WORKINGPAPER

Good News from a Far Country?Changes in international broadcast news supply in Africa and South Asia

Brian Rotheray

July 2010

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CONTENTSExecutivesummaryandprefacebyDavidLevyAbouttheauthorListofin‑textchartsAcknowledgements1.Introduction1.1Purposeofstudy1.2Methods2.Choicesforinternationalbroadcasters2.1Backgroundtointernationalbroadcasting2.2Recentpatternsindevelopment2.3Deliverymodels3.Keycurrentinternationalplayers3.1‘Western’broadcasters:France,Germany,UK,USA3.2‘New’powers:Russia,Iran,China3.3Pan‑Arabandwider3.4Religiousbroadcasters–adifferentaim3.5Newmediacasestudy4.FrancophoneAfrica–‘nation‑building’localmedia4.1Cameroonmediaprofile4.2Cameroonnewsagendaanalysis–nation‑buildingmedia4.3Senegalmediaprofile4.4Senegalnewsagendaanalysis5.AnglophoneAfrica–outspokenlocalsources5.1Kenyamediaprofile5.2Kenyanewsagendaanalysis5.3Nigeriamediaprofile5.4Nigerianewsagendaanalysis6.NorthAfrica–whereoutsidevoicesdominate6.1Algeriamediaprofile6.2Algerianewsagendaanalysis6.3Egyptmediaprofile6.4Egyptnewsagendaanalysis7.SouthAsia–themediumofEnglish7.1Indiamediaprofile7.2Pakistanmediaprofile7.3SouthAsianewsagendaanalysis8.Fourinternationalbroadcasters’treatmentofasinglestory:analysisbyMohamadAgha8.1Background8.2Detailedanalysis8.3Conclusion9.Conclusion9.1.Thetargetcountries9.2.Themajorinternationalbroadcasters9.3.Contrastinginternationalandlocalbroadcasters9.4.Massoropinionformeraudiences9.5.Areasforfurtherresearch9.6.TheroleplayedbyinternationalbroadcastersLiteraturesurveyandreferences Appendix:newsagendaanalysistables1–40

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PREFACEANDEXECUTIVESUMMARYDavidLevyDirector,ReutersInstitutefortheStudyofJournalismThis report is the first stage of a three‑phase project on ‘International News: Provision,Consumption and Trust in a Rapidly Changing Broadcasting Environment’. The projectexamineseightcountriesandaimstoexploretheincreasinglycompetitiveprovisionofnewsbyinternationalproviders,changingpatternsofconsumptionanduseoftheseproviders,andthe ways inwhich trustmay be changing in a world of news plenty as opposed to newsscarcity.

TheeightcountriesthattheprojectexaminesincludesixinthreedifferentlanguagezonesinAfrica,SenegalandCameroon,KenyaandNigeriaandAlgeriaandEgypt,togetherwithtwocountriesinSouthAsia,IndiaandPakistan.

This phase 1 working paper focuses on the provision of international news to thetargetcountriesandexaminesthestatedaimsofthemaininternationalbroadcastproviders,the nature of themedia environment in the eight countries, and aims through some newsagenda analysis to compare thenature of theprovision that is available from internationalprovidersasopposedtosomekeylocalsuppliers.Subsequentphasesoftheresearchprojectwill examine detailed figures on consumption of the key suppliers and then deepen thisunderstandingthroughfieldresearchinfiveofthecountriesaimedatuncoveringthewaysinwhichnotionsoftrustmaybechanginginrelationtoprovidersofinternationalnews.

This is a very ambitious project in terms of its scope – covering a multiplicity ofinternationalbroadcastersacrosseightcontrastingcountriesin twocontinents,andwiththeresearch and writing all conducted within the calendar year 2010. But it is also a uniqueproject in its determination to examine both the supply and the demand side regardinginternationalnewsbroadcastersacross somanycountries,and toplace thiswithin thelocalmarketcontexts.Inevitablythishasrequiredustomakesometrade‑offsbetweenbreadthanddepth; thebreadthof theprojectmeans that in thisphaseof the researchwehavenotbeenable to study anyprovider or any single broadcastmarket in asmuch detail aswewouldhave liked and have had to focus more on broadcast than internet and mobile provision.Similarly,inthisphasewehavehadtolimitourselvestoexaminingnewsagendasonafewsampledays,ratherthanengagingindetailedcontentanalysisofindividualbroadcastsoverseveral months. However, we feel that, while the broader scope has meant somecompromisesondetail,wehaveneverthelessproducedararesnapshotof theactivitiesofarangeofinternationalbroadcastersand,byplacingthatagainstthepatternoflocalbroadcastnewsprovisionon thesamedays,wehaveproducedauniquepictureofhow internationalnews broadcasts fitwithin the local media environment in the eight target countries. Thisproducessomeveryinterestingresultsinitself.Italsocreatesareallyusefulbaselineonthenatureofsupplybeforethenexttwophasesoftheresearch–onpatternsofconsumptionandthechangingnatureoftrust–areundertaken.Weexpecttopublishtheseasworkingpapersduringthecourseof2010andthenproduceafinalreportonthewholeprojectinearly2011.

IwouldliketothankBrianRotheraywhoworkedbetweenJanuaryandMay2010toresearchandwritethisreport.Hehasachievedanextraordinaryamountinthespaceofjustafewmonths.Ashenotesbelow,thisstageoftheworkwouldhavebeenimpossiblewithouttheextensivesupportofBBCMonitoring.Iwouldalsoliketothankthosefundingtheoverallproject,theCarnegieCorporationofNewYork,BBCGlobalNewsandFrance24.

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ExecutivesummaryThisreportisfocusedontheprovisionofinternationalnews.Itisbasedonreviewsofthemaininternationalbroadcasters,newsagendaanalysisoflocalandinternationalbroadcastersandstudiesofthemediaenvironmentineightcountriesinAfricaandAsia.Moredefinitivefindingswillemergeafterthenexttwostagesoftheproject–onconsumptionandtrust.Preliminaryfindingsfromphase1areoutlinedbelow:

1. WhileinmanyWesterncountriestheprovisionofforeignnewsseemsthreatened,providersofinternationalbroadcastnewstothedevelopingworldfacetheirtoughestevercompetitiveenvironment.Thenumberofinternationalandregionalprovidershasincreasedandallthemajorplayersnowcompeteacrossmultipleplatforms:radio,TV,onlineandmobile.Internationalbroadcastprovidersfaceincreasedcompetitionfromlocalprovidersastechnologyanddegreesofderegulationfacilitatemorelocallysuppliednews.

2. Therehasbeenincreasedcompetitionintheprovisionofexternallyfocusedinternationalbroadcastnews.Thisarisesfromaconsiderablerealignmentinthemaininternationalproviders,thearrivalofnew‘counter‑hegemonic’entrantsandgreatlyincreasedresourcesfromsometraditionalstate‑sponsoredproviders.Wellresourcedcounter‑hegemonicentrantssuchasAl‑Jazeerahavebuiltconsiderableaudiencesfromastandingstart.TraditionalproviderssuchasRussiaandChinaaredevotingbillionsofdollarstolaunchingnewTVservicesandwebsitesinmultiplelanguages.Forexample,in2009Chinaannouncedplanstospend$7billiononnewsgathering,TVandthepress.

3. Itseemslikelythatmoreisbeingspentnowonexternallyfocusedinternationalbroadcastingthaneverbeforebutimpactmaynotalwayscorrelatewithexpenditureandreliableaudiencefiguresarehardtocomeby.Thereportillustratestheimportanceofgainingabetterunderstandingofaudiencesandwherepossibletailoringcontenttotheirneedsandinterests.Forexample,analysisofArabic‑languagebroadcastsofseveralproviderstargetedatEgypt,acountrywithrelativelytightmediacontrol,revealssignificantopportunitiesforthosebroadcastersabletoconnectwithregionalissuesbutsurprisinglyself‑focusednewsagendasfavouredbytheArabicbroadcastsinthesampleperiodfromRussia,ChinaandIran.

4. Comprehensive,impartialinternationalcoverageremainsascarcecommodityinspiteoftheoverallincreaseinthesupplyofnews.Attheinternationallevelmanyofthestate‑sponsoredprovidersareexplicitlyfocusedonpresentingtheircountry’sparticularperspectiveoninternationalaffairs.Whiletheymayprovideanalternativeviewofeventstheyrarelyifeverpresentacriticalviewoftheirhomecountryanditsforeignpolicy.

5. Atanationallevelconsumershavegenerallybenefitedfromthearrivalofnewentrantsanddistributionsystemsbutquestionsremainabouttheindependenceofnewsprovidedbymanydomesticstatebroadcastersandfewlocaloperatorsprovidemuchinternationalnews.Inmanyofthecountriesstudiedstatemediaconsciouslyplaysastate‑buildingrole.InSenegal,Cameroon,KenyaandNigerialocalprovidersofferedverylittleinternationalnewsinoursampleperiodwhereasthesamplebulletinofEgyptianproviderNileTVwasdominatedbyregionalandinternationalnews.

6. Insomeofthecountriesstudiedhere,traditionalinternationalproviderssuchastheBBCandRFI/F24withstrongfollowingscanstillplayanimportantroleinprovidingnewsforlocalpopulationsinspiteofthechangedenvironment.(SeethecaseoftheBBCHausareportonthetransferofpowerinNigeriainsection5.4.3.)

7. Howevertheseestablishedinternationalprovidersfaceverydifficultchallengesandchoicesaboutdeliveryplatforms(TV,radio,online),numbersoflanguages,and

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degreesoflocalisationversusglobalisedservices,thatstandincontrasttosomestate‑sponsoredsupplierswithlargebudgetswhichenablethemtoexpandonallfrontssimultaneously.ManyestablishedprovidershaverespondedtothesepressuresbycuttingvernacularradioservicestoexpandinternationalTV.Whilethesestrategiesgenerallyreflectshiftsinmediaconsumptiontheycanposethreatstotheabilitytotailorcontenttoensureitsrelevancetolocalaudiences.

8. India–astheworld’ssecondlargestmediamarket–appearstobeanexceptiontomanyofthetrendsoutlinedhereandtopresentoneofthemostchallengingenvironmentsforsuppliersofinternationalbroadcastnews.ThewidediversityoflocalprovisioninIndia,includingaround50domesticnewschannels,meansthatinternationalprovidershavetoworkmuchharderthanelsewheretoaddtolocalprovision.HowevereveninIndiaitappearsfromthenewsagendaanalysisconductedofEnglish‑languageservicesthatlocalprovidersofferlimitedcoverageofinternationalstories.

9. Thenexttwophasesofthisresearchwillexaminefiguresonconsumptionandtrustandthrowgreaterlightonthekeypointsidentifiedhereacrossalleightcountriesstudied.

ABOUTTHEAUTHORDrBrianRotherayholdsaBAandPhDinModernLanguages(LeedsUniversity)andanMBA(BradfordUniversity),withperiodsofstudyinRussia,GermanyandtheUSA.HeisaFellowoftheInstituteofLinguists.

HeworkedforBBCMonitoringasamonitorandsenioreditor,andonthedevelopmentoftheorganisation’snewsservicesaboutthemediaworldwide.

Hisresearchinterestsareintheimpactofinternationalbroadcastersonpublicperceptionsandpublicpolicy.RecentpublicationsincludeTheHistoryofBBCMonitoring,(BBC,2009).

HeworkedasapostdoctoralresearchfellowonthefirstphaseoftheReutersInstituteprojecton‘InternationalNewsinAfrica,IndiaandPakistan:Provision,ConsumptionandTrustinaRapidlyChangingBroadcastingEnvironment’duringthefirstpartof2010.

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LISTOFIN‑TEXTCHARTS1. Keyinternationalbroadcasters20102. Keyindicatorsfortheeightcountriesstudied3. Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinCameroon4. Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinSenegal5. Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinKenya6. Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinNigeria7. Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinAlgeria8. Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinEgypt9. Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinIndiaandPakistanACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThisreportispartofaone‑yearindependentstudysupportedbytheCarnegieCorporationofNewYork,BBCGlobalNewsandFrance24.

TheresearchherewaspossiblethankstotheassistanceofBBCMonitoring.Theorganisationprovidedthreekindsofsupport.First,itmadeavailableitsspecialistreportsandexpertiseonthemediaenvironmentsofcountriesincludedinthestudyandonthemajorcountriesinvolvedininternationalbroadcasting.Secondly,itmadeavailableitsextensivedatabasesofnewsreportsfromsourcesinthecountriesstudied,sothatspecificnewsreportscouldbeexamined.Thirdly,itmadepossibletheconsiderablenewsagendaanalysisexercisesconductedbycapturingthetelevisionandradiomaterialneededandcompletingdetailedsummariesoftheprogrammes.ThanksareduetotheDirector,DrChrisWestcott,andhisteamforsupportingtheproject,toDr Mohamed el‑Doufani and his team for their constant and impartial guidance, to JanCampbellforsupportwithassemblingthedata.

Thanksto theotherprojectteammembersDrDavidLevyandDrAnneGenietsfortheir help and contributions and to the BBC, Voice of America and France 24 for makingavailablekeyprogrammematerialandaudienceandmediaenvironmentdata.

References to thematerialmadeavailablebyBBCMonitoringand the internationalandlocalbroadcastersexaminedaremadeatthefootofeachsection.OtherbooksandarticlesaredetailedintheReferences.DrBr ianRotheray,May2010

Ascoldwaterstoathirstysoul,soisgoodnewsfromafarcountry

(Proverbs)

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1.Introduction1.1.PurposeofstudyInanincreasinglyinterconnectedandglobalisedworld,accesstoanobjectivepicture ofworld news appears to be in retreat.Western commercialmediaorganisationsareinvestinglessinglobaljournalism.Localprovidersfocusonlocalnews.Popularavowedly‘counter‑hegemonic’providerslikeAl‑Jazeeraand state‑backed broadcasters like Russia Today offer specific views of theworld. This phase of the project maps the new increasingly competitiveprovisionofinternationalnewsinsixAfricanandtwoSouthAsiancountriesandconsiders:• Whatviewsoflocal,regionalandworldaffairsareavailableandto whom?• Whatpictureisprovidedbylocaloperators?• Whatpictureisprovidedbyregionalandinternationalproviders?• Howhasthesupplyofnewsfrominternationalbroadcasterschanged inrecentyearsandwithwhatconsequencesforcompetitionwithin differentmarkets?Furtherphasesoftheprojectwill:• Assesspatternsofconsumptionbyexaminingexistingdataonthe eighttargetcountries.• Reviewhowattitudestotrustinglobalmediasourcesmaybe changingthroughresearchwithintargetcountries.

1.2.MethodsThemethods employed for this stage of the project have consisted of threelines of work: the first an examination of a range of largely state‑fundedinternationalbroadcastersandtheirrecentdevelopments;thesecondastudyof eight country environments in which international broadcasters aresignificant players; and third an analysis of the news agendas of selectedinternationalbroadcasterscomparedtoexamplesoftheirlocalcompetitors–somestate‑funded,somecommercial.

In the first element of the exercise, we consider the development offourgroupsof internationalbroadcasters: first, a set ofWestern,democraticpowers –France,Germany, theUKandUSA; second, a set ofhighly active‘newpowers’–Russia,ChinaandIran;third,keypan‑Arabbroadcasters;andfourth,alittleresearchedfield,internationalreligiousbroadcasters. The second element of the study is to examine the evolving mediaenvironments of eight countries (in four categories) which internationalbroadcasters target. The categories and countries are: Francophone Africa(Cameroon and Senegal); Anglophone Africa (Kenya and Nigeria); Arabic‑

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speaking North Africa (Algeria and Egypt); and South Asia (India andPakistan). In each case, we looked at the nature of the local media scene,including state‑run and commercial outlets; regulatory environments;pressures experienced by local media – competitive, political, social andcultural;languageissues;thetraditionalimpactofinternationalbroadcastersandtheircurrentavailabilitytoaudiences.

Thecountriesselectedhavecommonfeatures,includingacolonialpastand connectionswith former colonial powers eitherBritain or France.Theyalso vary considerably in size, situation and dynamics and in the nature,complexity and degree of freedom of their media markets. They are bothillustrativeandindividuallyinteresting. The third element of the study is a detailed examination of selectednews broadcasts from local and international services to gauge their broadsubjectcontentandseewhatnews isactuallyavailable toconsumerson theground.Thescopeofthestudydidnotallowustoengageindetailedcontentanalysis for each broadcast. Instead, the running orders for sample newsreportswere categorisedasbeing respectively todowithpolitical, security,economic and social issues. It was considered whether the news ispredominantly to do with the state or more to do with the situation ofindividuals. Do providers offer positive (nation‑building) assessments ormore criticalvoices? Inparticular, the study consideredwhether localnewsprovidersofferconsumersalocal,regionalorglobalperspectiveonnewsandcurrent developments and – where there appear to be deficits – whetherinternationalbroadcastershelptobroadenbothlocalandglobalperspectives. The detailed categories used for the news agenda analyses describedaboveare:

• Geographicalfocus:local(concerningtheindividualcountry);regional(concerning the country’s surrounding region: Africa, MiddleEast,SouthAsia);international (concerningthewiderworld).Theresultsareshowninchartsineachsection

• Subject focus: politics; security; economics–environment; education–health; religion–cultural; media; general. The results aredescribed in each section and shown in tabulated form in theAppendix.

Thoughtheanalysiscoversalimitedrangeofsamplesoverashortperiod,itgoesbeyondanalysispreviouslyavailableinextentandscale. Overall, theprojectdrawson someacademic literature, broadcasters’analysis,mediamonitoringmaterial,originalnewsanalysisfindingsandfieldresearchinawaynotpreviouslyattempted.

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2. Choicesfor internationalbroadcasters2.1. BackgroundoninternationalbroadcastingFrom the start, domestic and international broadcasting consisted of twostrands: state‑run and commercial broadcasting. The US followed thecommercial model, with all broadcasting funded through private capital;Europefollowedthestate‑runroute(Wood,1992).

The USSR, France and Germany led the way in the state‑fundedinternationaluseofradiointhe1920sand1930s.Thereweretwolinestothisactivity:propagandaeffortsforabroadandcommunicationwithcompatriotsoverseas. In the first category, RadioMoscowwas broadcasting in English,FrenchandGermanby1929.Eventoday,VoiceofRussiaradiolinksto thattradition.Britainstarted itsEmpireService in1932,aservice inEnglishandintended for expatriates, not the locals.Other colonial powers also adoptedthis approach: French broadcasting in North Africa was targeted atEuropeans,notArabsorAfricans. InAfricaitself,thefirstradiobroadcastsweremadeintheearly1920s.Kenyahaditsfirstradiostationin1927;Senegalin1939.Theirprogrammes,too,were for expatriates.On the Indian subcontinent, thebeginnings in themid‑1920swere in commercial broadcasting; the authorities tookoperationsoverlater. International propaganda efforts intensified – and as now the focuswas on the Middle East. By 1937, Italy was broadcasting via powerfultransmitters toNorthAfricaandina totalof17 languages.TheBBCstartedbroadcasting in Arabic in 1938, followed by broadcasts in Spanish andPortugueseto(LatinAmerica),theninGerman,FrenchandItalian. From theUSA, the commercial networkswere themselves operatinginternationally. NBC and CBS, noted for international news‑gathering, alsohadshort‑wavetransmittersandbroadcastinseverallanguages.Throughthelater 1930s, Europeʹs foremost international broadcaster was also acommercialone–RadioLuxembourg.IthadthemostpowerfultransmittersinEuropeandcoulddrownoutanysignalsintheUK.In1939,theadvancingGermanforcestookoverthefacilitiesandconvertedthemtopropagandause.

The early days of the Second World War showed the impact ofinternational broadcasting. A BBC survey in October 1939 found that only49% of Britons were satisfied with the BBC, while 53% listened to foreignchannels,mainlyGermanones.Germanycreateddifferentchannelstoappealtodifferentaudiences.AswellastheovertGermanservices,therewerefourso‑called ‘black channels’ broadcasting to Britain alone, including thenotoriousLordHawHawʹs‘NewBritishBroadcastingStation’. Britainusedsimilarmethods,runningitsown‘black’channelsalongsidetheBBC.Italsowidened broadcasting to its own territories, beginning programmes forAfricanstomobilisethemforthewareffort.

