthe &iew% o- othe! phi)o%ophe!%8 ".$ e&e. hi% mo%t p!"ti") ".$o.%t!7ti&e w!iti.#%1%7h "% the@ e)u-lic ".$ the Laws1 "!e i. )"!#e p"!to.ti.7"tio.% o- the$e>"te% whih h"$ >e#7. with the p!e/So!"ti !itii%m% ".$!"tio.")i3"/tio.% o- the ".th!opomo!phi%m o- the >o$y o- t!"$itio.")myth%8 myth%

i




F

whih wei!e %".ti?e$ >y the p!e/emi.e.t "7tho!ity o- ome!1-!om whom1"% P)"to w!ote i. the e)u-lic1 :")) me. h"&e )e"!.e$ -!om the>e#i..i.#;"e#e! F<4 4+1 +FF8 Co!.-o!$ F<+ F4/0'

It wo7)$ >e w!o.#1 the!e-o!e1 to !ep!e%e.t P)"to "% " who)e/he"!te$p!ot"#o.i%t o- the o!") t!"$itio.' Neithe! he .o! So!"te% w"% ".i.t!".%i#e.te.emy o- )ite!"te 7)t7!e8 So!"te% $i$ .ot w!ite >oo6% him%e)-1>7t

We.opho. te))% 7% th"t he wo7)$ Qt7!. o&e! ".$ pe!7%e i.omp".y withhi% -!ie.$%'' 'the t!e"%7!e% o- the wi%e me. o- o)$1 whih theyh"&e )e-tw!itte. i. >oo6%8F whi)e the %")e1 the omp)eity o- o!#".i3"tio.1 ".$the hi#h )ite!"!y ?.i%h o- the e)u-lic )e$ i)"mowit3/Moe))e.$o!- toh"i) P)"to "% the ?!%t t!7e "7tho! ;F<F<F1<0' O.e m7%t"%%7me1 the!e-o!e1" m7h mo!e omp)e "ttit7$e to the .ew p!o>)em% o- the)ite!"te 7)t7!e

the i.!e"%e >oth i. the .7m>e! o- >oo6% ".$ !e"$e!% ".$1o.%e97e.t)y1i. the p7>)i "w"!e.e%% o- hi%to!i") h".#e whih >oo6%-o%te!e$ h"$ m"$ethe p!o>)em% i.e%"p">)e >y the e.$ o- the ?-th e.t7!y i.Athe.%8 ".$P)"to w"%8 to!. >etwee. hi% i.te!e%t ".$ 7.$e!%t".$i.# o- thep!o%"i1".")yti ".$ !iti") p!oe$7!e% o- the .ew )ite!"te tho7#htw"y%o. theo.e h".$1 ".$ hi% o"%io.") .o%t")#i" -o! the * 7.w!itte.7%tom% ".$

)"w% o- o7! ".e%to!%*1+

")o.# with the poeti myth% i. whihthey we!ee.%h!i.e$'

Logic and the categories a understanding The impo!t".e o- P)"to i. the )"te! hi%to!y o- phi)o%ophy1 o- o7!%e1 )ie%




+

p!im"!i)y i. th"t "%pet o- hi% wo!6 whih )oo6% -o!w"!$1 ".$whih $i$m7h to $e?.e the metho$% o- e%te!. tho7#ht8 the p!e%e.t"!#7me.tthe!e-o!e !e97i!e% " >!ie- o.%i$e!"tio. o- how -"! the%e "!ei.t!i.%i"))yo..ete$ with w!iti.#' O>&io7%)y the #!e"t m"@o!ity o- G!ee6i$e"% h"&ethei! !oot% i. the %pei? hi%to!i") ".$ %oi") i!7m%t".e%1 -o!m".yo- whih o.e ". ?.$ e"!)ie! %o7!e% ".$ ".")o#7e% i. the #!e"t

i&i)i3"tio.%o- the Ne"! E"%t ".$ e)%ewhe!e' Yet it $oe% .ot %eem to >eme!e)y " m"tte!o- eth.oe.t!i p!e@7$ie to %"y th"t i. two "!e"% "t )e"%t theG!ee6% $e/&e)ope$ i.te))et7") teh.i97e% th"t we!e hi%to!i"))y 7.i97e*".$ th"tpo%%e%%e$ i.t!i.%i empi!i") "$&".t"#e% whih )e$ to thei!wi$e%p!e"$"$optio. >y mo%t %7>%e97e.t )ite!"te 7)t7!e% the ?!%t "!e" i%epi%temo/)o#i")1 whe!e the G!ee6% $e&e)ope$ " .ew 6i.$ o- )o#i")

metho$8 ".$ the%eo.$ "! e" i% th"t o- t"o.omy1 whe!e the G!ee6% e%t">)i%he$o7! "epte$"te#o!ie% i. the ?e)$% o- 6.ow)e$#etheo)o#y1 phy%i%1>io)o#y ".$ %o-o!th'

1 Me"ora#ilia% $/ */ 1*0 See al# Phaedo% )7) Phaedrus% < (7e02 See e#-0 ?lat@# La-s +) a7&0 ?lat $a #!.% t re-re#e%t "t! t!e l( ,e%erat$%

a%(

t!e %e. ($#tru#t f Hmer $% H0 0 A-fet@# >Hmer$& Cr$t$&$#m $% t!e 3urt! Ce%tur'B'C]1 Transactions of the A"erican Philological Association% LWIW 61)8/ -0 +0

I. the -o!me!1 P)"to i% e%%e.ti"))y ". hei! o- the )o.# G!ee6e.te!p!i%e

o- t!yi.# to %o!t o7t t!7th1 e)iste%e -!om 7!!e.t opi.io.1do.a$ Thi%epi%temo)o#i") "w"!e.e%% %eem% to oi.i$e with thewi$e%p!e"$ "$optio.o- w!iti.#1 p!o>">)y >e"7%e the w!itte. wo!$ %7##e%t% ".i$e") o- $e?.">)e




t!7th% whih h"&e ". i.he!e.t "7to.omy ".$ pe!m".e.e97ite $i=e!e.t-!om the phe.ome." o- the tempo!") 7 ".$ o- o.t!"$ito!y &e!>")7%"#e%' I. o!") 7)t7!e%1 wo!$%".$ e%pei"))y wo!$% )i6e:Go$1 :7%tie1:So7)1 : Goo$*m"y h"!$)y >e o.ei&e$ o- "% %ep"!"tee.titie%1 $i&o!e$-!om >oth the !e%t o- the %e.te.e ".$ it% %oi") o.tet' B7to.e #i&e.the phy%i") !e")ity o- w!iti.#1 they t"6e o. " )i-e o- thei! ow.8

".$ m7hG!ee6 tho7#ht w"% o.e!.e$ with "ttempti.# to ep)"i.thei! me".i.#%%"ti%-"to!i)y1 ".$ to !e)"te the%e me".i.#% to %ome 7)tim"tep!i.ip)e o- !"tio.") o!$e! i. the 7.i&e!%e1 to the logos'

It w"%1 o- o7!%e1 P)"to ".$ A!i%tot)e who o.ei&e$ th"tthe!e mi#ht>e " %pei") i.te))et7") p!oe$7!e -o! thi% p!oe%%8 whoim"#i.e$ thepo%%i>i)ity o- " %y%tem o- !7)e% -o! thi.6i.# it%e)-1 !7)e% whihwe!e 97ite

$i%ti.t -!om the p"!ti7)"! p!o>)em >ei.# tho7#ht ">o7t ".$whiho=e!e$ " mo!e !e)i">)e "e%% to t!7th th". 7!!e.t opi.io.'I. the Phaedrus1'-o! e"mp)e1 So!"te% i% m"$e to %pe"6 o- the p!ope! metho$-o! "!!i&i.#"t the t!7th i. #e.e!")8 ".$ thi% metho$ o.%i%t% i.$i%!e#"!$i.# the >o$yo- pop7)"! "%%7mptio.% ".$1 i.%te"$1 ".")y%i.# e"h i$e" >y". i.iti")$e?.itio. o- te!m%1 -o))owe$ >y the $e&e)opme.t o- " 7.i?e$"!#7me.t with

: " mi$$)e ".$ et!emitie% %o ompo%e$ "% to %7it e"h othe!".$ the who)ewo!6*' Thi% i% to >e "hie&e$ >y :$i&i%io.% ".$ o))etio.%1 >y".")y%i%o- " p!o>)em i.to it% o.%tit7e.t e)eme.t%1 ".$ >y%7>%e97e.t !"tio.")%y.the%i% (Phaedrus/ +,4 8 +, $/+,, >8 + >/0'




4

Thi% )o#i") p!oe$7!e %eem% e%%e.ti"))y )ite!"te' O.#e.e!") #!o7.$%1>e"7%e1 "% O%w")$ Spe.#)e! p7t it1 :w!iti.#'' 'imp)ie% "omp)ete h".#ei. the !e)"tio.% o- m".% w"6i.# o.%io7%.e%%1 i. th"t itli-erates it ro%the trann o the )resent 8''' the "ti&ity o- w!iti.# ".$ !e"$i.#i% i.?.ite)ymo!e ">%t!"t th". th"t o- %pe"6i.# ".$ he"!i.# ;F<4 .1F4<0' O. mo!ep!"ti") #!o7.$% too1 >e"7%e it i% $iJ7)t to >e)ie&e th"t

%7h " )"!#e".$ omp)e %e!ie% o- "!#7me.t% "% "!e p!e%e.te$ i. thee)u-lic1 -o!i.%t".e1 o! i. A!i%tot)e% 0naltics1 o7)$ po%%i>)y >e !e"te$1o! $e)i&e!e$1m7h )e%% omp)ete)y 7.$e!%too$1 i. o!") -o!m'

The!e i% ")%o %ome -"i!)y o.&i.i.# e&i$e.e to %7##e%t "mo!e $i!et)y"7%") o..etio. >etwee. w!iti.# ".$ )o#i' The G!ee6 wo!$-o! ".:e)eme.t w"% the %"me wo!$ "% -o! " :)ette! o- the ")ph">et8".$ i. the