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TheAmericanschangedtheirapproach tobroadcastamessagetotheworldat largeand tobolster themoraleof theirarmedforces. Internationaloperations were coordinated by state‑run Voice of America, established in1942.By1945itwasoperatingin45languages. As the ColdWar geared up, radio became amajor propaganda toolandavehicle fornegotiation. Internationalbroadcastinggrewexponentiallyfor several decades. Themajor powers, theUSA and theUSSR,multipliedtheirefforts.CommunistChina,startinglater,grewalmosttomatchthem;theUKheld itsown.WestGermany,afteraperiodwithoutavoice,becamebythe1960soneoftopfivecountriesmeasuredbyvolumeofoutput.Therewasa proliferation of players, as European,Asian, andAfrican countries joinedthegame. Onboth sidesof thedivide therewere several formsof internationalbroadcaster. On the Eastern side there were official and semi‑official ones,projectinganapparentrangeofviews,allintendedtogarnersupportfortheoriginating country. On the Western side, there were both clear nationalvoicesand‘surrogate’broadcasters,whoactedasiftheywerefreeoperatorsin their target countries. Both types supplied audiences in closed societieswithnewsandsupportedthemintheirprinciplesandbeliefs.Onbothsidesoutput was analysed to secure insight into countriesʹ policies. And whilesome of the numerous services had a substantial impact, many of theaudiences were minute. Yet both sides feared their opponents’ influence.Broadcastswerecombatedbyselectivejamming.RadioFranceInternationalestoodtoonesideofthemediastruggle,itsoutputmorecultural‑politicalthanpolitical,anditsbroadcastswerenotjammed. Aswiththenucleardeterrent,countrieswereafraidtobeleftoutandshort‑wave transmitters were easy to acquire. The countries of theMiddleEast developed capacity and emerged as radio powers. Egypt took on aregionalroleduringthe1950sandremainedatop‑tenplayeroversubsequentdecades.Inthe1970sand1980s,countrieslikeAlgeria,IranandLibyagrewsignificant capacity. Elsewhere, India and Nigeria were substantialinternationaloperators. The collapse of the communist regimes in the USSR and EasternEurope changed the picture. All countries reconsidered the need forinternational broadcasting and rapid cuts were made. By the mid‑1990s,RussiahadlessthanaquarteroftheoutputoftheUSSR;andwhiletheUSAby far outweighed other countriesʹ efforts, by 1996 ten of the top 30international broadcasters in output volume were evangelical Christianstations.

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2.2 RecentpatternsindevelopmentInthe1990s,acombinationofpolitical,regulatoryandtechnicaldevelopmentradicallychangedtheinternationalbroadcastingenvironmententirely.Froman essentially bipolar exercise, international broadcasting became morecomplex, fragmented and challenging. Countries that had been the maintargets now seemed of declining relevance. There were new mediaenvironments. Deregulation meant changes to state‑run and state‑fundedoperators and new commercial competition. Across the former USSR andEastern Europe there were entirely new countries with new broadcastingsystems,avastproliferationofservicesand–perhapsonlytemporarily–anopportunityforjournaliststooperatemorefreely. For international broadcasters new opportunities were created bycheaperdeliveryoptions. Itwaspossible to operatewithin target countries,createrebroadcastingagreementsandlocalpartnershipsandbecomepartofthe local scene. At the same time, international broadcasters faceddramaticallyincreasedcompetition,asaresultofthearrivalofnewentrants,bothinthedomesticmarketsoftargetcountries,andinternationally. Themost striking impactwas secured by television.Cable televisionhadspreadinthedevelopedworld,creatingopportunitiesfornewplayersinestablishedmarkets.Thematuringofsatellitecommunicationsacceleratedthedevelopment. State‑funded and commercial concerns could now broadcasttelevisioninternationally;CNN,foundedasacableoperatorin1980,emergedasasatelliteoperatortocaptureworldattentionthroughitsdirectcoverageofthefirstGulfWarin1991.Otherssoughttoemulatethissuccess.Radio,stillessential to reach large listeners in undeveloped countries, seemed a lessexciting option than television and increasingly the Internet and mobiletelephony,whichradicallychangedinformationavailabilityandthefreedomtocommunicate. Bothprovidersandconsumersnowfellintonewcategories.Producersmight be state‑funded, commercial or non‑profit. Theymight operate atdifferentlevels:local(i.e.sub‑national),national,regional(i.e.supra‑national)or global. Increasingly, the material was available irrespective of borders.Consumersmightbelocal,national,regionalorglobal.Theymightliveawayfromtheirhomesandconsumematerialfrommore thanoneenvironment–andfromdiasporasources.Diasporasbecamemajorfactorsinmediaflows. Though audiences declined, international broadcasters remainedrelevant in placeswhere therewas a lack of local, regional or internationalnews, or where there was strong interest in the home of the internationalbroadcaster.Colonial links still exercised apull.Audiences in FrancophoneAfrican countries were drawn to French radio. Audiences in AnglophoneAfrica and South Asia respected the BBC. Traditional audiences remainedattractive targets, though as strategic priorities evolved, the focus changed.

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SoonallsignificantpowersfelttheyhadtobebroadcastingsatellitetelevisioninArabic. In thenewsituation, internationalbroadcastershad tomakestrategicchoices. Since the 1990s, they have followed one of five basic patterns ofdevelopment.1.Exitstrategies.A fewprominent internationalbroadcastersopted to leavethe business – in part or entirely. In the 1990s, Switzerland was a top 10international broadcaster by volume of output. By 1999, it had decidedcompletely to abandon broadcasting and remodel itself as an internet newsservice. Broadcasting stopped in 2004, to be replaced by multi‑lingualSwissinfo.com.2.Extreme focus. Other countries stayed in broadcasting, but with narrowobjectives.Forexample,Portugueseeffort is limited toPortuguese‑languageinternational television broadcasting via satellite and Portuguese‑languageradio services (via short wave), targeting expatriates and Portuguese‑speakingBrazilandSouthernAfrica.PolandfocusesonPolesabroad,ahuge,worldwidediasporawithaninsatiablehungerfornewsfromhome,broughtthroughsatellitetelevision,somefree‑to‑airpublic‑service,someprivatepay‑TV.3. Limit radio – move into key television services. Most major Westerninternationalbroadcasters – andothers –havebeenobliged to refocus theirefforts,dropradiobroadcastinginlanguagesnolongerregardedaspoliticallykey,andtargetgloballanguagesandtheMiddleEast.France,Germany,theUK and theUSAwere in this situation, aswasRussia.TheUK reduced itsradio services from 40 languages to 30, the French cut from 16 to 12, theGermansfrom36to17.TheRussianscamedownfrom29to20.TheUSAcutspendinganddroppedservicestoEasternEurope,butrefocusedeffortontheFarEastand then theMiddleEast.Allestablished televisionservices inkeylanguages,tradinglocalforregionalorglobalinfluence.4.Unlimited resources? A limited set of countries was less obliged to cutactivities to fund others. Countries like Iran and especially China havemaintained their numerous radio services, started ambitious satellitetelevision operations, and expanded news agency operations and overseaspartnerships. In the 1990s, Iran was broadcasting radio services in 26languages. Now it runs radio services in 30 and has global televisionoperations in Persian, English andArabic.Chinawas amajor internationalbroadcasterinthe1980sand1990s,fillingtheairwaveswithprogrammesinover 40 languages and numerous frequencies. Now its language servicesnumberover45,withlinkedwebsites,and therearemajordevelopments intelevision–withworldwideservicesinChinese,English,French,SpanishandArabic.

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5.Newentrants.Theperiodsincethe1990shasseencompletelynewentrants,bothstate‑fundedandcommercial,fleet‑footedoperatorslikeCNNandAl‑Jazeera,whohavealmostimmediatelybecomethemarketleadersandsetnewoperatingandeditorialtrends.Thesearehighlyfocusedoperators,largelyignoringradioasanoptionandmakingcarefulchoicesaboutlanguageoperationsandnewmediaservices.Theyareaccompaniedbygrowingnumbersofregionaloperators.TurkishtelevisionlaunchedanArabicchannelinApril2010.2.3.DeliverymodelsUptothe1980s,radiowassimple.Theoptionsweremediumwave(andlongwave in specific locations) for shorter range activities and short wave forlonger range work. Short wave was expensive and investments requiredlongertermplanning.PostColdWar,someconsidereddispensingwithshortwave altogether. Listeners preferred the better sound quality of FM, andinternational broadcasters could operate closer to their targets. Editorialoffices within target countries enabled broadcasters to localise content.Rebroadcasting agreements for local operators to carry the internationalbroadcasterʹs content created the potential for significant audiences atnegligiblecost.Internationalbroadcastershurrieddownthispath,sometimeswith little overview ofwhat happened to their product; brand issues arosefromnewassociations.Today,broadcasters canalsooffer theirprogrammeslive and recordedvia the internet andviamobile telephony,withpodcasts,webcasts,andRSS feeds,andradio–associatedwithinternetusage–offersthe fullest options for localising, in terms of delivery, interaction, languageandcontent.

Satellitetelevisionchangedthesituationforinternationalbroadcasters.Itseemedimpossibletoremainamajorleagueplayerwithoutbeinganinternationaltelevisionbroadcaster.Becausethetelevisioncostsaremuchhigherthanradiocosts,strategicchoices,inpartgeo‑politicaldecisions,hadtobemadebetweenfewtelevisionservicesandmanyradioones,andonlanguagesofbroadcasting.ConflictsintheMiddleEastandAfghanistan,followedby9/11,meantthatArabicbecameakeybroadcastinglanguage.EnglishandSpanishwerekeyinternationallanguages.Localisationofcontentbecameharder.Andalthoughsatellitebroadcastingappearedtoofferfreedomofactiontobroadcasters,theend‑to‑endbroadcastingoperationinvolvedotherplayers–satelliteoperators,individualgovernmentsatthereceiverend,commercialcontentpackagers,andcableoperators–allofwhomcouldimpacttheavailabilityoftheinternationalbroadcastersʹservicesandthechoiceavailabletoconsumers.1

1www.lyngsat.com.

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Withthechangeindeliverysystems,theriseofsatelliteTV,andtheadventofincreasedlocalandinternationalprovision,afurtherchoicefacingbothtraditionalandnewinternationalplayersrelatestothekindofaudiencetheytarget.Forsometraditionalandnewproviderstheaimremainstoattractthelargestpossibleaudience,generallythroughvernacularservices.Others,aspartoftheirrefocusedstrategy,andparticularlyinthecaseofTVservices,choosetoconcentrateonasmaller,moreinfluentialaudience,eithertargeting‘opinion‑formers’or,inthecaseofthosesuppliersreliantonadvertising,thetopsocio‑economicgroups. Thepicturethathasemergedtodayisofanumberofmajorstate‑fundedinternationalbroadcastersdrawnfromcategories3,4and5inthepatternsofdevelopmentanalysis.AsChart1shows,theyoperateacrosstheavailablemedia(withsomeexceptions)andinarangeoflanguages.Theaudiencefigureslistedarebasedonthebroadcasters’ownclaimsanddonotnecessarilyequatetotheeffortexpended.

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Chart1. Keyinternationalbroadcasters2010

Televis ionLanguages

RadioLanguages

NewMedia Languages

MediaFreedom*

Audiences**

China

6

50

57

NotFree

45m–TV?–Radio

France

3

10

10

Free

20m–TV46m–Radio

Germany

4

30

30

Free

90m

Iran

8

30

30

NotFree

?

Qatar

2

0

2

NotFree

140m

Russ ia

4

38

33

NotFree

200m–TV109m–Radio

UK

3

30

30

Free

230m

USA

2***

45

45

Free

170m

*FreedomHouserating** Dataforservicesandaudiencesaspublicisedbythebroadcastersandnotallareindependentlyverified***USstate‑fundedinternationaltelevisionbroadcastsinArabicandPersianwithprogrammesproducedinUrdu.CommercialbroadcasterCNNIbroadcastsinsixlanguagesandclaimsaworldwidereachofaround200m.Sources:BBCMonitoringresearch

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3.KeycurrentinternationalplayersThis section reviews differing recent developments by internationalbroadcasters.Thestate‑funded‘Western’broadcasters,sharingsomestrategicintentions while having individual perspectives, experience growingcompetition from a group of ‘new powers’, seeking wide internationalinfluence,andfromregionallypopularpan‑Arabbroadcasters.3.1.‘Western’broadcasters:France,Germany,UK,USAA number of Western countries are active international broadcasters,espousingdemocraticprinciplesandthemselvesenjoyinghighlevelsofpressfreedom.23.1.1.FranceThemainroleofFranceʹsstate‑fundedinternationalbroadcastingistopresentaFrenchperspectiveandensurethatFrenchviewsareheardonkeyissues.3France 24 now provides television services worldwide in three majorlanguagesandfocusesonopinionformers.RadioFranceInternationaleoffersradioservicestoregionsofkeyFrenchinterestintenlanguages. In general, the French effort is less unified than, for example,Germanyʹs. In addition to RFI and France 24, there exists the longerestablishedTV5Monde,andinFrancophoneAfricacompetitionisprovidedby Euronews, another collaboration by a wide range of public‑servicebroadcasters.Many French domestic radio and television channels are alsointernationally available either free‑to‑air via satellite or through pay‑TVproviders.

AIMSANDREGULATION

Launched in 2006, France 24 describes itself as ‘the new 24/7 internationalnewschannel’.Itdefinesitsmissionas‘tocoverinternationalcurrenteventsfrom a French perspective and to convey French values throughout theworld’. The channel sees itself as ‘a true news hub that broadcasts itsprograms over the airwaves and over the internet in French, English andArabic’ (ten hours a day). It also ‘puts also culture at the forefront of itsprogramming’.4 RadioFranceInternationaleislessspecificinitsself‑image.Itdescribesitself as a ‘public service radio station for people scattered throughout the

2www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=16.3BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:Francehttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/998481.stm.Frenchmediawebsitesascited.NewsitemsasreportedbyBBCMonitoring(http://news.monitor.bbc.co.uk).4www.france24.com/en/about‑france‑24.

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world’ and as ‘the leading French radio for round‑the clock internationalnews’.Itclaims46millionlisteners.AkeybroadcastingtargetisAfrica.5 At the heart ofEuropean integration, France is home tomore than 5million people of Arab and African descent. A liberal media environmentprovidesforpublic‑serviceandcommercialoperations.ForeignbroadcasterscanoperatefromFrenchterritory.Franceishomeofoneofthemajorsatellitecompanies, Eutelsat, which carries some 3,200 separate television channelsandover1,000radioservicesandgivesservicestoover120millioncableandsatellitehomesinEurope,theMiddleEast,AfricaandIndia.Thesatellitepay‑TV operator CanalSatellite, which plays a significant role in Africa, iscontrolledbymediagiantVivendiUniversal. France has been at the centre of legal andpoliticaldisputes over thedistribution of television services internationally. In 2004 the Hizbollahtelevision station Al‑Manar was banned from using Eutelsat. In 2010, theGeorgianRussian‑languagetelevisionstationPervyyKavkazskiybeganlegalproceedings against Eutelsat for breach of contract for discontinuingdistributionofitsbroadcasts.

OPERATIONSA comparative late‑comer to internationalbroadcasting,France 24televisionis a global news channel, ownedby the public‑funded holding companyAudiovisuel Exterieur de la France (AEF) launched inDecember 2006withservices in French andEnglish (Kuhn, 2010). The channel provides24‑hourservicesinFrenchandEnglish.AnArabicchannelstartedin2007,increasedto10hoursadayin2009andhascommittedto24hoursadayfrom2010.ASpanishchannelhasbeenconsidered.

France 24 speaks of ‘260 bilingual journalists representing 35nationalities’, in addition to ‘over 1,000 correspondents throughout theworld’.Itiswidelyavailablefree‑to‑airviasatelliteandoncommercialfeedsthroughoutEurope,Africa,theMiddleEastandSouthAsia.ThestationoffersRSS feeds andTwitter,Podcast,Facebook,mobile andYouTubeaccess.Notall countries welcome France 24. In February 2010, the Cote dʹIvoiresuspended the service ‘in order to sanction the unprofessional treatment ofinformationbytheFrenchtelevision’. Theolder establishedTV5Monde, an internationalFrench‑languagepublic‑service channel co‑owned by the French, Belgian, Swiss and FrenchCanadian public broadcasters, carries news and cultural programmes. Theservice is widely available around theworld and significant audiences areachieved.Theservicecan, forexample,bereceived free toairinCameroun,SenegalandAlgeria.ItrunsaspecificAfricainternetnewssite.6Mostofthecontent is taken from mainstream networks in the French‑speaking world, 5www.rfi.fr.6http://www.tv5.org/TV5Site/afrique/index.php–africaportal.

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notablyFranceTélévisions,RTBF(Belgium),TSR(Switzerland)and theSRCandTVAnetworksinCanada.7

Themulti‑lingual international television serviceEuronews is amoreextensive collaborative effort. It currently lists as shareholders 21 public‑servicebroadcastersin:Algeria,Belgium,Cyprus,theCzechRepublic,Egypt,Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Romania,Russia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Sweden, Tunisia, Turkey, and Ukraine,Euronewscallsitself ‘theleadinginternationalnewschannelcoveringworldnews fromaEuropeanperspective’.Launched in1993, itnowbroadcasts inEnglish, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Arabicand has plans for a Persian service. Itoffers programmes and interactiveservicesoncable, satelliteand terrestrialTVand isavailableon the internetandviamobilephones. Itsstatedaim is toanalyseandreportwithbalance,maintaining impartiality and avoiding a national viewpoint’. With itsdistinctively impersonal style, it achieves significant audiences amongelitesinNorthAfrica.EuronewsisavailablethroughouttheMiddleEastandAfricaviapay‑TVproviders.8

Franceisabasefortelevisionchannelsunabletooperateintheirowncountries.BerbereTV, launched in 1999, is based inParis (and is a sisterofBerbere Radio). It broadcasts in Berber languages and French, and targetsaudiencesinFranceandNorthAfrica.Effectively,theservicesappearaslocalservicesandgathermateriallocally,butarebasedandtransmitfromFrance.AsimilarexampleisBeurTV.Thereareradioequivalents. In addition, a number of Franceʹs domestic channels are popularviewing in Francophone countries, includingTF1, France 2, andLaChaineInfo. Increasingly access to these services has become commercialised andwhatusedtobefree‑to‑airisnowavailablethroughpay‑per‑viewproviders,suchasCanalPlus,whichoperatesacrossEurope,AfricaandtheMiddleEast,andisitselfbasedinFranceandrunsadomesticsubscriptionchannelthere. Thelong‑establishedRadioFranceInternationale(RFI)alsoownedbyAudiovisuel Exterieur de la France (AEF), speaks of 46 million regularlistenersplus42millionvisitstoitsinternetsite.LatestdatafromRFIshowsanaudiencedeclineto36millionlisteners9. The service broadcasts in Cambodian, Chinese, Spanish, French,Hausa,Persian,Portuguese,RussianandVietnamese,aslightsetoflanguagescompared with the heavyweights.RFI operates stations in Romania andSerbia. Most significantly, it runsthe Arabic‑language Radio Monte CarloDoualiya,along‑standinginternationalbroadcastercommunityandavailable

7www.tv5.org/TV5Site/reception/signal.php.8www.euronews.net9http://kimelli.nfshost.com/index.php?id=8342.

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onmediumwave (AM) and FM inmanyMiddleEast countries, though itsaudiencesarealsoreporteddownfrom10millionto5million.10 RFItransmitsviashortwave,mediumwave,cableandinternet,withapresenceon30satellitescoveringall fivecontinents. IthasanetworkofFMrelaysandrebroadcastersacrossitstargetcountries(170rebroadcastersin74countries). It stresses the availability of newmedia reception: RSS, Twitter,Podcast,Facebookandreceptionviamobilephone. According tooneobserver the suddenemergenceofFrance 24 couldcast doubt on the long‑term future of RFI (Kuhn, 2010).In May 2009, RFIannouncedtheclosureofsixlanguageservices.

INTERNATIONALCOOPERATION

Additional forms of media influence come through France’s major newsagencyandthroughformsofmediaaid.AgenceFrancePresse(AFP)isoneofthe major new agencies with an extensive reach, especially in theFrancophone world. It runs its own television service AFPTV, producingmore than 500 videos per month in Arabic, English, French, German,Portuguese, Spanish, runs news websites and offers services to mobilephones. Franceʹs international public broadcasters are supported in theirworkby the media development agency Canal France International(CFI).OperatingasasubsidiaryofFranceTélévisionsbutfundedlargelybytheFrenchgovernment, andwithabudgetof just 16million euros in 2009,CFIspeaksof ‘20yearsservingmediain theSouth’, specificallyworkingonthe development of television channels in Africa and the MediterraneanregionandinAsia.11 CFI ‘supports processes to foster democracy and good governance’,provides training, expertise and programme content.’Over 4,700 hours’worthofprogrammesweremadeavailabletopartnersin2008.’3.1.2.GermanyWith an increasing international profile, Germany sees a need for aninternational media presence.12 A major international player through thehistory of broadcasting, Germany now has a consolidated, focused andunified state‑run international service – Deutsche Welle – with flagshiptelevision services in key languages backed by radio and forms of mediadevelopmentaid.Germanyisalsohometomajormediaconglomerateswithinternationalbroadcastingoperations.

10http://kimelli.nfshost.com/index.php?id=8342.11www.cfi.fr/index.php3.12BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:Germany.http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1047864.stm.Germanmediawebsitesascited.