*tates%an P)"to omp"!e% the >"%i p!i.ip)e% o- hi%phi)o%ophy withthe hi)$% ?!%t o.t"t with the ")ph">et1F o. the #!o7.$%th"t e"h p!i.ip)e1 States"an% <+0 See al# &ratylus% 017< &0

o! )ette! i% the 6ey to ". i.?.ite)y #!e"te! .7m>e! o- wo!$% o!i$e"% th".the p"!ti7)"! o.e% th!o7#h whih it i% )e"!.e$' P)"to $e&e)op%thi% i$e"i. the T"eaetetus whe. So!"te% omp"!e% the p!oe%% o- !e"%o.i.# to theom>i."tio. o- i!!e$7i>)e e)eme.t% o! )ette!% o- the ")ph">eti.to %y))">)e%whih1 7.)i6e thei! o.%tit7e.t )ette!%1 h"&e me".i.# :thee)eme.t% o!)ette!% "!e o.)y o>@et% o- pe!eptio.1 ".$ "..ot >e $e?.e$ o!6.ow.8>7t the %y))">)e% o! om>i."tio.% o- them "!e 6.ow. ".$'''"pp!ehe.$e$ /F




!om thi% it i% .ot -"! to the w"y the )ette!% o- the ")ph">et "!e7%e$ to%ym>o)i3e the m".ip7)"tio. o- #e.e!") te!m% i. A!i%tote)i".)o#i8 the %et%e97e.e8 o- the p!emi%e%1 "!#7me.t% ".$ o.)7%io.% o- "%y))o#i%m h"%>ee. !ep!e%e.te$ >y )ette!% o- the ")ph">et e&e! %i.e A!i%tot)e%o 7%e$them i. the 0naltics' It i% -7!the! %i#.i?".t th"t A!i%tot)e -e)tth"t heh"$ m"$e hi% #!e"te%t phi)o%ophi") o.t!i>7tio. i. the ?e)$ o-

)o#i8 -o!1"% he %"y% i. e *o)histicis lenchis1 :o. the %7>@et o- !e"%o.i.#we h"$.othi.# e)%e o- ". e"!)ie! $"te to %pe"6 o- "t "))Q'+

The %"me p!oe%% o- $i%%etio. i.to ">%t!"t "te#o!ie%1 whe."pp)ie$.ot to " p"!ti7)"! "!#7me.t >7t to the o!$e!i.# o- ")) thee)eme.t% o- epe!ie.e i.to %ep"!"te "!e"% o- i.te))et7") "ti&ity1 )e"$% tothe G!ee6$i&i%io. o- 6.ow)e$#e i.to "7to.omo7% o#.iti&e $i%ip)i.e%whih h"%

%i.e >eome 7.i&e!%") i. e%te!. 7)t7!e ".$ whih i% o- "!$i.") im/po!t".e i. $i=e!e.ti"ti.# )ite!"te ".$ .o./)ite!"te 7)t7!e%'P)"to m"$eo.e impo!t".t %tep i. thi% $i!etio.1 -o! he $e&e)ope$ >oth thewo!$ ".$the .otio. o- theo)o#y to $e%i#."te " %ep"!"te ?e)$ o- 6.ow)e$#e ;"e#e!F<4 4/0' Thi% 6i.$ o- %t!it %ep"!"tio. o- $i&i.e "tt!i>7te%-!om the."t7!") wo!)$1 ".$ -!om h7m". )i-e1 i% &i!t7"))y 7.6.ow. "mo.#.o./

)ite!"te peop)e% ;Goo$y 1)*1 1<7*80 Ne#)et o- thi% -"t h"% )e$to m7hmi%7.$e!%t".$i.# o- the .o./empi!i") ".$ m"#io/!e)i#io7%"%pet% o- thei! 7)t7!e8 >7t the .e#)et i% it%e)- " t!i>7te to the $epth o- the)ite!"te t!"$itio.% "ept".e o- the "te#o!ie% o-




,

7.$e!%t".$i.# whih ith"% i.he!ite$ -!om G!eee'

P)"to1 howe&e!1 w"% too m7h the $i%ip)e o- So!"te% to t"6ethe om/p"!tme.t ")i3"tio. o- 6.ow)e$#e &e!y -"!' Thi% w"% )e-t to hi%p7pi)1A!i%tot)e1 ".$ to hi% %hoo) ;T"y)o! 1) <7)8 >y the time o- the$e"tho- A!i%tot)e i. << B0C0 mo%t o- the "te#o!ie% i. the ?e)$ o- phi)o%ophy1."t7!") %ie.e1 )".#7"#e ".$ )ite!"t7!e h"$ >ee. $e)i.e"te$1

".$ the%y%tem"ti o))etio. ".$ )"%%i?"tio. o- $"t" i. ")) o- themh"$ >e#7.'

ith A!i%tot)e the 6ey metho$% ".$ $i%ti.tio.% i. the wo!)$ o- 6.ow)e$#ewe!e -7))y1 ".$ -o! the mo%t p"!t pe!m".e.t)y1 e%t">)i%he$8 ".$%o1 o-

1 T!eaetetus% <17<<0 T!e a%alg' $# &%t$%ue( t t!e e%( f t!e ($algue0< 1"0 T!ere .ere/ f &ur#e/ ma%' -re&ur#r#/ %t %l' ?lat a%( !$# la.# f t!e

($ale&t$&

"ut t!e S-!$#t# a%( grammar$a%# .$t! t!e$r #ema%t$& $%tere#t# 6#ee J!% E(.$%

Sa%('#/

A 2istory6 of &lassical Scholarship% Cam"r$(ge/ 1)<1/ 1/ --0 <+/ $f080

o7!%e1 we!e it% i.%tit7tio.%' It w"% A!i%tot)e1 "o!$i.# to

St!">o1F whow"% the ?!%t m". to o))et >oo6%1 ".$ who t"7#ht the 6i.#% o- E#ypt to%et 7p )i>!"!ie%8 ".$ ")tho7#h the!e h"$ "t7"))y >ee. e"!)ie!p!i&"teo))eto!% o- >oo6%1 A!i%tot)eQ% )i>!"!y i% the ?!%t o- whih m7hi% 6.ow. 8it i% -!om hi% o))etio.% th"t o7! wo!$ :m7%e7mQ $e!i&e%8 ".$ i- :""$emyommemo!"te% the %hoo) o- P)"to1 lce "!!ie% 7% >"6 toA!i%tot)e%Lceu%'

LITERATE CULTUREQ SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

It i% h"!$)y po%%i>)e1 i. thi% >!ie- %7!&ey1 to $ete!mi.e wh"timpo!t".em7%t >e "tt!i>7te$ to the ")ph">et "% the "7%e o! "% the.ee%%"!y o./$itio. o- the %emi.") i.te))et7") i..o&"tio.% th"t o7!!e$ i.




the G!ee6wo!)$ $7!iii# the e.t7!ie% th"t -o))owe$ the $i=7%io. o- w!iti.#8.o!1i.$ee$1 $oe% the ."t7!e o- the e&i$e.e #i&e m7h #!o7.$ -o!>e)ie&i.#th"t the p!o>)em ". e&e! >e -7))y !e%o)&e$' The p!e%e.t"!#7me.t m7%t1the!e-o!e1 o.?.e it%e)- to %7##e%ti.# th"t %ome !7i") -e"t7!e%o- e%te!.7)t7!e "me i.to >ei.# i. G!eee %oo. "-te! the ei%te.e1 -o!the ?!%t

time1 o- " !ih 7!>". %oiety i. whih " %7>%t".ti") po!tio. o- the pop7)"tio.w"% ">)e to !e"$ ".$ w!ite 8 ".$ th"t1 o.%e97e.t)y1 theo&e!whe)mi.# $e>to- the who)e o- o.tempo!"!y i&i)i3"tio. to )"%%i") G!eeem7%t >e !e/#"!$e$ "% i. %ome me"%7!e the !e%7)t1 .ot %o m7h o- theG!ee6 #e.i7%1"% o- the i.t!i.%i $i=e!e.e% >etwee. .o./)ite!"te ;o!p!oto)ite!"te0 ".$)ite!"te %oietie%the )"tte! >ei.# m"i.)y !ep!e%e.te$ >y tho%e%oietie% 7%i.#

the G!ee6 ")ph">et ".$ it% $e!i&"ti&e%' I- thi% i% %o1 it m"y he)p7% to t"6eo7! o.t!"%t >etwee. the t!".%mi%%io. o- the 7)t7!") he!it"#ei. .o./)ite!"te".$ ")ph">eti"))y )ite!"te %oietie% " )itt)e -7!the!' To >e#i. with1 the e"%e o- ")ph">eti !e"$i.# ".$ w!iti.# w"%

p!o>">)y". impo!t".t o.%i$e!"tio. i. the $e&e)opme.t o- po)iti")$emo!"y i.G!eee8 i. the ?-th e.t7!y " m"@o!ity o- the -!ee iti3e.% o7)$"pp"!e.t)y!e"$ the )"w%1 ".$ t"6e ". "ti&e p"!t i. e)etio.% ".$

)e#i%)"tio.' Demo!"y"% we 6.ow \it1 the.1 i% -!om the >e#i..i.# "%%oi"te$ withwi$e%p!e"$)ite!"y8 ".$ \%o to " )"!#e ete.t i% the .otio. o- the wo!)$ o- 6.ow)e$#e"% t!".%e.$i.# po)iti") 7.it%8 i. the e))e.i wo!)$ $i&e!%epeop)e ".$




o7.t!ie% we!e #i&e. " ommo. "$mi.i%t!"ti&e %y%tem ".$ "7.i-yi.#7)t7!") he!it"#e th!o7#h the w!itte. wo!$' G!eee i% the!e-o!eo.%i$e!">)y)o%e! to >ei.# " mo$e) -o! the wo!)$/wi$e i.te))et7") t!"$itio.o- the o./tempo!"!y )ite!"te wo!)$ th". tho%e e"!)ie! i&i)i3"tio.% o- theO!ie.t whihe"h h"$ it% Ow. )o")i3e$ t!"$itio.% o- 6.ow)e$#e "% O%w")$Spe.#)e!p7t it1 : Writifg is the grand s%-ol o the Far ;F<4 FF1 F0'

1

$eography / *7)/ Sa%('#/ 2istory of &lassical Scholarship% t% -0 *0 See al# i#id.--0 +*711/ a%( Jame# We#tfall T!m-#%/ Ancient Li#raries 6Berele'/ 1)8/ --0 17