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AIMSANDREGULATIONNotably, Deutsche Welleʹs stated aims include a European as well as anational dimension. It is targeted to people around the world who areinterested in Germany and Europe, particularly to those who influenceimportant developments in their respective countries. In countries withauthoritariangovernments, it isespecially targeted topeoplewhoareactivesupportersofdemocracy,freedomandprogress.13

Deutsche Welle sees itself as an integrated enterprise, ‘a journalisticportfolioincludingtelevision,radioandonlineservices’.Itreports‘nearly90million listeners and viewers worldwide every week’. Deutsche Welle has1,500employeesplusfreelancersinover60countries, isgovernment‑fundedandhasabudgetofaround275millioneuros. The key features of the regulatory environment are the countryʹschampionshipofEuropeanintegration,democracy,theruleoflawandmediafreedom; the ‘dual’ systemintroducedacross the federation since the 1980s,which provides for public‑service and commercial broadcasting. Germanyʹscompetitive media market is the largest in Europe. National and regionalpublic broadcasters compete with some of the worldʹs largest mediaconglomerates, including Bertelsmann (owner of RTL). With 45 televisionchannels and 31 radio stations in 11 countries, RTL Group is the leadingEuropean entertainment network, operates TV channels and radio stationsacross Europe and is one of the world’s major producers of televisionentertainmentprogramming.14

OPERATIONS

Deutsche Welle began its international television services in German andEnglish in 1992, addingSpanish in 1999, andArabic in 2002 (in addition toprogramminginDariandPashto).Thestatedlong‑termstrategyistocreateregional programming options. ‘For viewers in theArabWorld,DW‑TV isbroadcast around the clock, switching between Arabic and English. Thisregionalizedchannelwaslaunchedin2002andcanbeviewedinmore than20Arabiccountries.’

In2009,DeutscheWellebeganbroadcasting twonewTVchannels toviewers in Asia and Australia – one with a focus on English‑languageprogrammingandonewithafocusonGerman.Servicesaredistributedviaaglobal satellite network and the internet, with live streaming, podcasts on‑demand. Aslateas1996,DeutscheWelleradiowasoperatingonshortwaveinaround35 languages, includingDanish,Norwegianand Italian. Short‑waveoperations are now limited to 18 languages, though Deutsche Welle stilloperates in30.There isagloballanguagespread.Radioprogramming ison 13www.dw‑world.de/dw/0,,3325,00.html.14www.rtl.de.

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medium wave and FM in some regions and major cities. Some languageservices aredistributedviawebsites,whichoffermultiple access formsandareintegratedwiththetelevisionandradioofferings. Amajoremphasis isonEurope,withservices in13 languages.Thereare broadcasts to Africa in Hausa and Kiswahili, to Asia in Bengali,Indonesian,Hindi,UrduandtotheMiddleEastinArabic,Amharic,Persian,Dari and Pashto. Broadcasts in English, Chinese, German, Spanish andPortugueseareforworldwideconsumption.AudiencestoDeutscheWellearebelowthoseofUKandUSinternationalbroadcasters.

DeutscheWellehasahistoryofbothcompetingandcooperatingwithother public‑service international broadcasters like the BBC World Serviceand RFI. TheDW‑Akademie (established in 2004)maintains this approach,workingwiththeBBCWSTrust.Aswellasprovidingtrainingforjournalists,the academy runs projects that ‘contribute to more openness, transparencyand participation in the electronic media of developing and transitioncountries’ and is ‘committed to promoting freedom of opinion around theworld’.

3.1.3.UKWithalongtraditionofpublic‑servicebroadcasting,BritainhadoneofthemajorinternationalbroadcastersoftheColdWarperiod.15DirectlyfundedbytheUKgovernment,unlikeitshomeserviceequivalent,theBBCWorldServicemaintainedareputationforeditorialindependencewhichremainsattheheartofitsimage. TheBBCrefocusedaftertheColdWarandclosed10ofits40languageservices.Itsmoveintointernationaltelevision,inEnglish,ArabicandPersian,hasbeenpart state‑funded,part‑commercial.TheBBCʹs international effortsbenefit from synergieswith the newsgathering, editorial, technological andreputational strengths of the domestic side of the corporation, including itsdevelopmentsintothenewmedia.InternationalnewsandbroadcastingareattheheartoftheBBCʹsstrategyandrationale.

AIMSANDREGULATION

TheBBCdescribesitselfas‘thelargestbroadcastingcorporationintheworld’.Itsmissionis‘toenrichpeopleʹsliveswithprogrammesthatinform,educateand entertain’. At an international level, one of the BBCʹs stated six keypurposesis‘BringingtheUKtotheworldandtheworldtotheUK‘.16

15BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:UKhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1038758.stm.UKmediawebsitesascited.16www.bbc.co.uk/aboutthebbc/purpose/what.shtml.

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The flagship BBC World News is the commercially funded,international24‑hournewsandinformationchannel,broadcastsinEnglishtomorethan200countriesandterritoriesacrosstheglobeandis‘attheheartoftheBBCʹscommitmenttoglobalbroadcasting’.TheBBCdescribestheserviceas ‘available in more than 295 million homes’, with an ‘estimated weeklyaudience reach of 74 million’. This makes it ‘the BBCʹs biggest televisionservice’.17TheBBCWorldServicecallsitself‘theworld’sleadinginternationalbroadcaster providing programmes and content for radio, television, onlineandmobilephonesinEnglishand31otherlanguages’.18 The BBC seeks significant international audiences and in June 2009reportedarecordweeklyglobalaudienceof238millionpeople.BBCWorldService,theworld’smostpopularinternationalradiobroadcaster,attractedaweekly audience of 188 million, including the new BBC Arabic televisionchannel,whileradiolisteningwas177million.ThelargestoverseasaudiencesforBBCnews,acrossallplatforms,areinNigeria(26m),USA(24m)andIndia(22m). The BBCNewswebsite has two versions – one for theUK and theotherforinternationalaudiences.19 ThelaunchoftheBBC’sArabicandPersiantelevisionservicesreflectsBritain’sstrategicprioritiesintheMiddleEast.PlansairedbythecorporationincludeanUrdutelevisionchannel,‘bespoke’English‑languageprogrammesforAfrica,aswellasHinditelevision,aSpanish‑languagechannelforCentralandSouthAmerica,andaMandarintelevisionservice.20

British and UK‑based media are able to operate and report on allaspects of British life and international affairs. Domestically andinternationally, theenvironmentprovides forpublicserviceandcommercialbroadcasting.Over800 televisionservicesareregisteredwith theregulatorybodyOfcom, someoperating internationally, includingmanyof theworldʹsmost prominent broadcasters. This presence can be awkward; the Britishgovernment came under pressure to stop the UK activities of the KurdishtelevisionchannelMEDTV. TheUKhasa long traditionofpublic‑servicebroadcasting.TheBBC,theforemostpublic‑servicebroadcaster,isapubliccorporationthatprovidesnational, regional and local television and radio services and an extensivewebsite. Its funding is complex. While domestic services are funded by alicence fee charged on television users, the BBC World Service (radio,televisionandonline)isfundedbygovernmentgrant,andBBCWorldNews(English‑languageinternationaltelevision)iscommerciallyfunded.

17www.bbcworldnews.com/Pages/About.aspx.18www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specialreports/000000_aboutus.shtml.19www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2009/06_june/02/audience.shtml.20www.broadcastnow.co.uk/SearchResults.aspx?qsearch=1&qkeyword=bbc+urdu+television&x=31&y=8.

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OPERATIONS

TheBBCoperatesthreeinternationaltelevisionservices:BBCWorldNews(inEnglish),andBBCArabicandBBCPersiantelevision.Allarefoundedonthesame journalistic principles, seeking to offer ‘impartial, in‑depth analysis ofbreaking news, aswell as looking at the stories behind the news – not justwhatishappening,butwhy’.21 The corporation seeks global availability for BBC World News andtargets high‑end audiences. It reports that the channel ‘recently overtookCNN in the key breakfast and evening peak slots in Europe’. BBCWorldNews is similar to BBCWorld Service radio in having a strategy based onregionalisingprogrammestreams.TothiseffectitannouncedinJanuary2010‘six news programmes tailored to regional audiences’, including a news‘nervecentre’forSouthAsia.

The second arm in the BBCʹs international services, BBC ArabicTelevision, is a news and information television channel broadcast to theMiddle East and launched in March 2008. 24‑hour programming began inJanuary 2009. A previous attempt to launch an Arabic television serviceendedinclosureinApril1996,aftertwoyearsonair,whentheBBCʹsSaudipartnerswithdrewaftertheBBCbroadcastaprogrammecriticaloftheSaudiArabian government. Many of the staff who worked for the original BBCArabicTelevisionservicewentontoworkforAl‑Jazeeratelevision.

BBC Arabic Television is the BBCʹs first publicly funded globaltelevision service and was made possible by a £30m restructuring of BBCWorld Service, the closure of 10 language services and the loss of 200 jobs.The channel is a key element in the BBC World Service strategy and itssuccessissignificantforthecorporation.It iswidelyavailableintheMiddleEast,distributedbythekeysatellitesystemsfortheregion.ItcanbeviewedviathelinkedArabic‑languagewebsite,www.bbcarabic.com,whichcarriesalive stream of the channel. While strategy has been based on news, aforthcoming approach is likely to be to handle social issues that are notspokenaboutpublicly. The BBCʹs next effort in international planning, BBC PersianTelevision,cameonairinJanuary2009.Itisaimedatthe100millionPersianspeakersinIran,Afghanistan,UzbekistanandTajikistan.FundedbytheUKgovernment, the channel has been condemned in Iranian governmentstatements and has been subject to jamming signals from within Iran.TimothyGartonAshdescribed the launch of the service as theday Iraniantelevision viewers finally got the channel they have been asking for, aresponse ‘to repeateddemands from Iranians themselves fornews they cantrust, in a society confused by both organised lying and spontaneous

21www.bbcworldnews.com/Pages/About.aspx.

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conspiracy theories’ (GartonAsh,2009).Theservice is integratedwithwell‑established BBC Persian radio service and website (bbcpersian.com) andexploits worldwide newsgathering resources. Garton Ash described thepotentialasimmenseandas‘along‑termjournalisticproject,notashort‑termpoliticalone’(GartonAsh,2009).

BBCWorld Service radio is themost listened to of the internationalbroadcasters. Itsaudienceofaround177million is the largestcomponentoftheBBC’sinternationalaudience,andhasbeenretaineddespitemajorcutsinshort‑wave broadcasting. Though it significantly reduced the scale of itslanguageservicesfromthe1990sonwards,andmaywellneedtoreducethemfurther, it currently broadcasts in more than 30 languages with a globalspread, including: Arabic, Bangla, French, Hausa, Hindi, Kiryarwanda,Kirundi,Nepali,Pashto,Portuguese,Somali,Swahili,Tamil,Urdu.Likeotherstate‑fundedinternationalbroadcasters,itsdeliverystrategycombinestheuseof short‑ and medium‑wave transmissions, FM relays, rebroadcasters,satellite,theinternetandmobiletelephony.

As an example, BBC Arabic radio is available on over 20 BBC FMrelaysacrosstheMiddleEast,andrebroadcastbypartnerFMradiostations.In addition to its short‑wave broadcasts, BBC Arabic also broadcasts onmedium wave to the Eastern Mediterranean and in the Gulf region. TheserviceisalsodistributedbysatellitesystemsincludingNilesatandArabsat.‘ThelatestnewsfromBBCArabicisnowavailableonmobilephones,PDAsand other wireless handheld devices.’ For instance, ‘BBC Arabic breakingnewsalertsarealsoofferedviamobileoperatorsasasubscriptionserviceinBahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE andYemen.’22

BBCWorldService’smajoraudienceshavebeeninAfrica,SouthAsiaand the Middle East. While there have been significant drops in audiencenumbers (forexample, inIndia),audiencelevelsand theoverall roleplayedby the BBC remain significant. Short‑wave listening still attracts big ruralaudiences.TheHausaServiceforNigeriaandtheregion,theSwahiliServiceandtheAfricaServicebroadcastinEnglishandFrenchandcarrycontentthataims to resonate with listeners. In both Nigeria and Kenya, as well asprovidinginternationalnews,theBBCalsodeliversalocalnewsservice.

INTERNATIONALCOOPERATION

The BBC’s international charity, BBCWorld Service Trust, cooperates withcounterparts in France and Germany and operates in 40 developing andtransitional countries worldwide to strengthen the media sector and buildprofessional capacity. The charity’s own programming seeks to inform and

22www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmeguide.

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engage audiences about key development issues and ‘reached audiencestotalling119millionpeopleworldwide’in2006–7.23

3.1.4.USAThe USA24 is the largest and most complex of the worldʹs internationalbroadcasting nations. There are also both publicly funded and commercialsidestotheUSAʹsinternationalbroadcasting,thelattermostoftenassociatedwithCNNandthenotorious‘CNNeffect’ofthe1990s.

Historicallythelargestoperatorininternationalbroadcasting,theUSAneverlostitsleadposition,despitepost‑ColdWarcuts.Theimpactofal‑Qaeda,thenatureofthepost‑9/11world,andthephenomenonofstronganti‑USfeelinginmanypartsoftheglobehavesincecombinedtomakethe‘winningofheartsandminds’apriorityforUSgovernmentthinking.Today,theUSAputsover$700millionayearintopubliclyfundedinternationalbroadcasting.

AIMSANDREGULATION

Publicly funded international broadcasting is directed by the BroadcastingBoardofGovernors(BBG),whichcoordinatestheproductionanddistributionoftelevision,radio,andonlineoutputinmanylanguagestomanypartsoftheworld(some100countries).TheUSrunsparallelsystems:first,theclearlyUSexternal services and, secondly, the ‘surrogate’ services that providealternative domestic services for countries where free and objectivejournalism isnot available.The formeroperateunder theVoice ofAmericaumbrella,thelatterundertheRadioLiberty/RadioFreeEuropebanner.Somehavecalledthiswastefulandineffective(Hopkins,1999).TheUSAalsoformsthe base for numerous émigré media operations, for example, around 20Persian‑languagetelevisionservicesareUS‑based. The BBG expressly states that it ‘supports the broad foreign policygoals of theUnited States’ and that itsmission is ‘to promote freedom anddemocracy’through‘accurate,objective,andbalancednews,information,andother programming about America and the world’.25 The board’s 2008–13StrategicPlan ‘reaffirmsobjective journalismas theBBG’scoreactivity’andemphasizes the relevance of its work in a ‘world where extremism andauthoritarianismmilitatedailyagainstfreedomanddemocracy’.26 TheUShastheworld’smosthighlydevelopedmassmediaandisthehomeof the internet.Programming,music and filmshaveglobal audiences

23www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/aboutus.24BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:USAhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm.USmediawebsitesascited.25www.bbg.gov.26www.bbg.gov/about/plan.html.

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and are used by broadcasters worldwide. Freedom of expression isguaranteedbytheconstitution.Thecountryʹshistoricalroleasachampionofdemocracy, coupled with its pursuit of national self‑interest, determine itsthinkingandapproachoninternationalbroadcasting.

OPERATIONS

TheUSAʹspubliclyfundedinternationalbroadcastingremainstrulyglobalinscale,thoughoperationstargetingtheareaoftheformerEasternblochasbeenconsiderably reduced.Today, the key areasof focus are in theMiddle EastandAsia. VoiceofAmericaisprimarilyaradiobroadcaster(whichalsoproducessometelevisionservicesandprogramming)andoperateswithglobalspreadin over 40 languages, including Amharic, Bangla, English, French, Hausa,Kiryarwanda,Kirundi,Ndebele,Oromo,Pashto,Portuguese,Shona,Somali,Spanish,Swahili,andTigrigna.27SisterservicesRadioandTVMartibroadcastin Spanish for Cuba. Services now include the Persian‑language Voice ofAmericaPersianTV,28butradiobroadcastsinHindihavestopped.

As an example,Voice ofAmerica broadcasts radio programming foraround12hoursadayinUrdu,onmediumwave,viadigitalsatellitesignal,andforalimitedperiodeachdayonshortwave.VoiceofAmericaaddedtothis in 2005 by launching a 30‑minute Urdu‑language television service,BeyondtheHeadlines,broadcastbythePakistaniGeoTV.

TheVoiceofAmericaCharterrequiresthatbroadcasts:• Beaccurate,objective,andcomprehensive.• RepresentallsegmentsofAmericansocietyandpresentabalancedand

comprehensiveviewofsignificantAmericanthoughtandinstitutions.• ClearlypresentthepoliciesoftheUnitedStates.

RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty,basedinPragueandWashington,operatesradio services in 28 languages, many the same as Voice of America, andincludingUrdu.29 For instance, its RadioMashaalwas launched in January2010 to counteragrowingnumberof Islamicextremist radiostations in theareas of Pakistan bordering Afghanistan. Radio Mashaal has the aim ofcovering ‘local and international news with in‑depth reports on terrorism,politics, womenʹs issues, and health care’. The station also ‘featuresroundtable discussions and interviews with tribal leaders and localpolicymakersinadditiontoregularcall‑inprograms’.

RFE/RLʹs stated mission is ‘to promote democratic values andinstitutionsbyreporting thenews incountrieswherea freepress isbannedby the government or not fully established’. The service is ‘based on theconviction that the first requirement of democracy is a well informed

27www1.voanews.com/english/news.28www.voanews.com/persian.29www.rferl.org.

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citizenry’.Itsstatedaimistoprovide‘objectivenews,analysis,anddiscussionof domestic and regional issues’. It claims to strengthen civil societies ‘byprojecting democratic values’, to combat ethnic and religious intolerance,promotes mutual understanding among peoples and provides a model forlocalmedia.30In1996,itlaunchedasubstantialnewsisterservice,RadioFreeAsia,toprovideservicesforChina,Tibet,NorthKorea,Cambodia,LaosandBurma.

TheUSAʹsmosthigh‑profiledevelopmentsof recentyearshavebeeninArabic‑languagebroadcasting,radioandtelevision.Thisactivityhasbeenbrought together within the Middle East Broadcasting Networks, whichreportdirectlytotheBroadcastingBoardofGovernors. Radio Sawa, a 24‑hour, seven‑day‑a‑week Arabic‑language network,began broadcasting in 2002.31 It provides amix ofWestern andArabic popmusic with news, analysis, interviews, sport and features on political andsocial issues. Itbroadcasts fromstudios in theWashingtonandDubai,withnewsbureauxthroughouttheMiddleEast.Itusesacombinationofmediumwave and FM transmitters, digital audio satellite, short wave and internet.Radio Sawa has streams tailored to specific parts of the region, includingEgypt,theGulf,Iraq,Lebanon,theLevant,MoroccoandSudan. Some have questioned the approach (Pein, 2005). Audience figurespublishedbytheUSAsuggestthatthechannelisquitesuccessfulinreachingyoungpeople incountrieslikeQatar,UAEandMorocco,but lesssuccessfulin,forexample,AlgeriaandTunisia.32

Al‑Hurra (Arabic for ‘The Free One’), which launched in February2004, is an Arabic‑language satellite television channel for theMiddle Eastdevotedprimarilytonewsandinformation.33ItbroadcaststotheMiddleEastvia the same satellitesusedbymajor indigenousArabic channels.Al‑HurraalsohasaspecialIraqstreamandin2006launchedathirdnetwork,targetingArabicspeakersinEurope.

Takentogether,Al‑HurraandRadioSawareporta12%weeklyreachinAlgeriaanda16%weeklyreach inEgypt.The figures for IraqandQatarare 71% and 86% respectively, but these are countries where Radio SawaenjoyslocalFMdistribution,whereasinEgyptandAlgeriaitdoesnot. Technically advanced, all these various services operate their ownwebsitesintheirindividuallanguages,offeringnews,programmeandserviceinformation, as well as delivery options, such as podcasts, RSS feeds andaccessviamobiles,forexampletheMyVOACommunity(Priceetal.,2008).

The services are substantially resourced: Voice of America has 1,200employees and a (2008) budget of $190m;Radio Free Europe/RadioLiberty 30www.rferl.org/info/mission/169.html.31www.radiosawa.com.32www.bbg.gov/reports/documents/Alhurra‑Sawa_Research_Data_Jan_2010.ppt.33www.alhurra.com.

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hasaround500employeesanda(2006)budgetof$75m;Radio/TVMartihas150 employees and a (2006) budget of $37m; Radio Free Asia has 240employeesanda(2006)budgetof$30m.Al‑HurraandRadioSawahaveover650staffandabudgetofover$100m.34

On topof this, theUSmilitaryoperates itsownbroadcastingsystem,thePentagonChannel,giving a24‑hourglobalsatellite televisionserviceonnews about theUS forces, aimed at service personnel stationed around theworld,theirfamiliesandotherinterestedviewers.