<10

Yet ")tho7#h the i$e" o- i.te))et7")1 ".$ to %ome ete.tpo)iti")17.i&e!")i%m i% hi%to!i"))y ".$ %7>%t".ti&e)y )i.6e$ with )ite!"te7)t7!e1we too e"%i)y -o!#et th"t thi% >!i.#% with it othe! -e"t7!e% whihh"&e 97ite$i=e!e.t imp)i"tio.%1 ".$ whih #o %ome w"y to ep)"i. whythe )o.#/he!i%he$ ".$ theo!eti"))y -e"%i>)e $!e"m o- ". : e$7"te$$emo!"y ".$

" t!7)y e#")it"!i". %oiety h"% .e&e! >ee. !e")i3e$ i. p!"tie'O.e o- the>"%i p!emi%e% o- )i>e!") !e-o!m o&e! the )"%t e.t7!y ".$ " h")- h"% >ee.th"t o- "me% Mi))1 "% it i% $e%!i>e$ i. the 0uto-iogra)h o- hi%%o.1 oh. St7"!t Mi))

So omp)ete w"% my -"the!% !e)i".e o. the i.7e.e o- !e"%o.o&e! the mi.$%o- m".6i.$1 whe.e&e! it i% "))owe$ to !e"h them1 th"t he -e)t"% i- ")) wo7)$ >e#"i.e$ i- the who)e pop7)"tio. we!e t"7#ht to !e"$1 i- ")) %o!t%

o- opi.io.% we!e"))owe$ F >e "$$!e%%e$ to them >y wo!$ ".$ i. w!iti.#1 ".$i-1 >y me".% o- the %7=!"#e1 they o7)$ .omi."te " )e#i%)"t7!e to #i&e e=et tothe opi.io.% they"$opte$ ^p' 4_'

A)) the%e thi.#% h"&e >ee. "omp)i%he$ %i.e the $"y% o- the




<

Mi))%1 >7t.e&e!the)e%% :"))* h"% .ot >ee. :#"i.e$8 ".$ %ome "7%e% o- thi% %ho!t-"))m"y >e -o7.$ i. the i.t!i.%i e=et% o- )ite!"y o. thet!".%mi%%io. o- the7)t7!") he!it"#e1 e=et% whih ". >e %ee. mo%t )e"!)y >yo.t!"%ti.#them with thei! ".")o#7e% i. .o./)ite!"te %oiety' The w!iti.# $ow. o- %ome o- the m"i. e)eme.t% i. the 7)t7!")

t!"$itio.i. G!eee1 we %"y1 >!o7#ht ">o7t ". "w"!e.e%% o- two thi.#%

o- the p"%t"% $i=e!e.t -!om the p!e%e.t8 ".$ o- the i.he!e.ti.o.%i%te.ie% i. thepit7!e o- )i-e "% it w"% i.he!ite$ >y the i.$i&i$7") -!om the7)t7!") t!"$i/tio. i. it% !eo!$e$ -o!m' The%e two e=et% o- wi$e%p!e"$")ph">etiw!iti.#1 it m"y >e %7!mi%e$1 h"&e o.ti.7e$ ".$ m7)tip)ie$them%e)&e%e&e! %i.e1 ".$ "t ". i.!e"%i.# p"e %i.e the $e&e)opme.t o- p!i.ti.#':The p!i.te!%1 e=e!%o. !em"!6e$1 :". .e&e! )e"&e 7% i. "

%t"te o- pe!-et!e%t ".$ 7.io. o- opi.io.1F ".$ "% >oo6 -o))ow% >oo6 ".$.ew%p"pe!.ew%p"pe!1 the .otio. o- !"tio.") "#!eeme.t ".$ $emo!"tiohe!e.e1 &it. Harl( A0 I%%$#/ >M$%er,a@# O.l/ The 1ias of &o""unication 6Tr%t/ 1);18/-0 <0 Harl( I%%$# .a# mu&! &&u-$e( .$t! t!e larger ee&t# f m(e# f &mmu%$&a7t$%/ a# a--ear# al# $% !$# 8"pire and &o""unications 6Ofr(/ 1);80 T!$#($re&t$%f $%,e#t$gat$% !a# "ee% tae% u- "' t!e U%$,er#$t' f Tr%t re,$e.8plorationsa%( t!e -re#e%t aut!r# are al# $%(e"te( t t!e t!e% u%-u"l$#!e( .r f ?rfe##rE0 A0 Ht$,el& % t!e al-!a"et$& re,lut$% $% Gree&e0 Am%g t!e ma%' -re,$u#.r$ter#.! !a,e "ee% &%&er%e( .$t! t!e Gree a#-e&t f t!e -r"lem/ N$et#&!e61eyond $ood and 8vil% E($%"urg!/ 1))/ -0 <+8/ a%( J# Ortega ' Ga##et 6>T!e D$&ult'f Rea($%g@/ 4iogenes% ,m 61);)8/ --0 171+8 ma' "e me%t$%e(0 Am%g t!#e .!!a,etreate( tQ!e ($ere%&e# "et.ee% ral a%( l$terate m(e# f &mmu%$&at$% $%ge%eral/




4

Da,$( Re$#ma% 6>T!e Oral a%( Wr$tte% Tra($t$%#/ 8plorations% ,$/ 1);*/ --0 <<7/a%( The =ral Tradition% the 0ritten 0ord and the Screen ,"age 6Yell. S-r$%g#/O!$/1);*88 a%( R"ert ?ar 6>Ree&t$%# % Cmmu%$&at$% a%( Culture@/ A"erican +.of Sociology% WLIV1 1)/ --0 1+7<;8 are e#-e&$all' rele,a%t !ere0

"mo.# me. h"% !ee$e$ -7!the! ".$ -7!the! "w"y1 whi)e P)"to%"tt"6%o. the &e.") p7!&eyo!% o- 6.ow)e$#e i. the m"!6et/p)"e h"&e#"i.e$ i./!e"%e$ !e)e&".e'

B7t the i.o.%i%te.y o- the tot")ity o- w!itte. ep!e%%io. i%pe!h"p% )e%%

%t!i6i.# th". it% e.o!mo7% >7i)t ".$ it% &"%t hi%to!i") $epth'Both o- the%eh"&e ")w"y% %eeme$ i.%7pe!">)e o>%t")e% to tho%e %ee6i.# to!eo.%t!7t%oiety o. " mo!e 7.i?e$ ".$ $i%ip)i.e$ mo$e) we ?.$ theo>@etio. i.the >oo6/>7!.e!% o- ")) pe!io$%8 ".$ it "ppe"!% i. m".y mo!e!e%pet">)ethi.6e!%' I. o."th". Swi-t1 -o! e"mp)e1 who%e pe!-et)y!"tio.")o7yh.h.m% :h"&e .o )ette!%1 ".$ who%e 6.ow)e$#e:o.%e97e.t)y'' 'i%

")) t!"$itio.")'F The%e o!") t!"$itio.% we!e o- " %")e1 Swi-t te))%7%1 th"te.">)e$ :th@e hi%to!i") p"!t to >e :e"%i)y p!e%e!&e$ witho7t>7!the.i.#thei! memo!ie%' Not %o with the )ite!"te t!"$itio.1 -o!1 )"6i.#the !e%o7!e%o- 7.o.%io7% "$"pt"tio. ".$ omi%%io. whih ei%t i. the o!")t!".%mi%%io.1the 7)t7!")!epe!toi!e ". o.)y #!ow8 the!e "!e mo!e wo!$%th". ".y>o$y6.ow% the me".i.# o-%ome F4+1 &o">7)"!y e.t!ie% i. "o))e#e $i/

tio."!y )i6e the We-ster's 4ew World$ Thi% 7.)imite$ p!o)i-e!"tio.")%oh"!"te!i3e% the w!itte. t!"$itio. i. #e.e!") the me!e %i3e o- the )ite!"te!epe!toi!e me".% th"t the p!opo!tio. o- the who)e whih ".yo.e i.$i&i$7")




4F

6.ow% m7%t >e i.?.ite%im") i. omp"!i%o. with wh"t o>t"i.% i.o!")7)t7!e' Lite!"te %oiety1 me!e)y >y h"&i.# .o %y%tem o- e)imi."tio.1 .o:%t!7t7!") "m.e%i"1 p!e&e.t% the i.$i&i$7") -!om p"!tiip"ti.#-7))y i. thetot") 7)t7!") t!"$itio. to ".ythi.# )i6e the ete.t po%%i>)e i..o./)ite!"te%oiety'

O.e w"y o- )oo6i.# "t thi% )"6 o- ".y )ite!"te e97i&")e.t tothe homeo/

%t"ti o!#".i3"tio. o- the 7)t7!") t!"$itio. i. .o./)ite!"te%oiety i% to %ee)ite!"te %oiety "% i.e&it">)y ommitte$ to ". e&e!/i.!e"%i.#%e!ie% o- 7)t7!e )"#%' The o.te.t o- the 7)t7!") t!"$itio. #!ow%o.ti.7"))y1 ".$i. %o -"! "%8 it "=et% ".y p"!ti7)"! i.$i&i$7") he >eome% "p")imp%e%tompo%e$ o- )"ye!% o- >e)ie-% ".$ "ttit7$e% >e)o.#i.# to$i=e!e.t %t"#e%i. hi%to!i") time' So too1 e&e.t7"))y1 $oe% %oiety "t )"!#e1%i.e the!e i%

" te.$e.y i-o! e"h %oi") #!o7p to >e p"!ti7)"!)y i.7e.e$>y %y%tem%o- i$e"% >e)o.#i.# to $i=e!e.t pe!io$% i. the ."tio.%$e&e)opme.t8 >othto the i.$i&i$7")1 ".$ to the #!o7p% o.%tit7ti.# %oiety1 thep"%t m"y me".&e!y $i=e!e.t thi.#%'

!om the %t".$poi.t o- the i.$i&i$7") i.te))et7")1 o- the)ite!"te%pei")i%t1 the &i%t" o- e.$)e%% hoie% ".$ $i%o&e!ie% o=e!e$>y %o e/te.%i&e " p"%t ". >e " %o7!e o- #!e"t %tim7)"tio. ".$ i.te!e%t8