COMMERCIALOPERATORS

TheUSA’s entertainment and IT industrieshaveplayedamajor role in thedevelopment of satellite and online communications worldwide and areprominentinthechannelspectrumandinthecontentavailable. TheUSA is home to the largest news and entertainment businesses,includingtheNewsCorporation.Bloomberg,anewsanddatasupplier,nowoperatesup‑marketinternationalandinternetservices.AlsoUS‑basedaretheinfluentialnewsagenciesAssociatedPress,UPIandThomsonReuters.

CableNewsNetwork,foundedasaUScablenewsnetworkin1980byTedTurner,wasthefirst24‑hourtelevisionnewsandfirstall‑newstelevisionserviceintheUSA.Itbecameknownandwatchedworldwidein1991,whenitestablisheditselfastheprimesourceofdirectnewsabouttheprogressofthefirstGulfWar.

CNNI (CNN International) is the version available outside the USAand Canada, and is distributed via satellite, cable and internet. Its reachextendstoover200millionhouseholdsandhotelroomsinover200countries.Inmanycountriesfree‑to‑air,itisalsoincludedinpay‑TVpackages.CNNIʹssloganof‘GoBeyondBorders’referstotheextentofitsmediaplatformsanditswideavailability,aswellastothenatureofitsnews.Whilereportingfromall parts of the world, it has a particular emphasis on business news,includinginformationfrommarketsworldwide. CNNI now operates in six languages: English, Spanish, Arabic,Japanese, Korean and Turkish. In late 2009, it launched a new productioncentreintheUnitedArabEmirates.Itsstrategyinvolvesthemanagementofsix regional streams, for example for the Middle East and Africa, runningfrom operating centres, in Atlanta, London, Abu Dhabi and Hong Kong.CNNIalsorunsinternetnewsservicesinitsdifferentlanguagesofoperation–includingstreamingofitstelevisionprogrammes. InIndia,CNNisinvolvedinapartnershipoperation:CNN‑IBN(CableNews Network‑Indian Broadcasting Network). This English‑languagechannelisrunbytheIndianpartnercompany,usestheCNNbrand,basesitsformatsontheCNNmodel,andoperatesanassociatedwebservice.35 34www.bbg.gov;www.bbg.gov/reports/budget.html.35http://ibnlive.in.com.

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3.2.The‘new’powers:Russia,Iran,ChinaRussia, Iran and China are three expanding international broadcastingpowerswhichshareaFreedomHousepressfreedomratingof‘notfree’.3.2.1.RussiaIn terms of effort, the Soviet Union was for decades one of the foremostinternationalbroadcasters.TheSovietUnionʹscollapsebroughtasplinteringofmonolithicbroadcastingstructuresandadecline inoutput.NewRussianconfidence and power has now brought a growing international televisionpresence.Today,Russiamaintainsareducedoveralleffort incomparison tothe1980s,butisamajorinternationalbroadcasteratanumberoflevels.36

Russia employs all the electronic media – television, radio and theinternet–andispresentonmultipleplatforms.AsignificantpartoftheeffortinvolvestelevisionandradioservicesaimedatRussiansinthe‘nearabroad’and worldwide. Efforts are made to appeal to viewers worldwide withflagshiptelevisionservicesinEnglish,ArabicandSpanish.TheradioVoiceofRussia, operating in numerous languages, emphasises continuity ofoperationsandhasnewinterestinthesensitive‘nearabroad’.

Overall,theRussiangovernmentkeepsatightcontrolontheelectronicmedia, not only through ownership. The press, which has more limitedinfluence, is freer, as is the internet. But the independent‑minded journalistworkingonasensitivesubjecthasreasontofeararrestandviolence.

AIMSANDREGULATION

The state‑owned Russian international television announces: ‘At RussiaTodaywearesettostepbeyondtheboundariesofbarefactsandbringyouthehumansideofeverystory...RussiaTodayisheretoshowyouhowanystory can be another story altogether.’ Amore explicit purpose is this: ‘RToffers a unique insight into many aspects of Russian history, culture andopinions. Our special projects are specifically tailored to accustom theinternationalaudiencewiththeRussianperspective.’37

Thechannelstressesaworldwidereach.‘Weareavailablearoundtheworld on cable, satellite and online. In Europe, South Africa and NorthAmerica, RT has an audience of around 200million paying viewers amongthepay‑TVsubscribers.’

The radio station Voice of Russia calls itself ‘the veteran of radiobroadcasters’ and says it ‘shapesRussia’s imageworldwide and introduces

36BBCMonitoring:RussiaMediaEnvironmentGuide,May2009.RussiaTodayandVoiceofRussiaandotherwebsitesascited.

37http://rt.com/About_Us/Corporate_Profile.html.

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the world community to Russia and its opinions on global events’.38 Thestation’s website says the service broadcasts in 38 languages on short andmedium wave, FM, via satellite and through mobile link, as well as aprofusion of websites. It describes itself as ‘among the top five radiobroadcasters’andreports109millionlistenersin160countries.

Thecornerstoneof theKremlin’smediapolicysince2000hasbeen togainandmaintaincontroloverRussia’skeymediaassets,thebigfederalTVchannels,Rossiya andChannelOne.Thepress is somewhat freer and somenewspapers and magazines forthrightly criticise the authorities. On theinternet, opposition websites and bloggers with anti‑Kremlin views aregenerally allowed to operate unchecked.However, the killing of journalistswho oppose the authorities, expose wrongdoing or tackle controversialsubjects is a feature of the Russianmedia environment. Russia has seen amediawardevelopwithGeorgia,whichin2009launchedaRussian‑languagetelevisionservice.

OPERATIONS

Russia’sinternationaltelevisionservicesaretheretoinfluenceworldopinionandaddressaRussianaudienceinthe‘nearabroad’.Forthistherearethreetypesofservice.

Themost apparent channels toWestern viewers are those operatingworldwide in English and other languages. Russia Today is a 24‑hourEnglish‑languagenewschannellaunchedbyRussianstatenewsagencyRIANovostiinDecember2005.ThechannelcanbeseeninRussiaandtheformerSovietrepublics,Europe,theMiddleEast,mostofAsia,southernAfrica,theUnited States, Australia and New Zealand. The channel claims ‘we areavailablearoundtheworldoncable,satelliteandonline’.

In 2007, RIA Novosti began operating an Arabic sister channel toRussia Today, Rusiya al‑Yaum. Like other recent foreign entrants to theArabic TVmarket, Rusiya al‑Yaum has found it hard to attract significantaudiences.ASpanish‑languagechannelwaslaunchedinDecember2009.39

Secondly, there are the major domestic Russian TV stations(broadcasting in Russian) which are available by satellite and cablerebroadcastsinvariouspartsoftheworld.RebroadcastsinanumberofCIScountries have at times been halted or suspended for political reasons,includingthehostilitiesbetweenGeorgiaandRussiain2008.

Thirdly,thereareinternationalvariantsofthedomesticservicesaimedat Russians and Russian speakers in the ‘near abroad’ and worldwide.Channel One Worldwide is available to viewers in the former Sovietrepublics,Europe, theMiddleEast,partsofAsia,NorthAmerica,Australia

38http://english.ruvr.ru/about.html.39www.russiatoday.ru;www.rtarabic.com;http://actualidad.rt.com.

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andNewZealand.40SimilaravailabilityisenjoyedbyRossiya’sinternationalservice, RTR‑Planeta, NTV’s international service, NTV‑Mir, and Vesti,Russia’sstate‑run24‑hournewschannel.41

Russiaʹs international radio effort is more traditional than its newtelevisionservices.VoiceofRussiaoperatesinover35languages.Some20arelistedasavailableonshortwave including:Arabic,Pashto,English,French,HindiandUrdu(WorldRadioandTelevisionHandbook,2010).Itsdeliverymechanismsincludeshortandmediumwave,satelliteandinternet.Changeswere announced to the service in 2009, with new services to be set up inGeorgian and Ukrainian, while 12 languages would be limited to onlinebroadcasting.NewemphasisonlanguagesoftheformerSovietUnionshowsachangeofdirection.

ITAR‑TASS is Russia’s main state news agency and its news andanalysisreflectofficialRussianpolicyandpriorities.Theagencyiscontrolledby theVGTRK, the statemedia conglomerate that alsooperates theRossiyaandVesti‑24 televisionchannels, theRadioRussiaandMayakradiostationsandtheRIANovostinewsagency(whoseoutputalsoreflectsRussianpolicyandpriorities).ITAR‑TASShasofficesworldwide.

3.2.2.IranAtthecentreofworldattentionasaresultofitsnucleardevelopment,Iranisitselfoneofthemainbroadcastingtargets.42Over30televisionservicesbasedin the USA, Canada, and European countries target it, including theBBCandVoice of America. Like Russia, Iran has asubstantialand far‑flungdiaspora which it wishes toaddress. Iran is a regional powerandhasmessagesof revolutionfor the wider world.It makes significant efforts toreachits targetaudiences throughtelevision and radioin a range of keylanguages.

AIMSANDREGULATION

AllIranʹsbroadcastingiscontrolledandrunbythestateanditsaimsarethestate’s aims. Thewebsite of the overarchingbroadcasting organisation,Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB), speaks ofa role in winningpublicopinion.Thereisanawarenessoftheimpactoftheworld’smediaandasenseofIranbeingundermediasiege.

When the supranational waves and messages have trespassed thegeographical and cultural borders, with domineering empire of

40www.1tvrus.com.41www.rtr‑planeta.com;www.ntvmir.ntv.ru;www.vesti.ru.42BBCMonitoring:IranMediaEnvironmentGuide,July2009.Iranianmediawebsitesascited.

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WesternMediaaimingfortheculturalconversionoftheIndependentnations specifically focusing on the Islamic Republic of Iran, IRIBshould play its key role in strengthening the countryʹs culturalsolidarityaswellasstressingNational identity togetherwith fightingagainstthedestructivewavesmorethanbefore.43

Iranʹs English‑language international television service Press TVstresses itsaimofprovidingalternativeviews,

heedingtheoftenneglectedvoicesandperspectivesofagreatportionof the world; embracing and building bridges of culturalunderstanding; encouraging human beings of different nationalities,racesandcreedstoidentifywithoneanother;bringingtolightuntoldand overlooked stories of individuals who have experienced thevitalityandversatilityofpoliticalandculturaldividesfirsthand.44

Theinternational radioservice,Voiceof the IslamicRepublicof Iran,speaksofcontinuity with its original aim of familiarizing the world with Iran’sculture. ‘Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, elaborating on therevolution’s stances and the ideals of the IslamicRepublic systemwereputhighontheEnglishradio’sagenda.’EnglishwasusedtospreadthemessagetoUS,CanadaandBritain,andtotargetcountrieswhereEnglishisapopularsecondlanguage,includingIndiaandPakistan.45

Iran’s electronicmedia are closely controlled and coordinated by thestate.Though the press is freer to voice a range of views,it has limitedreadership and isvulnerable.Though the election of President Khatami in1997 saw a dramatic growth of pro‑reform newspapers, many werelaterclosed. It is the internet, combinedwith the use ofmobile phones, that hascreatedwithin Iran the main forum for debate, the expression of differingopinions,therecordingofeventsandthedistributionofinformalandformalnews.IranhasoneofthehighestinternetpenetrationratesintheMiddleEastand the internet,newswebsites and theblogosphere are significant sourcesfor those at home and abroad, despite efforts by the authorities to block orfilterwebsitestheyconsiderobjectionable.

OPERATIONS

Iran beganinternational television services in 1997 with IRIBʹsPersian‑language Jaam‑e Jam service and themulti‑lingual Sahar TV. Press TV, anEnglish‑languagenewschannel,launchedin2007.Itsstatedaimwastooffernews ‘from another point of view’ and to be an alternative to ‘the global

43www.irib.ir/English/AboutUs/index.php.44www.presstv.com45www.irib.ir/worldservice.

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media stranglehold’ of Western outlets. The channel reflects Iraniangovernment views. It operates from studios in Tehran, Beirut, Damascus,Washington and London and transmits on 12 satellites around the world(withlivestreamingfromitswebsite46).

Al‑Alam (The World) is IRIBʹs 24‑hour Arabic news channel. Ittargetsa pan‑Arab audienceand can be viewedinEurope, theMiddleEast,Asia‑Pacific and North America. Al‑Alam began broadcasting in 2003. Itspresentationisdescribedassimilartoothermajorpan‑Arabchannels.IthasbureauxinBaghdad,Beirut,RamallahandTehran.Al‑Alamdescribesitselfasan ‘Islamic, international news channel’ that is ‘independent’ and ‘neutral’,there to present the viewpoints of the Islamic world and ‘counter themonopolization of news channels byWestern countries’.Al‑AlamʹswebsitehasnewsinArabicandPersian.47

Sahar TV began as an international television service broadcastingnews and general programming in several languages with the aim of‘delivering the message of the Iranian revolution to the outside world’. In2006,Sahar1changeditsnametoAl‑Kawthar(FountofAbundance)andnowbroadcasts 18 hours a day in Arabic,promoting Shiʹi Islam.Theprogramming is mostly religious and cultural, but there are alsonewsbulletins,politicaldiscussionsandphone‑ins.48SaharTValsobroadcastsdailyinAzeri,English,Kurdish,FrenchandBosnianandUrdu.49

Jaam‑e Jam describes itself as broadcasting to expatriatesand thoseinterested inIranianculture. Channel 1 targets viewers in Europe and theMiddleEast;Channel2(IRIB2)targetsEuropeandNorthAmerica;Channel3(IRIB3)targetstheMiddleEast,AsiaandOceania/Australia.50

Iranʹs international radio effort is both extensive and unified. IRIBoperates national and provisional networks and theexternal service.Together,theyareknownastheVoiceoftheIslamicRepublicofIran(VIRI).VIRIWorld Service broadcasts in 30 languages. Broadcasts are on satellite,streamedontheinternetandavailableonmultipleshort‑waveandmedium‑wave frequencies. According to the serviceʹs website,51 the 30 languagesinclude: Arabic, Bengali, Dari, English, French, German, Hausa, Hindi,Swahili,andUrdu.TheArabicServicebroadcastsroundtheclockonsatellite,medium wave, short wave and FM (for southeast Iraq). It carries a dailyprogrammefocusingexclusivelyonthePalestinianissue.

46www.presstv.com.47www.alalam.ir.48www.alkawthartv.ir.49http://sahartv.irib.ir/andhttp://setv.irib.ir/50www.jjtvn.ir.51www.irib.ir/worldservice.

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OTHERINTERNATIONALEFFORTS

Iranexercisesmediainfluencethroughitsnewsagencies.Themainplayeristhe Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), Iranʹs official state‑run newsagency. It is government‑funded and takes a hard‑line position. IRNAʹsprincipalobjectivesincludesecuringtheIslamicRepublicʹsnationalinterests,promoting Islamic culture and ‘encountering the cultural onslaught ofenemies of the Islamic revolution’. IRNA carries reports in Persian, plusArabic,Chinese,French,English,SpanishandTurkish.Ithasover20foreignbureauxandbilateralagreementswithnewsagenciesfromover70countries.IRNApublishessevendailiesandperiodicals,includingthePersian‑languagedaily Iran, the English‑language Iran Daily and the Arabic‑language Al‑Wifaq.523.2.3.China:newsuperpowerChina is a truly global broadcaster,53 employing all the electronic media –television,radioandinternet–presentonmultipleplatformsandfrequencies,operating in awide array of languageswithworldwide reach, andusing avariety of strategies to reach viewers, listeners and readers, and employingthemediathemselvesaspartofawider historicalandpoliticalstrategyandpurpose.Chinatargetsworldopinionandputsmajoreffortintoreachingitsoverseasdiaspora.Chinaisthelargestmediamarketintheworld;itsmediaremain tightly controlled by the ruling Chinese Communist Party and stiffregulations govern the industry. This is reflected in the nature of itsinternationalbroadcasting.

AIMSANDREGULATION

InDecember2008,incelebrationofthe50thanniversaryoftheestablishmentofChinaCentral Television (CCTV), LiChanhcun, the propaganda chief oftheCommunistPartyofChina (CCP)anda seniormemberof thePolitburoStandingCommittee,madeanimportantspeech.Amongmanyotherthings,he stressed the importance to the Chinese media of strengthen its‘communication capacity’ (chuanbo nengli), saying that Chinese televisionshould start producing internationallywell‑known programs and products,and should increase the competitiveness of Chinaʹs television, bothdomestically and internationally. ‘We must go “global”, strengthening ourforeign language channels, expanding our partnerships with foreigntelevisionorganizations’.(Sun,2010)

ThestatedaimsofChinesetelevisionreflecttheseambitions:

52www.irna.ir53BBCMonitoring:ChinaMediaEnvironmentGuide,Feb.2009.Chinesemediawebsitesascited.

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China Central Television (CCTV) is the national TV station of thePeople’s Republic of China and it is one of China’s most importantnewsbroadcast companies.Today,CCTVhasbecomeoneofChina’smost influentialmediaoutlets. Inaddition to itsTVprograms,CCTVhas also built up a multi‑media broadcasting platform and businessoperation,whichincludesmovies,newspapersandtheinternet.CCTVisthemainnewssourcefortheChinesepeople.Itisalsoanimportantwindow for Chinese to learn about the outside world, and for theworldtofindoutmoreaboutChina.CCTVismakingeffortstobecomeaglobalmedianetworkwithincreasedinternationalinfluence.54

In January2009 theChinesegovernmentannouncedplans tospendUS$7bnto expand key domesticmedia outlets overseas. Beijing set asideUS$2.2bneachforCCTV,thenewsagencyXinhuaandthePeopleʹsDaily,andafurtherUS$300mforXinhuaʹssmallerrival,theChinaNewsService.TheplancalledforCCTV,XinhuaandthePeopleʹsDailytodeveloptheiroperationsglobally.CCTV aims to expand its foreign bureaux from 19 to 56 over a three‑yearperiodwhileXinhuawillexpanditsoverseasbureauxfrom100to186.55

CCTV added to its international English service in 2008, setting upFrench‑ and Spanish‑language television channels ahead of the BeijingOlympics. CCTV launched an Arabic channel in July 2009 and a RussianchannelinSeptember2009.

XinhualaunchedtrialsofanEnglish‑languagetelevisionnewschannel,CNC,on1May2010.AccordingtoXinhuaPresident,LiCongjun,‘CNCwilloffer analternative sourceof information for aglobal audience andaims topromote peace and development by interpreting the world in a globalperspective.’56

Chinese Radio International stresses continuitywith the past and itsplace inan integratedmediaset‑up.Theservice ‘isdedicated toservingourlistenersinordertobuildabridgefortheChinesepeopletolearnabouttheworldandforthepeoplearoundtheglobetogettoknowChina’.57

Chinaʹs propaganda chief Liu Yunshan wrote in a 2009 New Yearʹsessay for the Communist Partyʹsmain ideological journalQiu Shi (SeekingTruth)that

it has become an urgent strategic task for us to make ourcommunication capabilitymatch our international status.Nowadays,nations which have more advanced skills and better capability incommunicationswillbemoreinfluential intheworldandcanspreadtheirvaluesfurther.

54www.cctv.cn.55www.ipsnews.net/print.asp?idnews=50739.56ReportedbyAPintheGuardianhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/apr/30/china‑launches‑global‑tv‑news.57/www.chinabroadcast.cn.

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WangChen,wholeadsthepartyʹsoverseaspropagandadivision,addedthatmediaandculturalunitsshouldbeefuptheir

capacity to broadcast, to positively influence international publicopinion and to establish a good image for our nation . . . Wemuststrivetosetupatop‑lineglobalmediaarmthatcoverstheentireworldand which is multilingual, enjoys a large viewership, has a largevolumeofinformationandisstronglyinfluential.China’smediasectorishighlyregulatedandeditoriallycontrolled.The

keyagenciesaretheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology(MIIT)and the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television (SARFT). Thelatter directly supervises China National Radio, China Radio InternationalandChinaCentralTelevision.Leewayisallowedforindependentcoverageofstories thatarenotperceivedas threats tosocial stabilityor theCommunistParty. Outspoken comments on international channels, such as occurredduringtheTiananmentragedy,arerare.

OPERATIONS

Where other state‑funded international broadcasters reduced or refocusedtheir activities after the ColdWar, China hasmaintained and expanded itsefforts.ChinaistheworldʹslargestTVmarket.State‑runnationalbroadcasterCCTV58 is Chinaʹs largest media company. CCTV has begun carryingcommercialadvertisingandgainedmorefreedomincontentselection.

CCTVclaimsaworldwideaudienceof45million for its internationalsatellitechannelsinChinese,Arabic,English,French,RussianandSpanish.ItrunsaChinese‑languagechannel(CCTV‑4) targetingviewersinHongKongandTaiwanand theChinesediaspora. It split into three channels in 2007–CCTV International Asia, CCTV International Europe and CCTVInternationalAmerica–toprovidemorespecificregionalservices.

CCTV‑9 is a 24‑hour English‑language international news channel. Itplaysakeyroleinexternalpublicity,projecting‘softpower’forChina.Itwaslaunchedin2000,whentheEnglish‑languageprogrammingwassplitofffromCCTV‑4.