>7t whe.we o.%i$e! the %oi") e=et% o- %7h ". o!ie.t"tio.1 it >eome%"pp"!e.tth"t the %it7"tio. -o%te!% the ")ie."tio. th"t h"% h"!"te!i3e$%o m".y

1 $ulliver'Si Travels% -art $,/ &!a-0 )/ e(0 Art!ur E0 Ca#e 6Ne. Yr/ 1)8/ -0 <)*0

w!ite!% %.$ phi)o%ophe!% o- the e%t %i.e the )"%t e.t7!y' It




4+

w"% %7!e)y1-o! e"mp)e1 thi% )"6 o- %oi") "m.e%i" i. ")ph">eti 7)t7!e%whih )e$Niet3%he to $e%!i>e :we mo$e!.% "% :w".$e!i.#e.y)op"e$i"%1 7.">)eto )i&e ".$ "t i. the p!e%e.t ".$ o>%e%%e$ >y " `:hi%to!i")%e.%ea th"ti.@7!e% ".$ ?."))y $e%t!oy% the )i&i.# thi.#1 >e it " m". o! "peop)e o! "%y%tem o- 7)t7!e ;F<< <1 0' E&e. i- we $i%mi%% Niet3%he%&iew% "%

et!eme1 it i% %ti)) e&i$e.t th"t the )ite!"te i.$i&i$7") h"% i.p!"tie %o)"!#e " ?e)$ o- pe!%o.") %e)etio. -!om the tot") 7)t7!")!epe!toi!e th"tthe o$$% "!e %t!o.#)y "#"i.%t hi% epe!ie.i.# the 7)t7!")t!"$itio. "% ".y%o!t o- p"tte!.e$ who)e'

!om the poi.t o- &iew o- %oiety "t )"!#e1 the e.o!mo7%omp)eity ".$&"!iety o- the 7)t7!") !epe!toi!e o>&io7%)y !e"te% p!o>)em% o- ". 7./p!ee$e.te$ o!$e! o- m"#.it7$e' It me".%1 -o! e"mp)e1 th"t

%i.e e%te!.)ite!"te %oietie% "!e h"!"te!i3e$ >y the%e ")w"y% i.!e"%i.#)"ye!% o- 7)t7!") t!"$itio.1 they "!e i.e%%".t)y epo%e$ to " mo!eomp)e &e!%io.o- the 6i.$ o- 7)t7!e o.it th"t h"% >ee. he)$ to p!o$7eano%ie i.o!") %oietie% whe. they ome i.to o.t"t with E7!ope".i&i)i3"tio.1h".#e% whih1 -o! e"mp)e1 h"&e >ee. i))7%t!"te$ with "we")th o- ">%o!>i.#$et"i) >y Ro>e!t Re$?e)$ i. hi% %t7$ie% o- Ce.t!") Ame!i"'F

A.othe! impo!t".t o.%e97e.e o- ")ph">eti 7)t7!e !e)"te%to %oi")%t!"ti?"tio.' I. the p!oto)ite!"te 7)t7!e%1 with thei! !e)"ti&e)y$iJ7)t.o./")ph">eti %y%tem% o- w!iti.#1 the!e ei%te$ " %t!o.#>"!!ie! >etwee.the w!ite!% ".$ the .o./w!ite!%8 >7t ")tho7#h the :$emo!"ti




4

%!ipt%m"$e it po%%i>)e to >!e"6 $ow. thi% p"!ti7)"! >"!!ie!1 they )e$e&e.t7"))yto " &"%t p!o)i-e!"tio. o- mo!e o! )e%% t".#i>)e $i%ti.tio.%>"%e$ o. wh"tpeop)e h"$ !e"$' Ahie&eme.t i. h".$)i.# the too)% o- !e"$i.#".$ w!iti.#i% o>&io7%)y o.e o- the mo%t impo!t".t "e% o- %oi")$i=e!e.ti"tio. i.mo$e!. %oietie%8 ".$ thi% $i=e!e.ti"tio. ete.$% o. to mo!emi.7te $i-/

-e!e.e% >etwee. p!o-e%%io.") %pei")i3"tio.% %o th"t e&e.mem>e!% o- the%"me %oio/eo.omi #!o7p% o- )ite!"te %pei")i%t% m"y ho)$)itt)e i.te))et7")#!o7.$ i. ommo.'

No!1 o- o7!%e1 "!e the%e &"!i"tio.% i. the $e#!ee o- p"!tiip"tio. i. the)ite!"te t!"$itio.1 to#ethe! with thei! e=et% o. %oi") %t!7t7!e1the o.)y"7%e% o- te.%io.' o!1 e&e. withi. " )ite!"te 7)t7!e1 the o!")t!"$itio.the t!".%mi%%io. o- &")7e% ".$ "ttit7$e% i. -"e/to/-"e o.t"t

.e&e!the/)e%% !em"i.% the p!im"!y mo$e o- 7)t7!") o!ie.t"tio.1 ".$1 to&"!yi.#1 &han o"% a Maya ;illage 6Wa#!$%gt%/ D0C0/ 1)8 The Fol! &ulture of ?ucatan

6C!$&ag/ 1)18 A ;illage that &hose Progress< &han o" *evisited 6C!$&ag/

1);8

a%( fr a mre ge%eral treatme%t/ The Pri"itive 0orld and its Transfor"ations

6It!a&a/

Ne. Yr/ 1);8/ --0 +/ 10 See al# ?eter Wr#le'/ The Tru"pet Shall Sound

6L%(%/ 1);+80 3r t!e &%&e-t f ano"ie% #ee Em$le Dur!e$m/ Le Suicide 6?ar$#/

1)+8/ " II1 &!a-0 ;0

$e#!ee%1 it i% o7t o- %tep with the &"!io7% )ite!"te t!"$itio.%' I.%ome !e/%pet%1 pe!h"p%1 thi% i% -o!t7."te' The te.$e.y o- the mo$e!.

m"%%/omm7.i"tio.% i.$7%t!ie%1 -o! e"mp)e1 to p!omote i$e")% o- o.%pi7o7%o.%7mptio. whih "..ot >e !e")i3e$ >y mo!e th". " )imite$p!opo!tio.o- %oiety mi#ht we)) h"&e m7h mo!e !"$i") o.%e97e.e%>7t -o! the




44

-"t th"t e"h i.$i&i$7") epo%e$ to %7h p!e%%7!e% i% ")%o "mem>e! o- o.e o! mo!e p!im"!y #!o7p% who%e o!") o.&e!%e i% p!o>">)ym7h mo!e!e")i%ti ".$ o.%e!&"ti&e i. it% i$eo)o#i") te.$e.y8 the m"%%me$i" "!e.ot the o.)y1 ".$ they "!e p!o>">)y .ot e&e. the m"i.1 %oi")i.7e.e% o.the o.tempo!"!y 7)t7!") t!"$itio. "% " who)e'

P!im"!y #!o7p &")7e% "!e p!o>">)y e&e. -7!the! !emo&e$-!om tho%e o-

the :hi#h )ite!"te 7)t7!e1 eept i. the "%e o- the )ite!"te%pei")i%t%' Thi%i.t!o$7e%8 ".othe! 6i.$ o- 7)t7!e o.it1 ".$ o.e whih i% o- "!$i.")%i#.i?".e -o! e%te!. i&i)i3"tio.' I-1 -o! e"mp)e1 we !et7!.to the!e"%o.% -oiH the !e)"ti&e -"i)7!e o- 7.i&e!%") omp7)%o!ye$7"tio. to >!i.#">o7t the i.te))et7")1 %oi") ".$ po)iti") !e%7)t% th"t "me% Mi))epete$1we m"y we)) )"y " m"@o! p"!t o- the >)"me o. the #"p >etwee.the p7>)i

)ite!"te t!"$itio. o- the %hoo) ".$ the &e!y $i=e!e.t ".$ i.$ee$o-te.$i!et)y o.t!"$ito!y p!i&"te o!") t!"$itio.% o- the p7pi)% -"mi)y".$ pee!#!o7p' The hi#h $e#!ee o- $i=e!e.ti"tio. i. epo%7!e to the)ite!"te t!"$i/tio. %et% 7p " >"%i $i&i%io. whih "..ot ei%t i. .o./)ite!"te%oietythe $i&i%io. >etwee. the &"!io7% %h"$e% o- )ite!"y ".$i))ite!"y' Thi% o./it1 o- o7!%e1 i% mo%t $!"m"ti"))y -o7%e$ i. the %hoo)1 the6ey i.%tit7/

tio. o- %oiety' A% M"!#"!et Me"$ ;F<4 ,0 h"% poi.te$ o7t:P!imiti&ee$7"tio. w"% " p!oe%% >y whih o.ti.7ity w"% m"i.t"i.e$>etwee.p"!e.t% ".$ hi)$!e.'' 'Mo$e!. e$7"tio. i.)7$e% " he"&yemph"%i% 7po.the -7.tio. o- e$7"tio. to !e"te $i%o.ti.7itie%to t7!. the




4

hi)$'' 'o- the i))ite!"te i.to the )ite!"te'* A %imi)"! ".$ p!o>">)y e&e.mo!e "7te %t!e%%$e&e)op% i. m".y "%e% >etwee. the %hoo) ".$ the pee!#!o7p8 ".$1 97ite"p"!t -!om the $iJ7)tie% "!i%i.# -!om the %7>%t".ti&e$i=e!e.e% >etwee.the two o!ie.t"tio.%1 the!e %eem to >e -"to!% i. the &e!y."t7!e o- )ite!"temetho$% whih m"6e them i)) %7ite$ to >!i$#e the #"p >etwee.the %t!eet/

o!.e! %oiety ".$ the >)"6>o"!$ @7.#)e'i!%t1 >e"7%e ")tho7#h the ")ph">et1 p!i.ti.#1 ".$ 7.i&e!%")-!ee e$7"/tio. h"&e om>i.e$ to m"6e the )ite!"te 7)t7!e -!ee)y"&"i)">)e to ")) o." %")e .e&e! p!e&io7%)y "pp!o"he$1 the )ite!"te mo$e o- omm7.i"tio.i% %7h th"t it $oe% .ot impo%e it%e)- "% -o!e-7))y o! "%7.i-o!m)y "% i% the"%e with Ithe o!") t!".%mi%%io. o- the 7)t7!") t!"$itio.' I. .o./)ite!"te%oiety e&e!y %oi") %it7"tio. "..ot >7t >!i.# the i.$i&i$7")

i.to o.t"twith the #!o7p% p"tte!.% o- tho7#ht1 -ee)i.# ".$ "tio.8 thehoie i% >e/twee. the8 7)t7!") t!"$itio.o! %o)it7$e' I. " )ite!"te %oiety1howe&e!1".$ 97ite "p"!t -!om the $iJ7)tie% "!i%i.# -!om the %")e ".$omp)eityo- the :hi#ha )ite!"te t!"$itio.1 the me!e -"t th"t !e"$i.# ".$w!iti.# "!e.o!m"))y %o)it"!y "ti&itie% me".% th"t i. %o -"! "% the $omi.".t7)t7!")t!"$itio. i% " )ite!"te o.e1 it i% &e!y e"%y to "&oi$8 "% Be!th"