ChinaNationalRadio(CNR)andChinaRadioInternational(CRI)areChinaʹs two state‑owned radio broadcasting networks. China RadioInternational broadcasts in over 40 languages, in addition to Chinese. Itslanguage services include: Arabic, Bengali, English, French, Hausa, Hindi,Nepali,Portuguese,Pashto, Sinhalese, Swahili,Tamil, andUrdu.59 CRI is ahighly active broadcaster which fills the airwaves. It broadcasts via short‑wave radio worldwide on numerous frequencies and is notable formaintaining direct short‑wave broadcasts to North America and Europe,whichbroadcasterslikeBBCWorldServicehavecut.Anextensivenetworkof 58www.cctv.cn.59www.chinabroadcast.cn.

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short‑wave transmitters is supplemented by local FM relays andrebroadcasting agreements around the world. CRI is also broadcast viasatellite, internet andmobilephone. CRInowalsohasover ahundredFMradio partners, as well as 32 AM radio partners in Asia, Africa, NorthAmerica,Europe,andOceania(Sun,2010).

CRI launched its first overseas FM radio station, inNairobi, in 2006.CRI91.9FMinNairobibroadcasts19hoursofprogrammesadayinEnglish,Swahili and Chinese. In 2008, China donated transmitters to relay CRIprogrammesinsideLiberia,andprovidesanFMtransmittertoboostLiberianBroadcastingSystemradiotransmissions.CRIrunslivelyinternetsitesforallitslanguageservices.

China operates two state news agencies. One is the official newsservice,Xinhua(NewChinaNewsAgency),withdomesticandinternationalcasts.Theothernewsagency,ZhongguoXinwenShe(ChinaNewsServiceorCNS), is targeted specifically at overseas Chinese in Hong Kong andSoutheastAsia.

XinhuaNewsAgency60isChinaʹsofficialnewsagencyandisoneofthethree pillars of the propaganda system. It is the largest newsgatheringorganization in China and files news in seven languages 24 hours a day(Chinese,English,French,Spanish,Portuguese,ArabicandRussian).Xinhuais thenewsserviceof theCCPCentralCommittee,billingitselfas ‘theeyes,earsandmouthpieceofthepartyandpeople’.Xinhuahasanetworkofover100overseasnewsbureaux,includingregionalhubsinAsia,theMiddleEast,Europe,theAmericasandAfrica.Ithasagreementsonnewsexchangeswithnewsagenciesormediaorganizationsinnearly100countriesandhostsoneofChinaʹslargestinternetportals,Xinhuanet.

China’s Confucius Institutes are a more recent phenomenon. Set upfirst in 2004as cultural andChinese language centres, theyalreadynumber300worldwide,arepartofChina’ssoft‑powerstrategy,andarebasedontheprinciple that two‑way communication is better than one‑way (media)communication.3.3.Pan‑ArabandwiderRegardedasatelevisionphenomenon,thepan‑Arabmedia(sourceswithanoutlookthatextendsacrossnationalboundariesandtakeinthewholeArabic‑speakingworld)todayencompasstelevision,press,andnewmediaandformoneofthemoststudiedmediadevelopmentsofrecentyears.61

60www.xinhuanet.com.61BBCMonitoringMediaEnvironmentGuide:Keypan‑Arabmedia, Jan.2010.Arabicmediawebsites

ascited.

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The origins came in the press and radio, the first players beingessentially nationally based but representing powers with ambitions toleadershipof theregion.Examples includedtheEgyptianradioVoiceof theArabs (dating from the 1950s) (see Egypt profile) and Libyan Voice of theGreatArabHomeland.NewspaperslikethenowdefunctLebanesedailyAl‑Hawadith and the Egyptian magazine Al‑Musawar were also similar inadoptingapan‑Arabapproachandnewsagenda. Todayʹs pan‑Arab press, a limited number of influentialArabic‑languagenewspapers established in the 1970 and 1980s, is based outside theMiddleEast.ThethreebestknownandoneswiththelargestimpactareAl‑Hayat,Al‑Sharqal‑Awsat,Al‑Qudsal‑Arabi,all currentlyoperating inLondon.62Theyacquired and retain influence across theArabic‑speakingworld, publishingmaterialthatwouldnotbeavailableinindividualMiddleEastcountries.

AIMSANDREGULATION

In the 1990s, a set of circumstances provided an environment in whichsatellite‑based transnational Arabic‑language television broadcasters(including news broadcasters) could multiply. The growing popularity ofsatellitetelevision,thedesireforanArabvoice,thetechnologicalandspecificregulatory opportunities all combined with a stroke of luck to facilitate amedia revolution in the Middle East. The failure of the first BBC ArabicTelevision channel suddenlymade available at a stroke a complete teamoftrainednewsjournalists.Al‑Jazeerasnappedthemup.TheQatariroyalfamilymadeavailablefundsandanoperatingenvironmentinwhichanewformofMiddle East‑based news provider could function, handling controversialmaterialwithanimpactontheregionandbeyond.Otherchannelsfollowed.TheprovidersʹtargetwastheArabic‑speakingworld,thestrategytoprovidenewsmaterial about the regionnotpreviously available. Internationalnewswas given a new and non‑Western focus. Pan‑Arab television dominatesMiddle East viewing and the pan‑Arab news broadcasters top the viewingfiguresinmanycountriesoftheregion(Painter,2008).

Notably, thepan‑Arabmediaphenomenonno longerhasanything todowithradio,fordecadesthemainmediumformasscommunicationintheArabic‑speaking world. And although many Arabic countries have longoperated state‑runnewsagencies, thesehavenotdeveloped into significantinternationaloperatorsinthenewage.

The foundationof theArabSatelliteCommunicationOrganisationbythememberstatesoftheArabLeaguein1976waskey.Arabsat’sfirstsatellitewas launched in1985.Theorganisationnowruns foursatellites (withplansformore)andgiveswidecoverageovertheMiddleEast,AfricaandpartsofEurope.Itdescribesitselfas‘oneoftheworld’stopsatelliteoperators,andby

62www.daralhayat.com;www.asharqalawsat.com;www.alquds.co.uk.

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fartheleadingsatelliteservicesproviderintheArabworld’.Thenumberoftelevisionandradioservicescarriedismassive.Arabsatspeaksof

350+TVchannelsand160+Radiostations,reachingtensofmillionsofhomesinover100countriesacrosstheMiddleEast,AfricaandEurope,includinganaudienceofmorethan164millionviewerswithinthe21Arabcountriesalone.63

EgyptaddeditsownNilesatsatellitein1998(thefirstArabcountrytohaveitsown).Thisnowhas470televisionandover100audiochannels.64(SeeEgyptmediaprofile.)

Premium channels and pay‑TV play an increasing role, as viewersnegotiate the array of channels, the majority in the entertainment sphere.Religiousmaterialhasbeenprovidedbyterrestrialbroadcasters,forexampleEgyptʹsHolyQuranRadio.Nowsome30of thesatellite televisionchannelsarereligiousIslamicones,somemodelledonAmericanevangelicaltelevisionservices, others broadcasting a more puritanical form of Islam (El‑Sayed,2009).

Elements of editorial freedom have proved a key factor. The QatarirulerstoleratesharpcriticismbyAl‑JazeeraaboutotherArabiccountriesofakind not found on the channel aboutQatar itself. Saudi‑fundedAl‑ArabiyahasbeenabletooperateintheMediaCityinDubai.Yetmostofcountriesofthe Arabic‑speaking world enjoy limited freedom. On press freedomspecifically,FreedomHouseratesMauritaniaandEgyptas‘PartlyFree’andall other Arabic‑speaking countries, including Qatar and the United ArabEmirates,as‘NotFree’.65

OPERATIONS

Hundreds ofArabic‑language television services are available, among themnumerous news services, somedescribed below.But in television, as in thepress, the truly influential channels are few, and it is Al‑Jazeera and Al‑Arabiyathatleadtheway.

Al‑Jazeera satellite TV is an Arabic‑language 24‑hour rolling newschannelownedandfinancedbytheQatarigovernment.Thestationlaunchedin November 1996.66 It is considered editorially independent, but has beenaccused in the past of bias and had its bureaux closed in several Arabcountries.A2008pollbyZogbyInternationalgaveAl‑Jazeeraa53%shareofthepan‑ArabicaudienceintheMiddleEast.InNovember2009,Al‑Jazeera’smanagementsaidthechannelhad141millionviewersintheArabworld.Thestationʹsannualbudgetisaround$100m;studiosareinDoha;thechannelis

63www.arabsat.com/Pages/AboutUs.aspx.64www.nilesat.com.eg/aboutus.htm.65SeeKraidy,andKhalil(2009)Chapter5forausefulprofileofAlJazeeraandAlArabiya66www.aljazeera.net.

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available globally via satellite. Other Middle East channels use Al‑Jazeerabulletinsintheirnewsoutput.

The organization took on a new international dimension when itlaunchedanEnglish‑languagenewsandcurrentaffairschannel,inNovember2006 (Malek, 2006). Al‑Jazeera English is based in Doha,with broadcastingcentres in Kuala Lumpur, London and Washington.67 Accessed via theinternet,satelliteandlocalcablesubscriptioninselectedcountries,Al‑JazeeraEnglish bills itself as the first Middle East‑based international English‑languagechannel,availableinover130millioncableandsatellitehouseholdsworldwide. Its news coverage is global with an anti‑hegemonist slant(Painter,2008).

The stationʹs slogan is ‘Setting the News Agenda’. The stationʹs‘corporateprofile’outlinesitspositioning:

The organisation is the worldʹs first global English language newschannel to be headquartered in the Middle East. From this uniqueposition, Al Jazeera English is destined to be the English‑languagechannelof reference forMiddleEastern events, balancing the currenttypicalinformationflowbyreportingfromthedevelopingworldbackto theWest and from the southern to the northern hemisphere. Thechannel aims to give voice to untold stories, promote debate, andchallengeestablishedperceptions.

Plans for Al‑Jazeera to begin broadcasting in Urdu have been aired overrecentyears,butappearnottohavebeenadvanced.

Al‑ArabiyaisanArabic‑language24‑hourrollingnewschannelbasedin Dubai, launched in February 2003.68 The station is largely owned bymembersoftheSaudiroyalfamilyandtheMiddleEastBroadcastingCentre(MBC) group, with other investors from the region. The channel employssome500journalistsandhasanannualbudgetofaround$85m.A2008pollby Zogby International gave Al‑Arabiya a 9% share of the pan‑Arabicaudience in theMiddleEast.Al‑Arabiya portrays itself as ‘an independent,self‑empowered, informative and free‑spirited satellite channel’, but itsownershiphas led to someaccusations that it has apro‑Americanandpro‑Saudibias.

TheArabic‑language version ofAl‑Arabiya.net launched in 2004.AnEnglish‑language news site launched in August 2007 and versions in Farsiand Urdu followed inMarch 2008, catering to audiences in Iran, Pakistan,AfghanistanandpartsoftheIndiansub‑continent.69

IranclosedAl‑ArabiyaʹsTehranbureauinJune2009afterthechannelcoveredproteststhatfollowedthepresidentialelections.Iranianofficialshadpreviously complained that the channelʹs coverage of Iranwas unfair, and 67http://english.aljazeera.net.68www.alarabiya.net.69www.alarabiya.net/en/about_aa_net.html.

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hadexpelled severalAl‑Arabiya correspondents since the channelopenedabureautherein2003.

The commercial, pan‑regional broadcaster Lebanese BroadcastingCorporation(LBC)wasestablishedin1985bytheChristianLebaneseForcesas Lebanonʹs first private broadcaster.70 It renamed itself LBC Internationalafter the end of Lebanonʹs civil war in 1990 and is now considered moreneutral. LBC Sat launched in 1996, soon followed by LBC Europe, LBCAmerica and LBCAustralia. LBCMaghreb started in 2006. A 2008 poll byZogbyInternationalgaveLBCa3%shareof thepan‑Arabicaudience in theMiddleEast.

Al‑Manar TV (The Beacon) is the mouthpiece of the Hizbollahmovement in Lebanon.71 The self‑proclaimed ‘Station of the Resistance’launched in1991.AFrenchcourtbanned thestationʹssatellitebroadcasts in2004on thegroundsof anti‑Semitism.Al‑Manarwasdesignateda ‘terroristentity’andbannedbytheUSAinDecember2004.ThestationwastargetedbyIsraeli air raids during military operations against Hizbollah in 2006, butmaintainedbroadcasting.A2008pollbyZogbyInternationalgaveAl‑Manara2%shareofthepan‑ArabicaudienceintheMiddleEast.

Al‑Hiwar TV (Dialogue) is a London‑based channel that launched in2006,setupbythemainstreamlocalArabIslamistcommunity,andtargetingArabviewersworldwide. Itsexpressedaim is tocarry thevoiceofArabs inexile and be a bridge between the Arabs and other peoples and betweencultures.

FordetailsofAl‑AlamseeIran.

STRATEGICDIFFERENCES

In terms of delivery strategies, there is little to distinguish the major pan‑Arabic television operators. They all employ satellite delivery and seek arangeofoutlets.TheyuseFacebook,Twitter,MySpace,andmobiletelephonetechnology (though availability of this may in practice be limited to fewcountries).Theyuse the internet todeliver livestreamingandrecordedkeybulletins.Theygenerallyrundevelopednewswebsites.

What distinguishes them primarily is their content. Al‑Jazeera, inaddition to itsArabicservices,hasEnglish‑languageprogrammingandwebcontent, the latter with global news and regional news from Africa, theAmericas, Asia, Europe, aswell as theMiddle East.Al‑Jazeerawas able tocriticisedevelopmentsandofficialsinArabiccountriesinawaythatlargelyremainsunique.Al‑Arabiya, themainpan‑Arabiccompetitor, remainsmoreconservativeinitsnewsagendaandlesscriticalinitsapproach.

Pan‑Arab television has brought innovations in drama andentertainment. Similarly, journalistic advances have been in ‘straight’ news 70www.lbcgroup.tv.71www.almanar.com.lb.

42

programming, talk shows, phone‑ins and interviews. There are still tabooareas, such as domestic violence, drug addiction, that may be entered byinternationalbroadcastersliketheBBC.

NEWMEDIA

In theMiddle East/NorthAfrica region, internet take‑up – though low – isexpanding.Somestateshaverespondedtothegrowinguseofnewmediatopromotesocialactivismbyblockingaccesstonetworkingsites.

The370millionpeopleintheArabcountriesmakeupmorethan5%oftheworldʹspopulation.Butlessthan1%oftheinternetʹscontentisinArabic.DatafromtheInternetWorldStatswebsiteshowedthatinOctober2009therewere57millioninternetusersin14MiddleEastcountries(includingIranandIsrael).72 This represented only 3.3% of internet users across the world.Accordingtothesamesource,inAlgeriaaround12%ofthepopulationusedtheinternetasagainst21%inEgypt.

Most sites are used for personal blogs and social contacts, but socialnetworkingsitesarealsobeingusedasplatformsforpoliticalactivism.TherearemanysocialmediaservicesdedicatedspecificallytoArabusers.Leadingones includeWatWet, a micro‑blogging platform like Twitter, and Ikbis, aphotoandvideosharingservice.Watwet,launchedin2008,had25,000usersin theMiddleEastby July 2009,double thenumberofTwitterusers in theregion.WatwetaimstocomplementTwitterbyofferingusersmorelocalizedservicesandcontentinArabic.TherearealsoArabicbloggingplatformssuchasMaktoob, founded in 2000 as the worldʹs first free Arabic/English web‑based email service, as well as providing Arabic‑language content. It hasaround16millionusersintheArabworld

For decades, governments in the Middle East have dominated themedia, trying tokeepamonopolyon informationanddetercriticismof theauthorities.Bloggershaveerodedthosecontrolsoninformation.ThenumberofArabbloggersisestimatedatmorethan500,000,although70%oftheseareupdated very rarely. A 2009 Harvard University study estimated that theArabic‑language blogosphere consists of about 35,000 regularly updatedblogs.(SeealsoEgyptmediaprofile.)

Governments in the region have been keen to tap into the economicbenefitsoftheinternet,butareafraidofitbeingusedbydissidentsandcriticsand are investing in censorship technologies to prevent their citizens fromaccessingawidespectrumofcontentconsideredobjectionablebyauthorities.3.4.Religiousbroadcasters–adifferentaimThe international religious broadcasters show that different strategies areconceivable. By the mid‑1990s, evangelical Christian radio stations had

72www.internetworldstats.com.

43

moved high up the league of international broadcasters in terms of outputvolume.Littlewasknownabouttheiraudiences.Today,satellitebroadcastingand the internet have given major opportunities to these evangelicalbroadcasterstooperatetelevision,radioandonlineserviceworldwide,butinpractice a major effort still goes into the most basic short‑wave radiobroadcasting, targetingAfricaandAsiawith farmore localisedservices thatthoseofinternationalnewsproviders.

US‑basedevangelicalChristiantelevisionstations–suchastheChurchChannel,GodTV,HolyGodTV(aTamilchannel)and theHopeChannel–arealreadyan internationalpresence.Asoneexample, theHopeChannel,aSeventh Day Adventist television service launched in 2003 and based inMaryland, broadcasts worldwide in English, Spanish and Portuguese. Itswebsite states that ‘HopeChannel International isviewed inAfrica,Russia,India, China, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Rim. There are anestimated89millionviewersinAfrica.’73

A number of evangelical Christian radio stations, mainly US‑based,remainhigh‑volumebroadcasterswithastrategybasedonlimitingthemeansof delivery, while being highly localised in the use of languages andprogrammecontentinawaythatisnotyetfeasibleintelevisionanddoesnotyetreachaudiencesonline.AdventistWorldRadio,thevoiceof theSeventhDay Adventistsʹ Church, is one example. Operating from the USA, it iscompletely focused on radio. Delivery and content strategy match – withprogrammes produced by native speakers in over 70 languages. Many ofthese are untouched by the major international news providers. Unusualexamplesinclude:Acholi,Afar,Dinka,Dyula,Fulfulda,Ibo,Malagasy,Masai,Moru,Oromo,Tachelhit,Tigrinya,YorubaandZanda(WorldRadioandTVHandbook, 2010). The station’swebsite is for information about the stationrather thanameansofdeliveringprogrammes.Delivery is focusedonshortwave, which it regards as ‘the most widely‑heard broadcast vehicle in theworld’. The station uses transmitters situated worldwide, including SouthAfrica and Madagascar, and targeting Africa, Asia, South Asia and theMiddleEast.74 Also based in the USA are: Family Radio Worldwide, broadcastingdailyinover40languages,theGospelforAsia,broadcastinglessfrequentlybut in 64 languages, and World Harvest Radio, which has a differentapproachandconfinesitselftoEnglish,RussianandSpanish.TheUK‑basedFEBA Radio (a division of the US Far East Broadcasting Corporation)broadcastsinover20languages,whiletheSouth‑AfricanTransWorldRadiooperatesinover45(plusanother20orsofromitsAsianoperationinGuam).

73http://hopeafrica.tv;andwww.hopetv.org/home.74www.awr2.org.

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VaticanRadiobroadcastsviasatelliteandothermeans.Theservicehasmoreofthefeelofaninternationalstate‑fundedbroadcasterthanthatofotherreligious broadcasters. It describes its main task as being to proclaim theChristianmessageand tokeep thecentreofCatholicism incontactwith thedifferent countries of the world. Like other international religious radioservices, its main transmission effort is short wave and it localises contentthroughbroadcastsinover30languages.

3.5.NewmediacasestudyInternationalnewsbroadcastersgenerallyusethenewmediainsimilarways:first, to deliver news content; secondly, to provide information aboutthemselves,their programming and services; thirdly, to provide interactionwithaudiences. AnexampleistheBBC.Itrunsextensiveandintegratedwebsites,withUK and overseas versions. The English‑language site carries global andregionalnewsandlinkstotheapproximately30individuallanguage‑servicesites runbyBBCWorldService.Theoverseas television serviceBBCWorldNewsalsohasitspages.Allthesesitesprovideextensiveserviceinformationand opportunities to interact – including the ‘Have Your Say’ and ‘WorldHaveYourSay’areas.On25March2010,thelattercarriedsuchquestionsas‘Aresocialnetworkdiscussionseverofflimits?’and‘Shouldgayteenagersbeable to express their sexuality at school?’The individual language sites runforumsandaskquestionsinlinewiththeirparticularinterests.75 TheFrenchadoptasimilarapproach,thoughalesshomogeneousone.France24runswebsitesintheirlanguagesofoperation.France24offerslivestreaming, global and regional news sites, newsletters, RSS feeds, Podcastsand mobile telephony access, as well as Facebook access and a usercommunity (also on Facebook). France 24 at times also links with the RFIwebsites, which offers similar options – though the organisationsʹinternetsitesrunindependently.76

The Russia Today English‑language website provides a regularlyupdatednewssite,programmeandcontactinformation, journalisticblogs,afeedback facility and discussion forums. By 30 March 2010, the questionraised ‘Should assisted suicide be legalised?’ had received 9 postings; thequestion’Has thehumanrightssituation inRussia improvedduringPutinʹstimeofoffice?’hadreceived497.77 Iranʹs English‑language Press TV also solicits reader opinion. On 24March, its ‘MyVote’ facilityhad thequestion ‘Whyhas theUS softened itsstance onIsraelʹs settlement expansion in theWest Bank?’ Users are given 75http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking_point/default.stm.76www.france24.com/en/livefeed.77http://rt.com/About_Us/Forums.html.