Phi))pott%;F<F F,+/0 w!ote i. he! %t7$y o- Ie)".$i )ite!"t7!e

P!i.ti.# %o o>&io7%)y m"6e% 6.ow)e$#e "e%%i>)e to ")) th"t we"!e i.)i.e$ to-o!#et th"t it ")%o m"6e% 6.ow)e$#e &e!y e"%y to "&oi$''' A%hephe!$ i. ". Ie/)".$i home%te"$1 o. the othe! h".$1 o7)$ .ot "&oi$ %pe.$i.#




4,

hi% e&e.i.#% i.)i%te.i.# to the 6i.$ o- )ite!"t7!e whih i.te!e%te$ the -"!me!' The !e%7)t w"% "$e#!ee o- !e"))y ."tio.") 7)t7!e %7h "% .o ."tio. o- to$"y h"%>ee. ">)e to"hie&e'

The )ite!"te 7)t7!e1 the.1 i% m7h mo!e e"%i)y "&oi$e$ th". theo!") o.e8".$ e&e. whe. it i% .ot "&oi$e$ it% "t7") e=et% m"y >e!e)"ti&e)y %h"))ow'Not o.)y >e"7%e1 "% P)"to "!#7e$1 the e=et% o- !e"$i.# "!ei.t!i.%i"))y

)e%% $eep ".$ pe!m".e.t th". tho%e o- o!") o.&e!%e8 >7t ")%o>e"7%e the">%t!"t.e%% o- the %y))o#i%m ".$ o- the A!i%tote)i"."te#o!i3"tio.% o- 6.ow)e$#e $o .ot o!!e%po.$ &e!y $i!et)y with ommo.epe!ie.e' The">%t!"t.e%% o- the %y))o#i%m1 -o! e"mp)e1 o- it% &e!y ."t7!e$i%!e#"!$% thei.$i&i$7")% %oi") epe!ie.e ".$ imme$i"te pe!%o.") o.tet8".$ theomp"!tme.t")i3"tio. o- 6.ow)e$#e %imi)"!)y !e%t!it% the 6i.$o- o..e/tio.% whih the i.$i&i$7") ". e%t">)i%h ".$ !"ti-y with the."t7!") ".$%oi") wo!)$' The e%%e.ti") w"y o- thi.6i.# o- the %pei")i%t i.)ite!"te7)t7!e i% -7.$"me.t"))y "t o$$% with th"t o- $"i)y )i-e ".$ommo. e/pe!ie.e 8 ".$ the o.it i% em>o$ie$ i. the )o.# t!"$itio. o- @o6e% ">o7t">%e.t/mi.$e$ p!o-e%%o!%'

It i%1 o- o7!%e1 t!7e th"t o.tempo!"!y e$7"tio. $oe% .otp!e%e.tp!o>)em% e"t)y i. the -o!m% o- A!i%tote)i". )o#i ".$t"o.omy8 >7t "))o7! )ite!"te mo$e% o- tho7#ht h"&e >ee. p!o-o7.$)y i.7e.e$>y them'I. thi%1 pe!h"p%1 we ". %ee " m"@o! $i=e!e.e1 .ot o.)y -!omthe t!".%/mi%%io. o- the 7)t7!") he!it"#e o- o!") %oietie%1 >7t -!om tho%e




4

o- p!oto/)ite!"te o.e%' Th7% M"!e) G!".et !e)"te% the ."t7!e o- theChi.e%e w!iti.#%y%tem to the :o.!ete.e%%* o- Chi.e%e tho7#ht1 ".$ hi%pit7!e o- it%p!im"!y o.e.t!"tio. o. %oi") "tio. ".$ t!"$itio.") .o!m%%7##e%t% th"tthe 7)t7! ") e=et o- the w!iti.# %y%tem w"% i. the $i!etio. o- i.te.%i-yi.#the %o!t o- homeo%t"ti o.%e!&"tio. -o7.$ i. .o./)ite!"te7)t7!e%8 it w"%

i.$ee$ o.ept7")i3e$ i. the Co.-7i". tao5tung1 o! :o!tho$ot!".%mi%%io.o- the w"y*' I. thi% o..etio. it m"y >e .ote$ th"t the Chi.e%e"ttit7$eto -o!m") )o#i1 ".$ to the "te#o!i3"tio. o- 6.ow)e$#e i.#e.e!")1 i% "."!ti7)"te ep!e%%io. o- wh"t h"ppe.% i. ". o!") 7)t7!e ;G!".etF<4&ii/i1 8 7 Shih F<++0' Me.i7%1 -o! e"mp)e1 %pe"6% -o!the .o./)ite!"te"pp!o"h i. #e.e!") whe. he omme.t% :hy I $i%)i6e ho)$i.#to o.e

poi.t i% th"t it i.@7!e% the tao' It t"6e% 7p o.e poi.t ".$$i%!e#"!$% "h7.$!e$ othe!% ;Rih"!$% F<+ 0'

The %oi") te.%io. >etwee. the o!") ".$ )ite!"te o!ie.t"tio.%i. e%te!.%oiety i%1 o- o7!%e1 omp)eme.te$ >y ". i.te))et7") o.e' I.!ee.t time%the E.)i#hte.me.t% "tt"6 o. myth "% i!!"tio.") %7pe!%titio.h"% o-te. >ee.!ep)"e$ >y " !e#!e%%i&e ye"!.i.# -o! %ome mo$e!. e97i&")e.to- the 7.i-yi.#-7.tio. o- myth :"&e .ot1 ' B' Ye"t% "%6e$1 :")) !"e% h"$

thei! ?!%t7.ity -!om " mytho)o#y th"t m"!!ie% them to !o6 ".$ hi));F< F<40'

I. thi% .o%t")#i" -o! the wo!)$ o- myth% P)"to h"% h"$ " )o.#)i.e o- %7e%%o!%' The Ro7%%e"7i%t 7)t o- the No>)e S"&"#e1 -o!i.%t".e1 p"i$




4

7.witti.# t!i>7te to the %t!e.#th o- the homo#e.eity o- o!")7)t7!e1 to theye"!.i.# "$mi!"tio. o- the e$7"te$ -o! the pe"%".t% %imp)e>7t ohe%i&e&iew o- )i-@e1 the time)e%%.e%% o- hi% )i&i.# i. the p!e%e.t1 the7.".")yti%po.t".eity th"t ome% with ". "ttit7$e to the wo!)$ th"t i% o.eo- ">%o!>e$".$ 7.!iti") p"!tiip"tio.1 " p"!tiip"tio. i. whih theo.t!"$itio.%>etwee. hi%to!y ".$ )e#e.$1 -o! e"mp)e1 o! >etwee.

epe!ie.e ".$im"#i."tio.1 "!e .ot -e)t "% p!o>)em%' S7h1 -o! e"mp)e1 i% the)ite!"!yt!"$itio. o- the E7!ope". pe"%".t -!om Ce!&".te% S".hoP".3"' to To)%toy% P)"to. K"!"t"e&1 Both "!e i))ite!"te8 >oth "!e !ih i.p!o&e!>i"))o!e8 >oth "!e 7.t!o7>)e$ >y i.te))et7") o.%i%te.y8 ".$ >oth!ep!e%e.tm".y o- the &")7e% whih1 it w"% %7##e%te$ ">o&e1 "!eh"!"te!i%ti o- o!") 7)t7!e' I. the%e two wo!6%1 on 6ui.ote ".$ War and Peace1

whihmi#ht we)) >e o.%i$e!e$ two o- the %7p!eme "hie&eme.t% o- mo$e!.e%te!. )ite!"t7!e1 ". ep)iit o.t!"%t i% m"$e >etwee. theo!") ".$)ite!"te e)eme.t% o- the 7)t7!") t!"$itio.' Do. 7iote him%e)- #oe% m"$>y !e"$i.# >oo6%8 whi)e1 oppo%e$ to the pe"%".t K"!"t"e&1%t".$% the ?#7!eo- Pie!!e1 ". 7!>". o%mopo)it".1 ".$ " #!e"t !e"$e!' To)%toyw!ite% o- K"!"t"e& th"ti. thi% )i6e Me.i7% o! )i6e M")i.ow%6i%

T!o>!i".$e!%he$i$ .ot1 ".$ o7)$ .ot1 7.$e!%t".$ the me".i.# o- wo!$% "p"!t-!om thei! o./tet' E&e!y wo!$ ".$ e&e!y "tio. o- hi% w"% the m".i-e%t"tio.o- ". "ti&ity7.6.ow. to him1 whih w"% hi% )i-e' B7t hi% )i-e1 "% he !e#"!$e$it1 h"$ .o me".i.#




4<

"% " %ep"!"te thi.#' It h"$ " me".i.# o.)y "% p"!t o- " who)e o- whih he w"%")w"y% o.%io7% 7War and Peace8,

To)%toy1 $- o7!%e1 i$e")i3e%8 >7t1 o.&e!%e)y1 e&e. i. hi%i$e")i3"tio. he%7##e%t% i.e m"@o! emph"%i% o- )ite!"te 7)t7!e ".$ o.e whihwe im/me$i"te)y @ "%%oi"te with the G!ee6%the %t!e%% 7po. thei.$i&i$7")8K"!"t"e& $oe% .ot !e#"!$ :hi% )i-e' ''"% " %ep"!"te thi.#' The!e"!e1 o-

o7!%e1 m"!6e$ $i=e!e.e% i. the )i-e hi%to!ie% o- i.$i&i$7")mem>e!%o- .o./)ite!"te %oietie% the %to!y o- C!"%hi.# Th7.$e! $i=e!%-!om th"to- othe! i..e>"#o ;R"$i. F<+,1 F<+08 th"t o- B">" o- K"!o-!om othe!"7%" wohie. ;Smith F<408 ".$ the%e $i=e!e.e% "!e o-te.#i&e. p7>)i!eo#.itio. >y "%!i>i.# to i.$i&i$7")% " pe!%o.") t7te)"!y o!#7"!$i".%pi!it' B7t o. the who)e the!e i% )e%% i.$i&i$7")i3"tio. o- pe!%o.") epe!ie.e

i. o!") 7)t7!e%1 whih te.$1 i. D7!6heim% ph!"%e1 to >eh"!"te!i3e$>y :meh".i") %o)i$"!ityF>y the tie% >etwee. )i6e pe!%o.%1!"the! th".>y " mo!e omp)i"te$ %et o- omp)eme.t"!y !e)"tio.%hip%>etwee. i./$i&i$7")% i. " &"!iety o- !o)e%' Li6e D7!6heim1 m".y %oio)o#i%t%wo7)$!e)"te thi% #!e"te! i.$i&i$7")i3"tio. o- pe!%o.") epe!ie.e i.)ite!"te%oietie% to the e=et% o- " mo!e ete.%i&e $i&i%io. o- )">o7!' The!e i% .o

%i.#)e ep)"."tio.8 >7t the teh.i97e% o- !e"$i.# ".$ w!iti.#"!e 7./$o7>te$)y o- &e!y #!e"t impo!t".e' The!e i%1 ?!%t o- "))1 the-o!m") $i%/ti.tio. whih ")ph">eti 7)t7!e h"% emph"%i3e$ >etwee. the$i&i.e1 the."t7!")1 ".$ the h7m". o!$e!%8 %eo.$)y1 the!e i% the %oi")




$i=e!e.ti"tio.to whih the i.%tit7tio.% o- )ite!"te 7)t7!e #i&e !i%e8 thi!$1 the!ei% thee=et o- p!o-e%%io.") i.te))et7") %pei")i3"tio. o. ".7.p!ee$e.te$ %")e8)"%t)y1 the!e i% the imme.%e &"!iety o- hoie o=e!e$ >y thewho)e o!p7%o- !eo!$e$ )ite!"t7!e8 ".$ -!om the%e -o7! -"to!% the!e e.%7e%1i. ".yi.$i&i$7") "%e1 the hi#h)y omp)e tot")ity $e!i&i.# -!om the%e)etio. o-

the%e )ite!"te o!ie.t"tio.% ".$ -!om the %e!ie% o- p!im"!y#!o7p% i. whihthe i.$i&i$7") h"% ")%o >ee. i.&o)&e$'

A% -o! pe!%o.") "w"!e.e%% o- thi% i.$i&i$7")i3"tio.1 othe!-"to!% $o7>t/)e%% o.t!i>7te$1 >7t w!iti.# it%e)- ;e%pei"))y i. it% %imp)e!1mo!e 7!%i&e-o!m%0 w"% o- #!e"t impo!t".e' o! w!iti.#1 >y o>@eti-yi.#wo!$%1 ".$>y m"6i.# them ".$ thei! me".i.# "&"i)">)e -o! m7h mo!ep!o)o.#e$".$ i.te.%i&e %!7ti.y th". i% po%%i>)e o!"))y1 e.o7!"#e%

p!i&"te tho7#ht8the $i"!y o! the o.-e%%io. e.">)e% the i.$i&i$7") to o>@eti-yhi% ow. e/pe!ie.e1 ".$ #i&e% him %ome he6 7po. the t!".%m7t"tio.%o- memo!y7.$e! the i.7e.e% o- %7>%e97e.t e&e.t%' A.$ the.1 i- the$i"!y i% )"te!p7>)i%he$1 " wi$e! "7$ie.e ". h"&e o.!ete epe!ie.e o- the $i=e!e.e%th"t ei%t i. the hi%to!ie% o- thei! -e))ow me. -!om " !eo!$ o- ")i-e whihh"% >ee. p"!ti"))y i.%7)"te$ -!om the "%%imi)"ti&e p!oe%% o-

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whih )ie%>ehi.$ them8+ whi)e the .o&e)1 whih p"!tiip"te% i. the"7to>io#!"phi")".$ o.-e%%io.") $i!etio. o- %7h w!ite!% "% St A7#7%ti.e1Pepy% ".$Ro7%%e"71 ".$ p7!po!t% to po!t!"y the i..e! "% we)) "% the o7te!)i-e o- 1 Em$le Dur!e$m/ The 4ivision of La#or in Society / tra%#0 G0 S$m-#% 6Ne. Yr/

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i.$i&i$7")% i. the !e") wo!)$1 h"% !ep)"e$ the o))eti&e!ep!e%e.t"tio.%o- myth ".$ epi'

!om the poi.t o- &iew o- the #e.e!") o.t!"%t >etwee. o!")".$ ")ph"/>eti"))y )ite!"te 7)t7!e1 the.1 the!e i% " e!t"i. i$e.tity>etwee. the %pi!ito- the P)"to.i $i")o#7e% ".$ o- the .o&e)F >oth 6i.$% o- w!iti.#ep!e%%wh"t i% " h"!"te!i%ti i.te))et7") e=o!t o- )ite!"te 7)t7!e1 ".$

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)ite!"tepeop)e%1 )ite!"te %oiety )e"&e% mo!e to it% mem>e!%8 )e%%homo#e.eo7% i.it% 7)t7!") t!"$itio.1 it #i&e% mo!e -!ee p)"y to the i.$i&i$7")1".$ p"!/ti7)"!)y to the i.te))et7")1 the )ite!"te %pei")i%t him%e)-8 it$oe% %o >y




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>e %7!mi%e$1 $e!i&e m7h o- thei! e=eti&e.e%% "% "#e.ie% o- %oi") o!ie.t"/tio. -!om the -"t th"t thei! me$i" $o .ot h"&e the ">%t!"t ".$%o)it"!y97")ity o- !e"$i.# ".$ w!iti.#1 >7t o. the o.t!"!y %h"!e%omethi.# o- the."t7!e ".$ imp"t o- the $i!et pe!%o.") i.te!"tio. whiho>t"i.% i. o!")7)t7!e%1 @it m"y e&e. >e th"t the%e .ew mo$e% o- omm7.i"ti.# %i#ht ".$%o7.$ witho7t ".y )imit o- time o! p)"e wi)) )e"$ to " .ew 6i.$o- 7)t7!e

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To %pe7)"te -7!the! o. %7h )i.e% wo7)$ >e to #o -"! >eyo.$the p7!po%e%




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the #e.e!") o7!%e o- the "!#7me.t -o! the p!o>)em "% it w"%po%e$ "t theo7t%et i. te!m% o- the $i%ti.tio. >etwee. the $i%ip)i.e%p!im"!i)y ;tho7#h.ot e)7%i&e)y0 o.e!.e$ i. the ".")y%i% o- .o./)ite!"te ".$)ite!"te%oietie%1 th"t i%1 ".th!opo)o#y ".$ %oio)o#y'

O.e "%pet o- the o.t!"%t $!"w. >etwee. .o./)ite!"te ".$")ph">eti7)t7!e wo7)$ %eem to he)p ep)"i. o.e o- the m"i. mo$e!.t!e.$% i. the$e&e)opme.t o- ".th!opo)o#y -o! p"!t o- the p!o#!e%% whih".th!opo)o#yh"% m"$e >eyo.$ theeth.oe.t!i%m o- the .i.etee.th e.t7!y%7!e)y $e!i&e%-!om " #!owi.# "w"!e.e%% o- the imp)i"tio.% o- o.e o- them"tte!% $i%/7%%e$ ">o&e ". "w"!e.e%%1 th"t i%1 o- the ete.t to whih1 i.the 7)t7!eo- o!") %oietie%1 .o./A!i%tote)i". mo$e)%F "!e imp)iit i. the)".#7"#e1 the!e"%o.i.#1 ".$ the 6i.$% o- o..etio. e%t">)i%he$ >etwee. the&"!io7%%phe!e% o- 6.ow)e$#e' The p!o>)em h"% >ee. "pp!o"he$ i.m".y w"y%8p"!ti7)"!)y i))7mi."ti.#1 pe!h"p%1 i% Do!othy D' Lee% o.t!"%t>etwee.the :)i.e"! o$i?"tio.% o- !e")ity i. e%te!. 7)t7!e ".$ the:.o./)i.e")o$i?"tio.% o- the T!o>!i".$ I%)".$e!%8 ".$ the!e1 i.i$e.t"))y1")tho7#hA!i%tot)e i% .ot me.tio.e$1 hi% h"!"te!i%ti"))y ".")yti1te)eoio#i") ".$!e)"tio.") thi.6i.# i% !eo#.i3">)e i. the #o&e!.i.# "ttit7$e%th"t Do!othyLee p!e%e.t% "% the typi") )ite!"te mo$e o- tho7#ht i. o.t!"%t




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to th"to- the T!o>!i".$e!%'+ Be.@"mi. Lee ho!- m"6e% " %imi)"! poi.ti. hi%o.t!"%t o- opi with SAE ;%t".$"!$ "&e!"#e E7!ope".0' e%ee% the: meh".i%ti w"y o- thi.6i.# o- E7!ope".% "% )o%e)y !e)"te$to the %y./t" o- the )".#7"#e% they %pe"61 :!i#i$i?e$ ".$ i.te.%i?e$ >yA!i%tot)e ".$the I"tte!% me$ie&") ".$ mo$e!. -o))owe!% ;ho!- F<,+0' The %e#me./

t"tio. o- ."t7!e i% -7.tio."))y !e)"te$ to #!"mm"!8 Newto.i".%p"e1 time".$ m"tte!1 -o! e"mp)e1 "!e $i!et)y $e!i&e$ -!om SAE 7)t7!e".$ )".#7"#e;F<, F0' e #oe% o. to "!#7e th"t :o7! o>@eti?e$ &iew o- time i%'''-"&o7!">)e to hi%to!iity ".$ to e&e!ythi.# o..ete$ with the6eepi.# o- !eo!$%1 whi)e the opi &iew i% 7.-"&o7!">)e the!eto*' A.$ tothi% -"t he)i.6% the p!e%e.e o-