45

three options: (1) The Israeli lobby wields influence over the Obamaadministration?(2)TheUSalwayschangesitsstance?(3)ThenewstancewillhelptheMiddleEastpeaceprocess?Thescoreson30Marchwere(1)87%,(2)8%and(3)5%.78 ChinaRadioInternationalhas57newswebsites,oneforeachlanguageservice.Allaretoapattern,buteachdistinctivelydifferent:providingnews;service and delivery information; and links to other Chinese sources. Two‑way interaction with audiences is sought. The CCTV‑9 English‑languagewebsiteon25Marchasked:‘IsObamaʹssigningthehealthcarebillabigvictoryfortheAmericanpeople?’andshows44%‘Yes’,20%‘No’and36%‘Too early to say’. ‘YourOpinionMatters’ asked audiences to express theirtopconcernsfortheyear.HousepricesinShanghaiandcorruptioninChinawereamongtheanswersby30March.79

Al‑Jazeera,whichofferspodcastsandarangeofblogsonAfrica,Asia,America,Europe,MiddleEast, solicits audienceopinion in its ‘YourViews’area.On25Marchthequestion‘HastheUS lostitsleveragewiththeIsraeligovernment?’showed472comments–manygivingUSaddresses.80 Voice of America runs a similar range of websites to the Chineseandemploysasimilarapproach.Newspagesareprovided;accessdetailsaregiven;podcasts,RSSfeeds,mobileaccess(to17ofthelanguageservices)andwebcasts are offered. The ‘My VOA Community’ provides a platform forinvolvement. There are forums, blogs, English‑language lessons. But by 30March the question asked a week earlier in the international news section‘Gulbuddin Hekmatyar: Ruthless Warlord, new Karzai Ally or Both?’ hadreceivednocomment.Thelatestitemavailableinthepoliticssection‘SwineFlu(HINI)VaccineisHere’,datingfrom4November2009,hadreceivedoneresponseby30March2010.81 Whatemergesfromoursurveyof themain internationalbroadcastersand thenewsagendaanalysis exercises that follow isthatdistinctionslie incontentrathermore thanindeliverymethodsordegreesof interactionwiththeiraudiences.

78www.presstv.ir.79http://english.cri.cn;http://english.cctv.com/english/special/say/01/index.shtml.80http://english.aljazeera.net/your_views.81www.myvoa.com.

46

Chart 2. Key indicators for the eight countries studied

Algeria Egypt Cameroun Senegal Kenya Nigeria India Pakistan Economic, social and political context Population (total in millions)1 34.9 83 19.5 12.5 39.8 154.7 1200 180.8

GNI per capita (in US$)2 4260 1800 1150 970 770 1160 1070 980 Adult literacy rate (% of ages 15 and older, total population)3 69.9 71.4 67.9 39.3 85.1 68 61 49.9 Gross primary, secondary, tertiary school enrolment (%)4 74 70 57 44 59 51 63 42 Urban population (% of total population as of 2008)5 65 43 57 42 22 48 29 36

Sector performance6 Telephone lines (per 100 people) 9.6 14.6

1.0 1.9 0.6 0.9 3.3 2.7

Mobile phone subscriptions (per 100 people) 92.7 50.6 32.2 44.1 42.1 41.7 30.4 53 Personal computers (per 100 people) 1.1 3.9 1.1 2.2 1.4 0.9 3.3 x Households with a television set (%) 91 97 23 43 19 25 46 56 Number of Radio broadcast stations7

AM 25, FM 1,

shortwave 8 (1999)

AM 42 (plus 15

repeaters), FM 22,

shortwave 1 (2010)

AM 2, FM 9,

shortwave 3 (2001)

AM 8, FM 20,

shortwave 1 (2001)

AM 24, FM 82,

shortwave 6 (2008)

AM 83, FM 36,

shortwave 11 (2001)

AM 149, FM 171,

shortwave 54 (2009)

AM 31, FM 68,

shortwave NA

(2006)

Number of TV broadcast stations8

46 (plus 216

repeaters) (1995)

64 (2010) 1 (2001) 7 (2008) 8 (2008) 3 (the government

controls 2 of the

broadcasting stations and 15 repeater

stations) (2001)

1,400 (2009)

20 (5 state-run channels

and 15 privately-

owned satellite

channels) (2006)

Mobile phone usage (minutes/user /month) 147 144 x x 52 x 440 164 Internet users (per 100 people) 11.9 16.6 3.8 8.4 8.7 15.9 4.5 11.1 Population covered by mobile cellular network (%) 82 95 58 85 83 83 61 90 Sources: 1UN data of 2009, as derived from BBC Monitoring country profile, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/country_profiles/default.stm (accessed Feb. 2010). 2Worldbank data 2008, as derived from BBC Monitoring country profile, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/country_profiles/default.stm (accessed Feb. 2010). 3CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html (accessed May 2010). 4 Data from ICT statistics of the Worldbank as of 2008, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTIC/0,,contentMDK:20487483~menuPK:64909262~pagePK:64909151~piPK:64909148~theSitePK:6950074~isCURL:Y,00.html (accessed May 2010). Numbers in italics specify years other than 2008. 5CIA World Factbook. 6Data from ICT statistics of the Worldbank as of 2008. Numbers in italics specify years other than 2008 7CIA World Factbook. 8 Ibid..

47

4.FrancophoneAfrica–‘nation‑building’localmediaMedia environments differ substantially acrossAfrica.Aswell as local andinternationalbroadcasters, there are also regionaloperators, somenew, andincluding Africa No. 1, Africa 24 and AITV. Across Francophone Africaspecifically, considerable differences exist, for instance between Chad withfewprivateoperatorsandMaliwithmany.

Senegal and Cameroon are the smallest countries in the study andcontrast in levelsof localmedia freedom.Analysisshowsa limitedrangeofinternational news available from local sources and an apparent need foroutsideprovision.France’sinternationalnewsservicesareakeysource.4.1.CameroonmediaprofileCameroonhasarelativelysimpleandcontrolledmediaenvironment.82Diversityofnewssourceshasincreasedsince2000,moststrikinglyinthepressandtosomeextentinbroadcasting.Butfreedomofexpressionislimitedandthemediaaresubjecttogovernmentcontrol.Accesstoabroadperspectiveoninternationalnewsthroughthemediaisbestifyouareurban‑based,relativelywell‑offandspeakFrenchorEnglish.Pay‑TVhasmadesomeinroads. Over 250 local languages are spoken in Cameroon, which has apopulation of under 20 million. The country was created in 1961 by theunification of two former colonies, one British and one French. No locallanguagecommandswideuse.Thecountryhastwoofficiallanguages,FrenchandEnglish.Thenationalmediaarebilingual.4.1.1.MediaregulationState‑runCameroonRadioTelevision(CRTV)operatesnationaltelevisionandradio networks and provincial radio stations. Its monopoly was broken in2001byTVMax,Cameroonʹsfirstprivatetelevisionstation.Othersfollowed.Numerous private radio stations sprang up after liberalisation oftelecommunications regulations. Inpractice,high licence fees createbarriersto setting up television services. There is no independent media regulator.Licensing is controlled by government and the practice of grantingprovisionallicencescreatesvulnerabilityfornewservices. FreedomHouseratesCameroonas‘notfree’overallandgivesitthesameratingfor‘pressfreedom’.Toughlibellegislationisinplaceandjournalistscanfindthemselvesbehindbars.Telecommunications

82BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:Cameroonhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1042937.stm;CRTVwebsite:http://www.crtv.cm/cont/gen;CameroonReport:AfricaMediaDevelopmentInitiative(BBCWorldServiceTrust):www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/specials/1552_trust_amdi;France24audiencedata,2009,RFIaudiencedata,2010.

48

developmentislimited,butmobilephonesubscriptionshaverisenrapidlyinthelasttenyears.4.1.2.DomesticmediaTelevisionhas a shorthistory inCameroon. The state‑run television serviceCameroon Radio Television (CRTV) was established in 1985. It defines itsmissionas:

theprotectionofgeneralinterestwhileexplaininggovernmentpoliciesand objectives; identifying the needs and live up to the aspiration ofthepopulationinthedomainofinformation,education,entertainmentandculture;contributingtothedevelopmentoftheaudiovisualsector,makingitcompetitiveandrespectfulofmoralvalues.

The development of satellite broadcasting at national level since 2001 hasimprovedCRTVavailability.Around23%ofhouseholdshadtelevisionsetsin2004 – around a third of them subscribing to pay‑TV channels. The onlynational free‑to‑air television broadcaster is CRTV. Operators like Canal2,STV1andSTV2arealsoavailablenationally,butonasubscriptionbasisviasatellite.Anassessmentmadein2005describedprivatetelevisionashavingaless diversified range of programmes than CRTV. The French agency CFIsupportsCRTVthroughsupplyofprogrammecontent. Radio is more widely available than television. FM delivery isdominant, but medium and short wave are also in use. Around 80 newstationsweresetupbetween2000and2005,butstate‑runCRTVis theonlyCameroonianradiowithanationalfootprint.Privateradioscompetestronglywith CRTV at regional level. Non‑profit community stations totalled 31 in2005 (half of them supported by UNESCO). Secessionists in the mainlyEnglish‑speakingprovinceshaveusedpirateradiobroadcaststospreadtheirmessage.

Some 500 new newspapers and magazines were launched between2000 and 2005. Content has become more varied, with attention paid tocommunitydevelopment,health,education,andothersocialissues.4.1.3.InternationaltelevisionandradioA range of commercial and state‑financed international broadcasters areavailable via satellite free‑to‑air within Cameroon to those with the rightequipmentinstalled.ThemostprominentincludeFrance24,TV5MondeandEuronews. Convenience and range is offered through multichannel pay‑TV onsatellite and MMDS platforms in the capital and other urban areas. TheFrenchcompanyCanal+Horizonswillputasubscriber in touchwitha localdish installer and currently offers five levels of subscription to largely

49

Francophoneviewingand listening– ranging from39 channels at the entrylevelto72atthetoplevel(plussport,filmandfamilyviewingpackages). EvenCanal+Horizons entry‑level ‘Access’ can significantlywiden thesubscriber’sperspectiveoninternationalnews.ThestatebroadcasterCRTVispresent.AnAfrican perspective comes fromGabon‑basedAfricaNo. 1 andAfricable. International broadcasters include RFI, France 24, BBC WorldService, BBC Arabic and TV5 Monde. Also offered are the French public‑servicechannelsTFIandFrance2,plustheprivatecablenewsLCIofferingadifferentFrenchdomesticperspective.CNNandAl‑Jazeeraarenotpresent. Short wave still delivers a significant range of radio listening to thearea.MajorstatebroadcasterstargetingtheareaviashortwaveinEnglishandFrench include Voice of America, BBCWorld Service, DeutscheWelle andRadio France Internationale. Regional players using short wave for Frenchbroadcasts to the region include: Egypt, India, Iran, Libya, Nigeria, SaudiArabia, South Africa. Religious broadcasters target the area in French viashort wave – for example, Vatican Radio, the US‑based Adventist WorldRadioandtheSouth‑AfricanbasedTransWorldRadio. Radio France Internationale is as popular as a local station andachieves substantial audiences in the country. BBCWorld Service estimatesare modest. Many of the international broadcasters will have very smallaudiencesinCameroon. Some internationalstationsareavailableviasatellite free‑to‑airorviasubscription, some are available on FM. Radio France Internationaleworkshard tobeavailableviaFMinnumerousurbanareas.BBCprogramming inEnglish, French andHausa is available acrossmuch of the country via FMrelays.RFIrecentlystartedanewsservicetoOrangemobilesinthecountry.4.2.Cameroonnewsagendaanalysis–nation‑buildingmediaThenewsagendaanalysiscarriedoutforCameroon83lookedatstate‑runtelevisionandradioincontrasttotheFrenchinternationalbroadcaster:

• The state‑run domestic providers focusedalmost exclusively ondomesticissuesandtheirmainemphasiswasonnation‑building.

• Thestate‑runmediastressedCameroonʹsstabilityanddevelopment.• Therewasnoobviousquestioningoftheregimeorwideglobal

perspective.• Internationalplayersofferregionalandglobalnews,butlittleon

Cameroon.

83 Services reviewedandnews itemsas reportedbyBBCMonitoring–http://news.monitor.bbc.co.uk.Otherwebsites:www.france24.com/fr;www.rfi.fr;www.bbc.co.uk/french.

50

4.2.1.TheexerciseThenewsagendaanalysisexerciseforCameroonranoveranumberofdaysin JanuaryandFebruary2010, comparing theoutputof theCameroon statetelevision and radio services with that of Radio France Internationale. Acomparison was also made with the France 24 broadcasts in French inFebruary.Thechannelsandbroadcastswere:1. CameroonCRTVtelevisionnewsinEnglish

1830gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February20102. CameroonCRTVradionewsinEnglish

1400gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February20103. RadioFranceInternationalenewsinFrench

0730gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February20104. France24newsinFrench

2000gmt9,10February2010

4.2.3FindingsThe Cameroon national broadcaster has an explicit remit to support thenational government. The opening sequence of the major bulletins on thenationaltelevisionserviceCRTVshowsanimageofCameroonanditsplacein the world in a deliberate nation‑building exercise. A vivid and shiningsilver map of the world is shown, Cameroon glowing in gold. Theimagefocuses in on Cameroon,tilts,swivels andAfrica is shown revolvingabout the axis of Cameroon. It is a play on the notion of Cameroon as the‘hingeofAfrica’,atthepivotalpointofthecontinent. Thecontentofthebulletins,onboth televisionandradio,stressesthecountryʹs stability and development. Where there are challenges, they arebeing addressedand the people are encouraged in their efforts.Cameroonand its presidential regime are shown as respected and endorsedinternationally. Themixofreportsonstate‑runtelevisionandradioissimilar.TheemphasisisonlocalCameroonstories.On10February,forexample,theentirestatetelevisionnewsisdevotedtoabilingualanalysisofthepresidentʹsmessagetoyoungpeopletomarkNationalYouthDay.Sportplaysamajorroleinnation‑buildinginCameroon,withthecountryʹsfootballteamoneofthebestknowninAfrica.Onboth11and12Januarythesportsnewsleadsthebulletin. RegionalandinternationalstoriesarefewerthanlocalonesandcomehighintherunningorderonlyifthereisaCameroonconnection.AlmostallstoriesinvolvingothercountriesareactuallytodowithCameroonʹsbilateralrelations with them. These reports emphasise Cameroonʹs position in theworldandthe countryʹs advancement.On12 January, a farewelldinner forthe departing Chinese ambassador marks his efforts to strengthen bilateral

51

relations. On 11 January, the mining minister discusses projects with theKoreanambassador.On7January,talksarereportedwithFrenchsenatorsontheestablishmentofaSenate. Intheperiodunderreview,themajorityofpoliticalfiguresshownontelevision were government representatives.In general, there is noobviousquestioningofestablishmentapproachestotopicalissues. On state radio there isemphasis on reports to dowith the economy,with education and health andwith crime. Education items are notable incoming high in the news order.Onemedia report has an opposition figuredescribing journalists as indispensable partners in fostering peace anddevelopmentandsayingthattheobjectiveofpoliticalreportinginCameroonistoenhancenation‑building. Intheperiodreviewed,thestatebroadcasterscarriedlittlematerialonreligion.Therewere just two such reports – and were as much politics asreligion. They cover the departure of the papal nuncio for Cameroon andEquitorialGuineainafarewellaudiencewiththePresidentandamassgivenbythenuncioforthepresidentialfamily(8January).Theeventsarehandledlikethedepartureofavisitingministerandtheemphasisisonorderandtheauthorityoftheregime.ThenuncioissaidtohavecommendedthepresidentforthepeaceandstabilityreigninginCameroonandtohavecalledonGodʹsblessingsforthefirstfamilyandCameroonasawhole. Thisisnotanisolatedapproach.On2February,thegeneralassemblyof the Union of Cameroon Baptist Churches is reported by state‑runtelevision.Delegatesarereportedtohavediscussedtheroleofchurcheldersinpromotingpeace.On17February,bothradioandtelevisionreportthestartofLentasatimewhenChristiansareexpectedtointensifyfasting,meditationandprayer.ThestressisonaquietisticviewofChristianitymeetingpeopleʹsneedforworship. Itisnotthatthestate‑runmedianeverreportedawkwardissuesinthesample period. Corruption stories are topical. The television and radiobulletinson8Januarycarryareportonthearrestoftwoformermembersofgovernmentoncorruptioncharges.Amuchmoredifficultissueiscarriedon17Februarywhen the rulingpartyʹs central committee rebuts allegationsofembezzlementbythepresidentmadebydiasporaCameroonians.4.2.4.AlternativeviewsWould international broadcasters provide a better picture of events inCameroon and a better picture of international events? A test of the newswebsites run by the BBC, RFI and France 24 suggests that theywould notprovideafullalternativeserviceondomesticnews.84

84www.bbc.co.uk/french;www.rfi.fr;www.france24.com/fr.

52

A check carried out on 18 March, for instance, showed that theBBCAfrique.comFrench‑languagenewswebsitehad run just two storiesonCameroon since 2008. The France 24 news website in French returned 110stories with some reference to Cameroon carried betweenMarch 2010 and2007.Manyaresports‑relatedandtheydonotofferanall‑roundnewsserviceon the country.TheRFIFrench‑languagenewswebsite returned275 storiesonCameroon,anaverageof1–2perday,andalthoughasupplementarynewssource,itisnotafullone.AndtheFrance24andRFInewswebsites,thoughlinked, carry different content. Reports on the same subject with the sameheadlinecanbedifferent. AsimilarpictureemergesfromareviewoftheRFIradioservice.Theprogrammes reviewed (Journal Afrique) offer a strong contrast to the localproviders in thebalanceof thenews theyprovide. Just twowerespecific toCameroon(oversixdays):aboutarrestsofindividualsoncorruptioncharges(stories that are reported in the Cameroonian media). However, theprogrammedoesprovideawiderangeofnewsreportsaboutAfrica.By farthelargestcategoryofreportsisregionalpolitics(50%).InpracticethesearestoriesaboutpoliticaldevelopmentsinindividualAfricancountriesoraboutbilateraldevelopments.Internationalandregionalsecurityandcrimeamounttoover20%. RFI also runs a daily Journal Monde to provide a wider globalperspective.The France 24 news programmes review on 9 and 10 FebruarysimilarlyprovidedaglobalnewsperspectivewithreportsfromtheAmericas,Europe,MiddleEastandAsia.TherewerenonefromoraboutAfrica. There are other sources within Africa itself. Regional broadcasterAfricaNo.1Radio(inFrench),operatingfromGabon,carriesadifferentmixfromeithertheCameroonbroadcastersorRFIanditsaudienceissignificant.Cameroonian listeners would have learnt on 9 February about Cameroon–Central African Republic border issues, not reported by their own statebroadcasters. Two reports are unfavourable to China: a report aboutadulterated dairy products from North China, and a call by the FrenchforeignministeronWesternpowerstorepositionthemselvesinAfricainthefaceofChinaʹsgrowinginfluence. TheCameroonianpress, commercial radio and commercial televisionalso offer alternatives. Of the Cameroonian press, the private newspaperMutationscarriesthemoststrikingalternativeviewstotheofficialmedia.On13 January, for example, it carries a report on a ʹgreat trekʹ through thecountry byMbouaMassock, a candidate for the 2011 presidential elections.On 12 January, the paper carries an interview with Louis Tobie Mbida,another opposition figure,who says he is returning from exile to fight thenextelection.85

85www.quotidienmutations.info.

53

Even the state‑owned Cameroon Tribune reports on 13 January thearrest of three journalists on charges of publishing classified information inrelation to an ongoing corruption trial. One method for Cameroonians toaccesssuchviewsistheinternet–forexample,www.camerounlink.net/fr.