F' Reo!$%1 $i"!ie%1 >oo66eepi.#1 "o7.ti.#1 m"them"ti%

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)o6%1 time w"#e%1time #!"ph%1 time "% 7%e$ i. phy%i%'

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Transactions of the A"erican Philological Association% LWWW 61))8/ --0 $/ *0< > C($5&at$%# f Real$t'Q L$%eal a%( N%l$%ear/ $% Freedo" and &ulture 6E%gle.(

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I%($a% La%guage Philosophy of Science% , 61)8/ --0 )710

=p0 cit. -0 1;0M".y o- the%e -e"t7!e% "!e p!ei%e)y tho%e whih we h"&eme.tio.e$ "%h"!"te!i%ti o- %oietie% with e"%y ".$ wi$e%p!e"$ %y%tem% o- w!iti.#' B7twhi)e ho!- ".$ othe! ".th!opo)o#i") )i.#7i%t% h"&e .ote$the%e $i-/




-e!e.e% >etwee. E7!ope". i.%tit7tio.% ".$ "te#o!ie% o. theo.e h".$".$ tho%e o- %oietie% )i6e the T!o>!i".$% ".$ the opi o. theothe!1 theyh"&e te.$e$ to !e)"te the%e &"!i"tio.% to the )".#7"#e%them%e)&e%1 #i&i.#)itt)e wei#ht to the i.7e.e o- the mo$e o- omm7.i"tio. "%%7h1 tothe i.t!i.%i %oi") o.%e97e.e% o- )ite!"y'F

O. the othe! h".$1 wh"t h"% >ee. %"i$ ">o7t )ite!"y ".$ theo.%e97e.t

$e&e)opme.t% o- G!ee6 tho7#ht )e"$i.# to the )o#i") metho$%1".$ the"te#o!ie%1 o- A!i%tot)e m"y %eem to "tt!i>7te to o.e i.$i&i$7")1".$ to thei&i)i3"tio. to whih he >e)o.#e$1 " 6i.$ o- ">%o)7te )"im toi.te))et7")&")i$ity to hih .eithe! the phi)o%ophe!1 the ".th!opo)o#i%t1.o! the hi%/to!i". o- ".ie.t i&i)i3"tio. i% )i6e)y to "%%e.t' The 7!!e.y o- %7h $i=7%e"%%7mptio.%( i. #e.e!") )o.# "#o mo&e$ oh. Lo6e to ".7.wo.te$ >7!%t

o- wi.t!y h7mo7! :Go$ h"% .ot >ee. %o %p"!i.# to me. to m"6ethem>"!e)y two/)e##e$ !e"t7!e%1 ".$ )e-t it to A!i%tot)e to m"6ethem !"tio.") (ssa 9oncerning &u%an :nderstanding1 >6' i&1 h"p' F140'Ne&e!the)e%%1Lo6e% ow. t!e"tme.t o- the * -o!m% o- "!#7me.t"tio. ".$ o- : the $i&i%io.o- the %ie.e% i% it%e)- !eo#.i3">)y withi. the t!"$itio. th"t$e!i&e% -!omA!i%tot)e ".$ hi% time8 ".$ %o1 i. %ome impo!t".t w"y%1 i% the)ite!"te

7)t7!e1 .ot o.)y o- the e%t1 >7t o- the i&i)i3e$ wo!)$ to$"y' The!e i%o>&io7%)y %ome mo!e o! )e%% ">%o)7te eJ"y i. theo!#".i3"tio. o- h7m".6.ow)e$#e whih "ppe"!% i. the tho7#htw"y% o- the ?!%t%7>%t".ti"))y)ite!"te 7)t7!e1 ")tho7#h it% $e?.itio. ;whih o7)$ h"!$)y >e




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mo!e $iJ7)t0i% we)) >eyo.$ the %ope o- thi% p"pe!' M" e>e! %"w "% thee%%e.ti")$i=e!e.ti"ti.# -"to! o- e%te!. i&i)i3"tio. the :-o!m")!"tio.")ityQ o- it%i.%tit7tio.%8 ".$ thi%1 i. t7!.1 he !e#"!$e$ "% " mo!e -7))y$e&e)ope$ ".$mo!e e)7%i&e)y p!"ti%e$ &e!%io. o- the o!$i."!y h7m".te.$e.y to"t !e"%o.">)yto >eh"&e with : %7>%t".ti&e !"tio.")ity o!e>e! : -o!m")

!"tio.")ity iw"% me!e)y ". i.%tit7tio.")i3e$ -o!m o- thi% #e.e!")te.$e.ywo!6i.# th!o7#h : !"tio."))y e%t">)i%he$ .o!m%1 >y e."tme.t1$e!ee%1 ".$1 3r eam-le/ $% !$# -a-er >A l$%gu$#t$& &%#$(erat$% f t!$%$%g $% -r$m$t$,e &m7

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!e#7)"tio.%F !"the! th". th!o7#h pe!%o.")1 !e)i#io7%1 t!"$itio.")o! h"!i%/m"ti "))e#i".e%' e>e!% $i=e!e.ti"tio. i. %ome !e%pet%p"!"))e)% the$i=e!e.ti"tio. m"$e ">o&e >etwee. o!") ".$ ")ph">eti7)t7!e1 ".$ i.&"!io7% p)"e% he ".tiip"te% p"!t o- the "!#7me.t "$&".e$ i.thi%

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o! imme$i"te "% tho%e the ".th!opo)o#i%t mi#ht epet i. .o./)ite!"te%oietie%'

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le&ture FS&$e%&e a# a &at$%@ 3Front Ma 0e#er% e#-0 --0 1780

)i-e1 "!e o.%i$e!">)y )e%% omp)ete th". tho%e o- ".th!opo)o#y1".$ o./%e97e.t)y p!o&i$e " )e%% e!t"i. #7i$e to 7.$e!%t".$i.# the>eh"&io7! o- the p"!ti7)"! i.$i&i$7")% o- whom the %oiety i% ompo%e$'

SUMMARY

Ree.t ".th!opo)o#y h"% !i#ht)y !e@ete$ the "te#o!i")$i%ti.tio.% >e/twee. the thi.6i.# o- : p!imiti&e ".$ : i&i)i3e$ peop)e%1>etwee. : mytho/poei ".$ :)o#io/empi!i") mo$e% o- tho7#ht' B7t the !e"tio.h"% >ee.p7%he$ too -"!8 $i=7%e !e)"ti&i%m ".$ %e.time.t")

e#")it"!i".i%m om>i.eto t7!. " >)i.$ eye o. %ome o- the mo%t >"%i p!o>)em% o- h7m". hi%to!y'he!e the i.te))et7") $i=e!e.e% i. the 7)t7!") t!"$itio.% o- omp)e ".$%imp)e %oietie% "!e #i&e. "$e97"te !eo#.itio.1 the




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ep)"."tio.% o=e!e$"!e 7.%"ti%-"to!y' I. the "%e o- e%te!. i&i)i3"tio.1 -o!e"mp)e1 theo!i#i.% "!e %o7#ht i. the ."t7!e o- the G!ee6 #e.i7%1 i. the#!"mm"ti")%t!7t7!e o- the I.$o/E7!ope". )".#7"#e%1 o!1 %omewh"t mo!ep)"7%i>)y1i. the teh.o)o#i") "$&".e% o- the B!o.3e A#e ".$ the"%%oi"te$ $e&e)op/me.t% i. the $i&i%io. o- )">o7!'

I. o7! &iew1 )iowe&e!1 i.%7Jie.t "tte.tio. h"% >ee. p"i$ to

the -"t th"tthe 7!>". !e&o)7tio. o- the A.ie.t Ne"! E"%t p!o$7e$ o.ei.&e.tio.1the i.&e.tio. o- w!iti.#1 whih h".#e$ the who)e %t!7t7!e o- the 7)t7!")t!"$itio.' Pote.ti"))y1 h7m". i.te!o7!%e w"% .ow .o )o.#e!!e%t!ite$ tothe impe!m".e.y o- o!") o.&e!%e' B7t %i.e the ?!%t metho$%o- w!iti.#emp)oye$ we!e $iJ7)t to m"%te!1 thei! e=et% we!e !e)"ti&e)y)imite$1 ".$it w"% o.)y whe. the %imp)iity ".$ ei>i)ity o- )"te! ")ph">eti

w!iti.#m"$e wi$e%p!e"$ )ite!"y po%%i>)e th"t -o! the ?!%t time the!e>e#". to t"6eo.!ete %h"pe i. the G!ee6 wo!)$ o- the %e&e.th e.t7!y B0C0 "%oietyth"t w"% e%%e.ti"))y )ite!"te ".$ th"t %oo. e%t">)i%he$ m".y o- the i.%tit7/tio.% th"t >e"me h"!"te!i%ti o- ")) )"te! )ite!"te %oietie%'

The $e&e)opme.t o- ". e"%y %y%tem o- w!iti.# ;e"%y >oth i.te!m% o- the m"te!i") emp)oye$ ".$ the %i#.% 7%e$0 w"% mo!e th". "me!e p!e/

o.$itio. o- @th e G!ee6 "hie&eme.t it i.7e.e$ it% who)e."t7!e ".$$e&e)opme.t( i. -7.$"me.t") w"y%' I. o!") %oietie% the7)t7!") t!"$itio.i% t!".%mitte$ ")mo%t e.ti!e)y >y -"e/to/-"e omm7.i"tio.8".$ h".#e%i. it% o.te.t "!e "omp".ie$ >y the homeo%t"ti p!oe%% o-