Chart 3. Analysis of local, regional and world broadcast news supply inCameroon

Cameroon

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

CRTV state

television

CRTV state radio RFI France 24

International

Regional

Local

ThissimplifiedchartrecordsaslocalallreportswithaCameroonconnection(even ifwith awider relevance). See Tables 1–4 in theAppendix for closerdetail.4.3.SenegalmediaprofileSenegalhasasimplemediaenvironment.86Ithassomediversityofdomesticnews sources and is comparatively liberal and dynamic. Access tointernational news depends on an individual’s resources, location andeducation. If you are poor, live in a rural area and speak only a locallanguage,yourdirectpersonalexperienceofinternationalnewsviathemediamaybeverylimited.Ifyouareurban‑based,havemoneyandspeakFrench,youcanaccessasubstantialrangeofservicesandattainabroadperspectiveoninternationalaffairs.

86BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:Senegal–http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064496.stm.SenegalReport:AfricaMediaDevelopmentInitiative(BBCWorldServiceTrust):www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/specials/1552_trust_amdi;France24audiencedata,2009,RFIaudiencedata,2010.

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4.3.1.MediaregulationThesmallestofthecountriesincludedinthestudy,Senegalhasenjoyedoneof themost unrestricted press climates in the region. But in summer 2008,amidrisingtensionbetweenthegovernmentandprivatemedia,Paris‑basedReportersWithoutBordersexpressedconcernabout‘policeviolence’againstjournalists, and about raids on newspaper offices.The government accusedjournalistsofsupportingtheopposition.ThenewprivatetelevisionWalfTVwasraidedbypoliceinMarch2008.

FreedomHouse ranks Senegal ‘partially free’ overall and as regardspressfreedom.Theconstitutionguaranteesmediafreedom.Thegovernmentdoes not practise censorship, but self‑censorship is the practical outcome oflaws which prohibit reports that discredit the state, incite disorder ordisseminate‘falsenews’.Yettheprivatemediadocriticisethegovernment. Mediaregulationchangedsignificantly in2000whenPresidentWadecame to power. A new regulatory body ended the state monopoly overtelevisionandliberalisedradiobroadcasting.Senegalhasadynamictelecomssectorandmobilephoneuseissoaring.4.3.2.DomesticmediaThe only national free‑to‑air channel remains the state‑run broadcasterRadiodiffusion Television Senegalaise (RTS), which runs RTS1. The RTSwebsitedefinesitsmissionas‘ToInform,toEducate,andtoEntertain’.87 Theprivatefree‑to‑air2STVservice,establishedin2003,isavailableinand around Dakar. The Walfradji media house runs a national daily,commercial radio and now a popular television service, Walf TV, all withdevelopedwebpresence.88

Radioismorewidelyavailable.FMdeliveryisdominant.Privateandcommunitystationshave increased innumberssince the1990s,butdifficulteconomic conditions have meant a high failure rate. The press has anestablished tradition dating back to the nineteenth century as an activesupporterofdemocracy.Thenumberofdailynationalnewspapersincreased;thereismediacross‑ownership.

4.3.3.InternationaltelevisionandradioBroadly as for Cameroon, a range of commercial and state‑financedinternationalbroadcastersareavailableviasatellitefree‑to‑airwithinSenegaltothosewiththerightequipmentinstalled.

Greater convenience and range is offered throughmultichannel pay‑TVonsatelliteandMMDSplatformsinthecapitalandotherurbanareas.Adomestic operator Excaf claimed 36,000 subscribers nationwide in 2006 and 87www.rts.sn.88www.walf.sn/radio.

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offered15channelsforamonthlysubscriptionofUS$15.Itscurrentofferingisunclear. As in Cameroon, the French company Canal+Horizons will put asubscriberintouchwithalocaldishinstallerandcurrentlyoffersfivelevelsofsubscriptiontolargelyFrancophoneviewingandlistening–rangingfrom39channelsattheentrylevelto72atthetoplevel(plussport,filmandfamilyviewing packages). In 2006, rates were relatively expensive, ranging fromUS$16toUS$58amonthinacountrywheretheaverageincomeisunder$80amonth.

Canal+Horizons entry level ‘Access’ can significantly widen thesubscriber’s perspective on international news. The services available arebroadlythesameasinCameroon. Short wave still delivers a significant range of radio listening to thearea.RFIusesshortwaveasoneofitsplatformsfortheregion.OthermajorinternationalbroadcasterstargetingtheareaviashortwavearebroadlyasforCameroon. Some international radio channels are available on FM in thecapital, including BBC World Service (105.6 MHz). Radio FranceInternationale is available via FM in numerous urban areas in addition toDakarandlaunchedtwonewrelaysinJanuary2010.

RFIenjoyssignificantaudiencesinSenegal.BBCestimatesaremodest,and many of the international services available will have very smallaudiences.Audienceresearchislimited.4.4.SenegalnewsagendaanalysisThenewsagendaanalysisstudyforSenegal89examinednewsbroadcastsfromtwoSenegalesebroadcasters,onestate‑owned,oneprivate,incontrasttoFrenchinternationalbroadcasters:• Thedomesticprovidersfocusedalmostexclusivelyondomesticissues.• Therewasasignificantdifferenceinnewsagendasbetweenthestate‑run

televisionandprivateradiooperator,withthelattermuchmorelikelytoreportcriticismofgovernmentpositions.

• Theinternationalproviderswidenthenewsagendatocoverinternationalnewsbuthavelittletocontributeonthecountryitself.

4.4.1.TheexerciseThe news agenda analysis for Senegal extended over a number of days inJanuaryandFebruary2010,comparingtheoutputofSenegalstatetelevisionandcommercialradiowiththatofRadioFranceInternationale.AcomparisonwasalsomadewiththeFrance24broadcastsinFrenchinFebruary.Channelsandbroadcastsreviewedwere: 89 Services reviewedandnews itemsas reportedbyBBCMonitoring–http://news.monitor.bbc.co.uk/Otherwebsites:http://www.france24.com/fr/http://www.rfi.fr/http://www.bbc.co.uk/french/

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1. SenegaleseStateTelevisionnewsinFrench 2000gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February20102. WalfadjriFMprivateradionewsinWolof 0800gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February20103. RadioFranceInternationalenewsinFrench 0730gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February20104. France24televisionnewsinFrench

2000gmt9,10February2010Reference was also made to BBC Monitoring’s summary of Africa No. 1Radio’s news programme in French at 1200gmt on 12 January and to BBCMonitoring’s Highlights from the Senegalese Press for 6, 8 and 12 January2010.4.4.2.FindingsA study funded and published by UNESCO in 2005 indicated that peoplesurveyed in countries including Senegal appreciated African‑languagebroadcasts, wanted more and regarded them as having a positive socialimpact.90 The most ‘local’ of the three services reviewed – highly popularWalfadjriFM–hadthemostlocalcontentandusedthelocallanguage,Wolof,to deliver it. No international broadcaster is known to operate in Wolof,exceptrarereligiousbroadcasters,sothestationhaslittleexternalcompetitionby language.Walfadjri FM carried no international news at all on the dayssurveyed. Only three stories had awider dimension than local affairs. Themain emphasis of the news agenda in volume terms was on economicconditionsanddevelopment–andoneducationandhealth.Politicshadlessspace. Religion and culture received attention (often with a connection topolitics). SenegaleseStateTelevisioncarriedawiderperspective.Thereissomeinternational and regional general news and some local political andeconomicnewswithwiderregionalandinternationaldimensions.Substantialspaceisdevotedtolocaleconomicsandtoreligionandculture. AsintheCamerooncase,thestatebroadcasterissparingincriticismofgovernmentmovesandplaysastrongsupportiverole.Whereforeignaffairsare involved, theemphasis ison thestatusofSenegalandrespectshown it.On10February,thenewsleadswithareportonSenegalesePresidentWadereceivingtheCapeVerdeForeignMinister.On9February,PresidentWadeisreported receiving the Portuguese foreign minister, who pays tribute toSenegalʹs place in international politics. The same day, the presidentʹs son,KarimWade,ministerforinternationalcooperation,isreportedvisitingSouthKoreainavisiteddesignedtoboostcooperation.

90http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php‑URL_ID=18836&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html.

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Thereisalsobadnews.AmajorfireinDakarisreportedon12January;an accident in Dakar in which 37 people were injured is reported on 11January; and Shell workers concern at the companyʹs withdrawal fromSenegalistheleadstorythesameday.Butininternalaffairsandondomesticissues,theemphasisisonputtingmeasuresinplace,meetingchallengesandproposingsolutions.On9February,thepresidentisreportedtohavechaireda discussion on the national agricultural investment programme. On 12January, the president launched a new literacy programme.On 11 January,thefinanceministermetpressownerstodiscusswaysofimprovingworkingconditionsforjournalists. Asignificantdistinctionbetweenstateandprivatebroadcastersisthetendencyoftheprivatestationbothtobalanceproblemsagainstsuccessesandtoreportcounterpointstoofficialviews.Thebulletinon10Februaryreportsmeasurestoreduceunemployment,butalsorecordsprotestsaboutwaterandelectricityoutages,andnotesaccusationsofmismanagementbyairportworkers.Thebulletinon9FebruaryreportsthePrimeMinisteropeningofasolidarity‑with‑Haitiweek.Localpupils,parentsandteachersaretocontribute.ItreportsateacherʹsleadersupportingtheinitiativebutaddingthatSenegalesepeopleneedsupporttoo.TherefollowsavoxpopinwhichmostrespondentssayhelpshouldgototheSenegalesefirst.Incontrast,SenegaleseStateTelevisionon9and10FebruaryreportsthepresidentreceivingdelegationsfromaSenegaleseworkersʹorganisationtodiscussassistanceforHaitiearthquakevictims.Thereisnoobviouscriticismoftheaid. Typically, it is the French‑language newspaperWalfadjri, a sister ofWalfradjri FM, that is the most outspoken of the media reviewed. On 9February,thepapercarriesanopinionpiecethatisplaininitsrejectionofthegovernmentʹsaidplanforHaiti.

Theunilateraldecisionofthepresidentoftherepublictolevyoncivilservantsʹ salaries to assist Haitian earthquake victims is notapproved…We should not be obliged to assist the distant neighbourwhileourhouseisburning…Charitybeginsathome.

4.4.3.AlternativeviewsWouldinternationalbroadcastersprovideabetterpictureofeventsinSenegalandabetterpictureofinternationalevents?AswasthecasewithCameroon,atestof thenewswebsitesrunbytheBBC,RFIandFrance24suggeststhattheywouldnotprovideafullalternativeserviceondomesticnews.Acheckon18MarchshowedthattheBBCAfrique.comFrench‑languagenewswebsitehad run just five storiesonSenegalover thepastyear.TheFrance 24newswebsiteinFrenchreturned54storieswithsomereferencetoSenegalcarriedbetweenMarch2010and2007.Theydonotofferanall‑roundnewsserviceon

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the country. The separate RFI French‑language news website returned 257storiesonSenegal,manyonsportandmusic,manyduplicated,andalthoughundoubtedlyasupplementarynewssource,itisnotafullone. AsimilarpictureemergesfromareviewoftheRFIradioservice.Theprogrammes reviewed offer a strong contrast to the local providers in thebalanceofthenewstheyprovide.OnewasspecifictoSenegal(oversixdays):an interview with a Senegalese journalist about the row sparked by thecountryʹs president recent remarks about Christ. However, the programmedoes provide a wide range of news reports about Africa (see Cameroonstudy). WithinAfricaitself, theGabon‑basedAfricaNo.1Radiocarriesnewsdifferent from that provided by the Senegalese domestic and Frenchinternational broadcasters. Senegalese listeners would have learnt on 9FebruaryaboutanappealbytheKhalifofCasamanceforanendtothewarintheregion(wheretherehasbeenlong‑runningseparatistactivity).4.4.4.Whatisnotcoveredbythebroadcasters?One of the most controversial Senegalese news stories of recent times hasbeen the assertion made by PresidentWade, as reported by the France 24website on 31 December 2009 that ‘the country’sMuslimmajority did notviewJesusChristas“God”’.Thisreceivedsomeinternationalattention.

By 7–12 January 2010, the affair, which had led to tensions in thecountryandsomeoutbreaksofviolence,wasstillcurrent.CoveragedifferednotablybetweenSenegalesebroadcastersandthepress,evenwhereunderthesame ownership. Broadcasters surveyed were conciliatory, while the presscarriedstronglywordedpiecesonthetopic.BothSenegaleseStateTelevisionandWalfadjriFMcarriedreportsofameetingbetweenMuslimandCatholicleadersstressingeffortsatovercoming theissue.Meanwhile,WalfadjriFM’ssisterFrench‑languagenewspaperwascarryingtheoppositionleader’sclaimthatWade representedadanger todemocracyand calling for an end tohisperiodinpower.

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Chart 4. Analysis of local, regional and world broadcast news supply inSenegal

Senegal

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Senegal state

television

Local commercial

radio

RFI France 24

International

Regional

Local

This simplified chart records as local all reportswith a Senegal connection (even ifwith awiderrelevance).SeeTables5–8intheAppendixforcloserdetail.

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5.AnglophoneAfrica–outspokenlocalsourcesAttheoppositeextremefromSenegal,Nigeriarepresentsthemostpopulouscountry in Africa (150million population) and onewith a complex, variedandvibrantmediascene.Kenya(40millionpopulation)shareswithNigeriaaBritishcolonialpast,correspondingmediaorigins,andcurrentlyoutburstsofethnic violence. Analysis shows localmedia preoccupiedwith local affairs,together with marked local interest in international news suppliers and arangeofalternativevoices.5.1.KenyamediaprofileClosetotheturbulentHornofAfrica,itselfsubjecttoterroristactivity,Kenyaenjoys a more diverse and liberalised media scene than many Africancountries.91Themediahavethemselveshavebeenatthecentreofconflict inthepush fordemocracy.Amid theviolence that followeddisputedelectionsinlate2007,theauthoritiesimposedabanonlivebroadcastoutput.

Most Kenyans rely on the broadcast media, particularly radio, fornews.Privatenetworksnowhavewidecoverageacrossmuchofthecountry.Televisionviewingissubstantial.FewKenyansareregularinternetusersyet,owing to cost and access problems, but the use of mobile phones iswidespreadandgrowingfast.InternationalbroadcastersliketheBBCWorldServiceenjoysubstantialaudiences.5.1.1.MediaregulationFreedom House rates Kenya ‘partly free’ overall and as regards pressfreedom.A 2006 report for the BBCWorld Service Trust described positivegrowth of the Kenyan media sector since the restoration of multi‑partydemocracy in 1992 and the regulatory environment has allowed privatetelevisionandradio toestablish itselfalongsidestate‑ownedchannelsandavigorouspress.Morerecently,Kenyaʹsmediahavebeeninthespotlightovertheir coverage of the political violence sweeping the country and thegovernmentʹs move to limit some broadcast output, including livecoverage.There were raids on media premises, including those of privatetelevision station KTN and The Standard newspaper in 2006.In 2007 thegovernment tabled a new bill that sanctioned tighter media controls.Journalists staged protests, fearing the new legislation would limit mediafreedom.TheCommunicationsAmendmentBill, signed into law in January2009,remainsatopicalandcontroversialissueintheKenyanmediatoday.

91BBCMonitoringCountryProfilesKenya–http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1024563.stm;http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/africa/7171372.stm;http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/africa/7808815.stm.KenyaReport:AfricaMediaDevelopmentInitiative(BBCWorldServiceTrust):www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/specials/1552_trust_amdi;BBCaudiencedata,2009.

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Kenya has a very low level of telephone landline access. Broadbandavailability is tiny and computer ownership low. But mobile phoneownershipclimbedto30%in2007.5.1.2.DomesticmediaRadio is the most popular medium, especially in rural areas. Nearly allhouseholds have a radio set.There are scores of stations, a very differentpicture from the days before 1995, when state broadcaster KBC enjoyed amonopoly. Most outlets are privately owned. Vernacular stations haveincreased.Stationstylesareofteninformalandfree‑wheeling. State‑owned Kenya Broadcasting Corporation operates nationalchannelsinSwahiliandEnglishandlocalservicesin15languages.KBCnewsgivesprominencetogovernmentactivitiesanditsstyleistraditional.CapitalFMwasthefirstprivatelyownedstation.OthersincludepopularmusicradioKiss 100 FM; Radio Citizen targets rural listeners; Umoja FM played asignificantrolein2007asapro‑oppositionstation. Therehasbeengrowthinstationsbroadcastinginlocallanguagesandtargeting the six main ethnic communities: Kikuyus (central Kenya), Luos(west), Luhyas (west),Kalenjins (northwest),Kambas (southeast) andKisiis(southwest).Theycommandsignificantaudiencesandtherehavebeenfearstheycouldinflameethnictensions.92 Television ownership is on the rise, around 40% today and up fromjust 15% in 2000. Free‑to‑air stations feature local news alongside importedprogrammes. Some carry reports from international broadcasters, includingthe BBC.Key broadcasters include state‑owned KBC Television, whoseChannel 1 coversmost of the country. It carriesmore home‑madematerialthanprivaterivals.KBCChannel2targetsurbanviewerswithentertainment‑based formats. In 1990, Kenya Television Network (KTN) became the firststation to break the statemonopoly. Its style contrasts stronglywithKBCʹsoutput,butmuchof thecountry is outof rangeof itssignal.Other servicesincludeNTV,runbyNationMedia,andCitizenTV. Satellite television is outof the financial reachofmanyKenyansandcable availability is limited.STV/TV and the SouthAfrican satellite serviceMultiChoice arepay‑TVplatforms.The latteroffers around40 internationalchannels.CTN is a cable pay‑TV operator aimed at the affluent inNairobi.Pan‑regionalEastAfricanTVoperatesfromTanzania. TheKenyanpress is themost sophisticated in the region. Four dailyEnglish‑languagenewspapersarepublishedfromNairobi,butonlytheDailyNationandTheStandardcanclaimnationalcirculation. The internethasbecomean important featureof the localmedia,butavailability is largely confined to urban areas, with numerous cyber‑cafes. 92www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76346.

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Followingabanonlivebroadcastsandcall‑inshowsimposedin2007,blogsand forums emerged as significant sources of news, information andcomment. The interactionbetweenmobilephones, themediaand the internetisincreasing,especiallyforthebetteroff.Ifyouhaveamobilephonewiththerelevantfeatures,youcanaccessnewswebsites, includingtheBBC.YoucanlistentoBBCandlocalradioonFMandwatchtelevision,ifyouhavetherighttechnicalsupport.VoiceofAmericareportedlargevolumesofdownloadsforitsprogrammes.ThelocalmediauseSMStosendnewsalerts.Mobilephonesandtextinghavegreatlyaddedtothepopularityandlivelinessofphone‑ins.5.1.3.InternationalbroadcastersFMis themostpopular formof radio,buta thirdof listenersstilluseshortwave. International broadcasters, including the BBC, are available via localrelays. There is an establishedhistory of listening to foreign radio stationsinKenya, where the BBC World Service enjoys a large audience. A BBC‑commissionedsurvey inNovember2009showedaweeklyreachof22%fortheBBCʹsSwahiliService,plus8%fortheEnglish‑languageservice.VOAhad7%andDW2%.Therearenownewcomerstothemarket. The Chinese have added to their short‑wave transmissions byestablishinganFMpresence inNairobi and their audiences arehigher thanelsewhereinAfrica.ChinahasalsorecentlysetupthreeConfuciusInstitutesinKenya.93 Full‑timeFMrelaysoftheBBCWorldServiceareontheairinNairobi(93.9),Mombasa (93.9) and Kisumu (88.1), and some BBC programmes arealso rebroadcast by privateKameme FM. TheVoice ofAmerica has an FMrelay in Nairobi and Radio France Internationale is relayed on FM inMombasa. Withaccesstointernationaltelevisionlimitedbutontheup,therearenowaudiences formajorchannels.A2009BBCsurveygavean11%weeklyreachtobothBBCWorldNewsandCNN,withAl‑JazeerainEnglishratinglower.Thechoiceofviewingintheregionissubstantial,andthoughalargeproportionoftheservicesareinArabic,KenyanviewerscanreceivemanyoftheinternationalchannelsavailableovertheAsiansubcontinent.5.2.KenyanewsagendaanalysisThe news agenda analysis for Kenya compared local state and commercialbroadcasters with British and Chinese international services. The exerciseshowedthefollowing.

93AccordingtoastudyfortheGeorgetownCenterforInternationalandStrategicStudies,‘ThefirstConfuciusInstituteinAfricawasestablishedinNairobiin2005....Todaythereare19suchinstitutesinAfrica’:http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/090310_chinesesoftpower__chap3.pdf.

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• There are striking differences between the approach of the Kenyanstateandcommercialbroadcasters.

• Differencesbetweeninternationalbroadcastersaresubstantial.• Keymediainfluencescanbeseenoutsidethemainstream.