,

-o!#etti.#o! t!".%-o!mi.# tho%e p"!t% o- the t!"$itio. th"t e"%e to >eeithe! .ee%%"!yo! !e)e&".t' Lite!"te %oietie%1 o. the othe! h".$1 "..ot$i%"!$1 ">%o!>1o! t!".%m7tX the p"%t i. the %"me w"y' I.%te"$1 thei! mem>e!%"!e -"e$with pe!m".e.t)y !eo!$e$ &e!%io.% o- the p"%t ".$ it% >e)ie-%8".$ >e"7%ethe p"%t i% th7% %et "p"!t -!om the p!e%e.t1 hi%to!i") e.97i!y>eome%

po%%i>)e' Thi% i. t7!. e.o7!"#e% %eptii%m8 ".$ %eptii%m1.ot o.)y">o7t the )e#e.$"!y p"%t1 >7t ">o7t !eei&e$ i$e"% ">o7t the7.i&e!%e "%" who)e' !om he!e the .et %tep i% to %ee how to >7i)$ 7p ".$to te%t")te!."ti&e ep)"."tio.%8 ".$ o7t o- thi% the!e "!o%e the 6i.$ o- )o#i")1%pei")i3e$1 ".$ 7m7)"ti&e i.te))et7") t!"$itio. o- %ith/e.t7!y Io.i"' The 6i.$% o- ".")y%i% i.&o)&e$ i. the %y))o#i%m1 ".$ i. the othe!-o!m% o-

)o#i") p!oe$7!e1 "!e )e"!)y $epe.$e.t 7po. w!iti.#1 i.$ee$7po. " -o!mo- w!iti.# %7Jie.t)y %imp)e ".$ 7!%i&e to m"6e po%%i>)ewi$e%p!e"$ ".$h">it7") !eo7!%e >oth to the !eo!$i.# o- &e!>") %t"teme.t%".$ the. tothe $i%%eti.# o- them' It i% p!o>">)e th"t it i% o.)y the ".")ytip!oe%%th"t w!iti.# it%e)- e.t"i)%1 the w!itte. -o!m")i3"tio. o- %o7.$%".$ %y.t"1whih m"6e po%%i>)e the h">it7") %ep"!"ti.# o7t i.to -o!m"))y$i%ti.t

7.it% o- the &"!io7% 7)t7!") e)eme.t% who%e i.$i&i%i>)ewho)e.e%% i% thee%%e.ti") >"%i% o- the :my%ti") p"!tiip"tio. whih LX&y/B!7h)!e#"!$% "%h"!"te!i%ti o- the thi.6i.# o- .o./)ite!"te peop)e%'

O.e o- the p!o>)em% whih .eithe! LX&y/B!7h) .o! ".y othe!"$&o"te




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o- " !"$i") $ihotomy >etwee. : p!imiti&e ".$ : i&i)i3e$Qtho7#ht h"% >ee.">)e to !e%o)&e i% the pe!%i%te.e o- :.o./)o#i") thi.6i.# i.mo$e!. )ite!"te%oietie%' B7t1 o- o7!%e1 we m7%t !e6o. with the -"t th"t i.o7! i&i)i3"tio.w!iti.# i% )e"!)y ". "$$itio.1 .ot ". ")te!."ti&e1 to o!")t!".%mi%%io.' E&e.i. o7! -uc" und lesen 7)t7!e1 hi)$ !e"!i.# ".$ " m7)tit7$e o- othe! -o!m%o- "ti&ity >oth withi. ".$ o7t%i$e the -"mi)y $epe.$ 7po.

%peeh8 ".$i. e%te!. 7)t7!e% the !e)"tio. >etwee. the w!itte. ".$ theo!") t!"$itio.%m7%t >e !e#"!$e$ "% " m"@o! p!o>)em'

A o.%i$e!"tio. o- the o.%e97e.e% o- )ite!"y i. the%ete!m%1 the.1th!ow% %ome )i#ht .ot o.)y 7po. the ."t7!e o- the G!ee6"hie&eme.t >7t")%o 7po. the i.te))et7") $i=e!e.e% >etwee. %imp)e ".$omp)e %oietie%' The!e "!e1 o- o7!%e1 m".y othe! o.%e97e.e% we h"&e .ot$i%7%%e$

-o! i.%t".e1 the !o)e o- w!iti.# i. the !7..i.# o- e.t!")i3e$%t"te% ".$othe! >7!e"7!"ti o!#".i3"tio.%8 o7! "im h"% o.)y >ee. to$i%7%% i. &e!y#e.e!") te!m% %ome o- the mo!e %i#.i?".t hi%to!i") ".$-7.tio.") o./%e97e.e% o- )ite!"y'F

1 T!e aut!r# are mu&! $%(e"te( t J!% Beatt$e/ Gl'% Da%$el/ Ll'( 3aller#/ M#e#

3$%le'/ J#e-! 3%te%r#e/ Harr' H$4er/ t!e late Alfre( Kre"er/ S$m% ?em"re

a%( Nur Yalma% fr rea($%g a%( &mme%t$%g u-% earl$er ,er#$%# f t!$# -a-er0

T!e'

are al# grateful t t!e Ce%ter fr A(,a%&e( Stu($e# $% t!e Be!a,$ral S&$e%&e#/

Cal$fr%$a/

fr t!e --rtu%$t' f .r$%g tget!er % t!e ma%u#&r$-t $% t!e #-r$%g f $)*0

IM?LICATIONS O3 LITERACY INTRADITIONAL CHINA AND INDIA

I. the -o))owi.# p"pe!1 D! Go7#h $i%7%%e% the %7##e%tio.% p7t-o!w"!$ i. : TheCo.%e97e.e% o- Lite!"y with !e-e!e.e to I.$i" ".$ Chi."'She poi.t% o7t




,+

th"t we "!e $e")i.# with .ee%%"!y !"the! th". %7Jie.t"7%e%8 with thi% we"!e i. e.ti!e "#!eeme.t1 $o7>ti.# whethe! the!e "!e ".y:%7Jie.t "7%e% whih". "o7.t -o! the omp)e "%pet% o- h7m". >eh"&io7!'

She ")%o %7##e%t% e!t"i. mo$i?"tio.% i. o7! o!i#i.")hypothe%i% ".$ the%eI h"&e $i%7%%e$ i. the i.t!o$7tio.' e te.$e$ to o&e!e%tim"tethe $iJ7)tie%o- Chi.e%e w!iti.# ".$ 7.$e!e%tim"te the' "hie&eme.t% o- it%)ite!"!y 7)t7!e'A.$ "% -"! "% ")ph">eti 7)t7!e% "!e o.e!.e$1 " e.t!")theme o- thi% &o)7mei% th"t mo!e i o.%i$e!"tio. .ee$% to >e #i&e. to -"to!%!e%t!iti.# the 7%e1 o- w!iti.#1 >oth i. te!m% o- the ete.t o- the "7$ie.e ".$ the."t7!e ".$ i!7)"tio.o- the )ite!"!y p!o$7t%'

D! Go7#h m"6e% " .7m>e! o- omme.t% 7po. o7! e"!)ie!p"pe! th"t he)p to)"!i-y the p!o>)em% !"i%e$ the!e' She %7##e%t% th"t "tho!o7#h#oi.# $ihotomy>etwee. ."t7!") ".$ %7pe!."t7!") $i$ .ot eme!#e 7.ti) the>e#i..i.#% o- e/pe!ime.t") %ie.e i. mo$e!. time%8 )e"!)y thi% h"% >ee. "p!o#!e%%i&e $i=e!e.ti"/

tio.' She ")%o poi.t% o7t th"t e)imi."tio. -!om the w!itte.o!p7% $oe% o- o7!%eo7!' Litt)e i% 6.ow. ">o7t )"!#e %etio.% o- the hi%to!y o- the)ite!"te Mi$$)eE"%t >e"7%e $o7me.t% h"&e .ot %7!&i&e$' E97"))y1 o!")m"te!i")% ". >e 6epti. i!7)"tio.1 7.h".#e$1 o&e! the e.t7!ie%' Ne&e!the)e%% the$i=e!e.t %")eo- %to!"#e "p">i)ity th"t w!iti.# p!o&i$e% @7%ti?e% 7% i."%%i#.i.# it ". impo!t".t!o)e i. the #!e"t p!o#!e%% m". h"% m"$e %i.e the B!o.3e A#e8.o! i% it %imp)y" m"tte! o- "p"ity1 -o! the m"te!i") %o %to!e$ i% !e)"ti&e)yi.$e%t!7ti>)e'

e! !em"!6% o. $emo!"y "!e "ppo%ite1 tho7#h we we!ethi.6i.# he!e %imp)yi. te!m% o- )"!#e/%")e ".$ i.-o!me$ p"!tiip"tio. i. thep!oe%%e% o- #o&e!.me.t8he!e )ite!"y %eem% ". e%%e.ti") p!e!e97i%ite' I. $i%7%%i.# thete.$e.y o- w!iti.#to p!o$7e &"%t p!o)i-e!"tio. o- mo!e o! )e%% t".#i>)e



TE CONSEUENCES O LITERACY$i%ti.tio.% >"%e$ 7po.wh"t peop)e h"$ !e"$F ".$ i. $i%7%%i.# the p!o>)em o- ")ie."tio. ;whe!e we%"w )ite!"y( "% o.)y o.e -"to!01 we we!e .ot thi.6i.# p!im"!i)yo- )"%%e% o!$e?.e$ %oi") %t!"t" o- ".y 6i.$' The i.$i&i$7")i3"tio.1")ie."tio.1 $i%ti.ti&e.e%%we we!e thi.6i.# o- h"$ to $o with the "p"ity to ete.$ o.e%epe!ie.eth!o7#h time ".$ %p"e >y wh"t o.e !e"$%1 th7% p!o&i$i.# ".i.te))et7") hi%to!yth"t i% $i=e!e.t1 o-te. !"$i"))y %o1 -o! e"h i.$i&i$7") i. the%oiety' C)e"!)y1)ite!"y i%1 "i% ")w"y%1 " p!eo.$itio.8 we $o .ot )oo6 -o!mo.o)ithi ep)"."tio.%o- h7m". >eh"&io7! ".$ we wo7)$ >e !e)7t".t to oppo%e)ite!"y to "pit")i%mo! >7!e"7!"y "% ")te!."ti&e "7%e%' B7t the h".#e i. the."t7!e o- the me$i"$oe% %eem t> 7% to h"&e impo!t".t imp)i"tio.% -o! i.$i&i$7")epe!ie.e'

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Goody Watt 1968 Consequences