5.2.1.TheexerciseThe news agenda analysis for Kenya examined six services on one day inFebruary,threeserviceseachinEnglishandSwahili.TwowereKenyan:onecommercial,onestate‑run.Twowereinternationalradiobroadcastersusingalocal vernacular. Twowere international television services broadcasting inEnglish.1. Kenyastate‑runnationalKBCradioinSwahili

1000gmt10February20102. BBCWorldServiceradioinSwahili

1530gmt10February20103. ChineseRadioInternational(CRI)onlocal(Nairobi)FMinSwahili

1700gmt10February20104. KenyaprivatenationalKTNtelevisioninEnglish

1800gmt10February20105. BBCWorldNewstelevisioninEnglish

1900gmt10February20106. CCTV‑9ChineseinternationaltelevisioninEnglish

1500gmt10February20105.2.2.FindingsThetwoKenyannationalservicesshowedsimilarityinsubjectmatter.94Theirleadingstorieswerethesame(ministerdeniesinvolvementinscandal).Andthe majority of the stories were on local Kenyan issues. However, thetreatmentofthestorieswasstrikinglydifferent. Notably, the Kenyan commercial television station KTN relates toaudiencesbycanvassingtheirviewsonpoliticalandotherissuesinthecourseofthenewsbulletinsthemselves.Forexampleon10February,thebulletinledwithtwoitemsoncorruptionscandalsandviewersweretwiceaskedduringthebulletin‘Doyouthinkthereisaconspiracyofsilenceoncorruptionbythecoalitionpartners?’Thebulletinconcludedwiththepollresult.60%said‘Yes’and40%‘No’. OnKTN,storiesonpoliticswerefollowedinvolumebyeconomicandsecurityissues.TheoneregionalAfricanstorywassecurity‑related.Theone

94 Services reviewedandnews itemsas reportedbyBBCMonitoring–http://news.monitor.bbc.co.uk.BBC Monitoring study for BBC: Domestic Broadcaster International News Coverage, 2009, BBCMonitoringresearch

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localKenyanstorywithaninternationalconnectionwastodowiththemedia–andinvolvedthestationitself. On the state‑run radio KBC, too, politics were followed by security,then economics and health. A study conducted by BBCMonitoring for theBBCinDecember2009broadlyconfirmedthistendency,showinglocalnewsto comprise 70% of KBC bulletins, with regional and international news at30%. BBC radio and television news agendas were very consistent. Themajority of the stories were international. On BBCWorld Service Radio inSwahili, the top stories are about political or security news in Greece, SriLanka andPakistan, plus an avalanche inAfghanistan. Two are then to dowithpoliticsinAfricancountries:NigeriaandRwanda.Thefinalnewsitemisaboutthetransferofwildlifeinadrought‑affectedareaofKenya. OnBBCWorldNews later that evening, aprogrammevisible in butnot directly targeted at East Africa, the mix of items is similar. The BBCʹsbulletins provide an international dimension on politics and current affairsthatthedomesticmediaarenotproviding.TheBBCʹsSwahiliServicealsohasa range of other programming and opportunities to handle issues of localconcerntoKenyans. TheChinesestate‑runradioandtelevisionofferedcontrastingofferingstoKenyanviewersandlisteners.TheinternationaltelevisionserviceCCTV‑9in English (again not targeted specifically at East Africa) carried a widespreadofinternationalnewsreports.OnlyonewasaboutChina–atradefairinShanghai.ButnoneatallwasaboutAfrica.Thebulkof reportsare todowith politics and security. Some are on the same stories covered by BBCWorldNews–strikesinGreece,electionintheUkraine. The Chinese Radio International programme in Swahili broadcastingonFM inNairobihas almostno commongroundwith theCCTV‑9bulletincarried just twohoursearlier.Theonlysharedstory ison the Iranʹsnuclearenrichment capacity (the final item for CRI and the first for CCTV‑9).Otherwise,CRIcarriesthreestoriesonpoliticsinAfrica,nonedirectlyrelatedto Kenya. The bulletinʹs first five stories are all to do with China and itseconomicdevelopment. Ofthetwointernationalbroadcasters,themostnotablesinglereportisperhaps the one by BBC World News about British judges calling on theBritish government to disclose secret documents relating to a Guantanamodetainee.WouldaparallelreportbeimaginableonCCTV‑9?5.2.3.Missingtheaction?YetbothinternationalandKenyannationalbroadcastersmightask:istherealmedia action in Kenya now elsewhere? In April 2010, it was reported thatMuslim clerics had banned a sports and entertainment pay‑TV channel in

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Northeast Kenya. Active Islamist media are now operating in and aroundMombasaonthecoast.RadioSalaamcarriedextensiveprogrammingduringthe first half of February on subjects such as Islamic courts in Kenya, theprovocationofMuslimyouthsand theneed toback tribal leaders.Over thesameperiodelsewhere inKenya, the stationRadioNamLolwe(inDholuo)was carrying a ‘heated debate during an interactive talk show’ in whichlistenersspokeof‘tensionsrisinginpartsofwesternKenya’.BBCMonitoringreportedthatthemoderator‘hasadifficulttimepleadingwithcallerstoavoidhate speech’ (16February).On13 and15February respectively, inNairobi,Inooro FM and Coro FM (both broadcasting in Kikuyu) asked listeners toexpresstheirviewsonongoingcorruptionscandals.Callersranginandtextmessages were read out – some calling for the Prime Minister himself toresign.Thiskindofprogramming ispopular.With therecenthistoryof theuseofmobilephonesinKenyatoinciteinter‑ethnicbadfeeling,italsocarriesrisks.Chart 5. Analysis of local, regional and world broadcast news supply inKenya

Kenya

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

KBC radio KTN

television

BBC WS

radio

BBC WS

television

CRI radio CCTV-9

International

Regional

Local

This simplified chart records as local all reports with a Kenya connection (even if with awiderrelevance).SeeTables9–14intheAppendixforcloserdetail.

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5.3.NigeriamediaprofileNigeria,Africaʹsmostpopulouscountry,95withover250ethnicgroups,isthecontinent’sleadingoilproducer,butfewNigerianshavebenefitedfromtheoilwealthandmorethanhalfthepopulationlivesinpoverty.Thereareethnictensionsandfearsthanthecountrycouldfragment.

Nigeriareachedindependence fromtheUKin1960. Ithasoneof themostvibrantmediainAfrica,muchofitinprivatehands.State‑runradioandTV services reach virtually all parts of the country and operate at a federaland regional level. All 36 states run their own radio stations, andmost ofthem operate TV services. Radio is a key source of information for manyNigerians.Internationalbroadcasters,includingtheBBC,arepopular.5.3.1.MediaregulationFreedom House rates Nigeria as ‘partly free’ overall and as regards pressfreedom.Althoughthe1999constitutionguaranteesfreedomofexpression,ofthepress,andofassembly,thestateoftenusesarbitrarymeasurestosuppresscriticism in the media. Criminal prosecution is used against journalistscovering sensitive issues such as official corruption, separatist movements,and communal violence. In addition, Sharia (Islamic law) statutes in 12northernstatesimposeseverepenaltiesforpressoffences.Relationsbetweenthemediaandthegovernmenthaveimprovedsincetheendofmilitaryrule,butReportersWithout Borders saysNigeria is often a violent place for thepress,withjournalistssufferingbeatings,unfairarrestsandpoliceraids. Provision exists for public‑service and commercial broadcasting.PrivateradioandTVstationshavebeenlicensed,andthereistake‑upofpay‑TV. Significantly for international broadcasters, live local rebroadcasting ofnewsandcurrentaffairswasbannedin2004.5.3.2.DomesticmediaRadioisslightlymorewidelyusedthantelevision:64%ofadultslistentotheradiodailycomparedto59%viewingtelevision.96Nigerianradiooperatesatdifferentlevels:national,state(regional)andlocal.Itcomesinstate‑runandcommercial forms and is both in English and in numerous vernaculars(especiallyHausa). State radio iswell regardedand is thedominant force in themarket.Only in large urban areas like Lagos,where there isgreater competition, isthis not the case. Private stations like Ray Power (which is a BBC partner) 95BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:Nigeria–http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064557.stm;NigeriaReport:AfricaMediaDevelopmentInitiative(BBCWorldServiceTrust):www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/specials/1552_trust_amdi;BBCaudiencedata,2009.96BBCAudiencedata‘Nigeria–PerformanceataGlance’,May2009,BBCGND/IPSOS–unpublishedreport.

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achievesaudiencelevelscloseto70%inLagosandover20%nationally.Manyoftheprivatestationsarelivelyandmusic‑based. As with radio, state television dominates the market, attractingaudience levels around 70% weekly. Again, this dominance falls away inLagos, where competition comes from stations like African InternationalTelevision,Galaxytelevision,SilverbirdtelevisionandTVCcontinental.State‑runtelevisionoperatesatnationalandregionallevel.Viewingisconcentratedinurbanareas,thoughservicesreachvirtuallyallthecountry.Theprogressofcompeting private stations is limited by high costs and scarce advertisingrevenue.Legislationrequires60%ofoutputtobelocallyproduced. Therearemorethan100nationalandlocalnewspapersandmagazines,some state‑owned.Theprivatepress is often critical of thegovernment, butcirculationstendtobelowbecauseofhighlevelofilliteracy,highcoverpricesandlowadvertisingrevenue. NigeriaisAfrica’slargesttelecomsmarketand70%ofpeoplehaveaccesstomobilephones,butinternetuseisstilllow.FewNigerianshaveinternetaccessathomeandusageismoreoccasionalthanfrequent.Internetcafesarespreadinginurbancentres,butmanyareunregisteredandmaysuffercrackdowns.Usageoftheinternetservicesprovidedbyinternationalbroadcastersisasyetminimal.5.3.3.InternationalbroadcastersThere is a significant traditionof listening to international radio inNigeria.TheBBCoccupiesaspecialplaceinNigerianpubliclife,asthenewsagendaanalysis shows.And it is not alone; a number of international broadcastershaveretainedsignificantaudiences.Thoughnumbersarefalling,theBBCstillreachesalmosta thirdof thepopulationeachweek.VoiceofAmericais theBBC’s main international competitor (12%) weekly, followed by DeutscheWelle(8%). The ban on the rebroadcasting of news broadcasts by local partnersmeansthatinternationalbroadcastersarereliantonshortwave.Therangeofinternational broadcasters targeting the region in English includes: RadioFrance Internationale, China Radio International, Voice of Russia, All‑IndiaRadio and a number of religious broadcasters. But although audiences inEnglisharesubstantial,itisaudiencesinHausathatarethekey.Anumberofinternational broadcasters offerHausa broadcasts via shortwave, includingtheBBC,VoiceofAmerica,DeutscheWelle,ChinaRadioInternational,RadioFranceInternationale,andtheEgyptian,LibyanandIranianexternalservices,aswell as the religious broadcasters TransWorld Radio and Family RadioWorldwide.Thoughanumberofthesebroadcastershavefewlisteners,othershavereallysignificantaudiences.For theBBC, forinstance, two‑thirdsof itsaudiencearelisteninginHausa–onshortwave.

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AnumberofthesebroadcastersrunHausa‑languagewebsitesinassociationwiththeirradiobroadcasts.However,take‑upisextremelylow.Forexample,theBBCreaches27%ofthepopulationweeklybyradio;itreacheslessthan0.1%ofthepopulationonline.MostonlinetrafficthatitdoesattractcomesviamobiledevicesandgoestotheBBC’ssportssites. AsignificantrangeofinternationaltelevisionservicesareavailabletoviewersinNigeria,bothfree‑to‑airandviacommercialoperators,suchastheSouthAfrican‑basedMultiChoice.Howeverviewingisasyetsignificantlylowerthanforinternationalradio.ThereisnointernationaltelevisionbroadcastinginHausa. BBCWorldNewscompeteswithCNNInternational(6%ofthepopulationwatchingBBCWorldNewsonaweeklybasiscomparedto8%watchingCCNIweekly,accordingtoBBCfigures).OtherinternationalchannelsavailableareAl‑Jazeera,SkyNews,EuronewsandDeutscheWelleTV,butaudiencefiguresarelower.

Nigeriaisitselfaninternationalbroadcaster.975.4.NigerianewsagendaanalysisThe news agenda analysis carried out forNigeriacompared threelocalproviderswiththreeinternationalbroadcasters.Itshows:

• TheBBCplayedaverymajor role in reportingkeyNigerian internalissuesanditselfbecamepartoftheagenda.

• Localbroadcastersreportdetailedlocalissuesbutlittlewidermaterial.• International broadcasters offer a wider agenda and major local

contributions.

5.4.1.TheexerciseThe survey of broadcasting forNigeria98 studied the news programmesofthreelocal providersand three international broadcasters on 10 February2010.BroadcastswereinEnglishandHausa.Thestudyalsoexaminedfurtherprogamminginmid‑January.Thespecificchannelsandbroadcastswere:1. NigerianAfricanIndependentTelevisioninEnglish

1900gmt10February20102. NigerianMetroFMradio(Lagos)inEnglish

1800gmt10February20103. NigerianRadioKatsinainHausa

1200gmt10February2010

97www.voiceofnigeria.org.98 Services reviewedandnews itemsas reportedbyBBCMonitoring–http://news.monitor.bbc.co.uk/VoiceofAmericaHausabulletinsummarydetailssuppliedbyVoA.

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4. RadioFranceInternationaleinHausa

0700gmt10February20105. BBCWorldServiceradioinHausa

0530gmt10February20106. VoiceofAmericainHausa

1500gmt10February20105.4.2.BBCstatusArguably, the single most notable media event concerning Nigeria in theearlypartof2010wastheinterviewgivenbytheNigerianPresidentUmaruYarʹAduaon11JanuarywhilehewasinSaudiArabiareceivingtreatmentforheartproblems.ThePresidentsaidhewas‘doingbetter’,butitwasnot justwhathesaidthatwasofinterest,butwhowascarryingtheinterview.Infact,the interviewwas given not to a Nigerian media outlet but to BBCWorldService radio.At a timewhen rumours of the Presidentʹs deathwerebeingreportedby localNigerianradio, the fact of the interviewquicklybecameamedia story in Nigeria. The choice of station for the interview by thePresident speaks of the BBC’s perceived influence within Nigeria.RadioFrance Internationalewascontent toreport the interviewon12January.ButwithinNigeriathechoiceofthestationwascontroversial.WhileoneNigeriansenatortoldtheDailyTrustwebsiteon12Januarythattheinterviewbroughthope to the nation, the samewebsite notedmixed views. Some oppositionleaderssaid the interview had easedtension caused by the Presidentʹsabsence,butothersdescribedtheactionasavestigeofcolonialmentalityandwondered if the British Prime Minister would address his people throughRadioNigeria.’Nowthepresidentmustspeaktohisownpeople,Nigerians,throughanyofthenationalbroadcaststations,theNewsAgencyofNigeriaorlocalnewspapers’,onepoliticianwasreportedassaying. ‘Anythingshortofthatistotallyunacceptable.’5.4.3.FindingsBy10February2010,thestoryoftheNigerianPresidentʹspositionhadmovedonsignificantlyandallthebroadcastersstudiedwerereportingthetransferofpowertotheVice‑PresidentDrGoodluckJonathan.

THELOCALBROADCASTERS

Theregional(state‑run)RadioKatsina,initsmiddaybulletininHausa,ledonthe transfer of power to the Vice‑President and reported a minor cabinetreshuffle.Afterthat,thenewsshiftstotheeconomyandeducation.Thereisareportonaregionalbudgetfor2010andanotheronnaturalgas.

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TheLagoscommercial music station Metro FM, which has a livelywebsite covering music, sport, news and social issues, carried a 15‑minutebulletin at 1800gmton10February, almostall ofwhich isdevoted to localNigerian news. The lead item covers a statement by Acting PresidentGoodluck Jonathan that critical areas for the future ofNigeriawere power,infrastructure,securityandemployment.Thereisnothingfurtherontheissueof the transfer of power (a subject the station covered in similar depth thepreviousday).Theremainingstoriesaremostlyconcernedwithlocalpoliticaland economic/social questions – for example, upcoming state elections;infrastructure development projects inLagos; the need to develop technicaland human resources nationwide. The bulletin concludeswith two reportsaboutcrimeinNigeria. ThemainnewsontheNigerianAfricanIndependentTelevisionon10Februarywasamuchmore extensive affair:anhour‑longbroadcast at 1900gmt.Again,thisledonthetransferofpowertotheNigerianVice‑President,alsocoveredconsiderablythepreviousday.Bynow,thestationʹsapproachistocitetheministerofinformationontheminutiaeofproceduralissuesratherthananystatementorcallbytheActingPresident.ShespeaksoftheneedtoresubmitamemorandumonthetransfertotheFederalExecutiveCouncilandconcludesbyannouncinga contract for anathletesʹ hostel and theNationalStadium.Theseconditemisareportonthecabinetreshuffle.Furthermentionofthepowertransferandanexpressionofsupportappearmuchlaterintheagenda.Theotheritemsare largely todowith localandlower levelpoliticsandthecountryʹseconomy. The Nigerian African Independent Television,Metro FM radioandRadio Katsinahad in common that no quantity of international orregionalAfricannewswas carried in thebulletins reviewed.TherewerenoobviousdifferencesthatwouldrelatetothembeingeitherHausa‑languageorEnglish‑languagebulletins.

THEINTERNATIONALBROADCASTERS

The internationalbroadcasters studied–BBCWorldService radio,VoiceofAmerica and Radio France Internationale – all broadcasting in Hausa,showedcompletely contrasting approaches on the day of the study.Indifferent ways, two strongly contrasted with the local providers inthebreadthoftheirinternationalandregionalagendas. RFIʹsapproach–inkeepingwiththesituationinNigeria–wastoleadon reports about the incoming Acting President, his calls for support andopposition reaction to the transfer of powers. But after that opening,RFI –ratherlikethelocalnewsproviders–leavesthestoryandfortheremainderofthe bulletinfocuseson other topics, some international, some regional.Around half the reports are concernedwith politics and the remainder aremostly related to security issues. African stories covered include relations

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between Sudan and Chad, Somali pirates, an incident of looting in SouthAfrica.Looking further afield, there are reportsonpoliticaldevelopment inSriLankaandtheUkraine,andEUviewsonIranʹsnuclearagenda.TherearereportsfromtheLebanon,IndiaandHaiti. VoiceofAmericaisthesecondmostpopularinternationalbroadcasterinNigeria,witharangeofprogrammingandadedicatedwebsite.Ingeneral,itsbroadcastscombineinternationalandregionalAfricannewswithmaterialspecific toNigeria. In this respect, its programme reviewed on 10 Februarywasnot typical.Unusually it containsonly three items– all lengthyandallaredevotedtoNigerianissues.Thelengthiest–andlast–isaboutsocialandfamilyissues.Thefirsttwo–andthemajorityoftheprogramme–aretodowith the transfer of power with Nigeria and assessments of the ActingPresident.Thefactthatthemajorityoftheprogrammeisdevotedtothisissuecanbesaid tobe inkeepingwith thehistoricandmomentousnatureof theoccasion. TheBBCoccupiesaremarkablepositionwithinNigeriainthescaleofitsaudiences(estimatedin2009at30%oftheadultpopulationforallservicesand20%fortheBBCHausaservice).Thebulletinon10FebruaryreflectstheBBCʹsroleasaproviderofinternationalnewsbalancedbythatasaproviderofauthoritativenewsonNigeriaandtheregion. BBCHausaServicethereforegives the transfer to power to theNigerian Vice‑President as its top headline, carries the story again as itemfour of its international news, and then devotes an entire segment of itsbroadcasttothepowertransferissue,withfiveseparatereportsorinterviews,beforethebroadcastmovestootherdispatchesandcoverage. In detail, the Nigeria power transfer segment carries a report on anationwide address by the Acting President; a report that human rightsactivistsandmembersoftheoppositionhavecondemnedthepowertransferasaviolationoftheconstitution;areportontheoriginalinterviewgivenbyPresident YarʹAdua to the BBC; an interviewwith an academic on reasonswhy the President might have chosen the BBC for his interview;and aninterviewwithapoliticalscientistonparliamentʹsdecisiontotransferpowertotheVice‑President.Itappearsabalancedsetofcontrastingandconsideredviewsandfullerthanlocalalternativesstudied. The remainder of the bulletin covered major internationaldevelopments, almost all political – for instance Iranʹs uranium enrichmentmove and President Obamaʹs statement that the US would impose freshsanctionson Iran, and theUSwelcome for talks between Sudan andChad.The BBCʹs own status as a broadcaster again emerges in a report that theLebanesePresidenthadtoldtheBBChefearedthatanewwarwithIsraelwaspossible.

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Chart 6. Analysis of local, regional and world broadcast news supply inNigeria

Nigeria

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

African

Independent

TV

Metro FM Radio Katsina BBC WS

radio

RFI VoA

International

Regional

Local

This simplified chart recordsas localall reportswith aNigerianconnection (even ifwithawiderrelevance).SeeTables15–20intheAppendixforcloserdetail.

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6.NorthAfrica–whereregionalvoicesdominateArabic‑speaking North Africa brings different considerations of identity.Egypt, themostpopulousArabcountry (80millionpopulation)andAlgeriaillustrateaspectsofnewavailability,mediaaccessandalternativesourcesintheregion.6.1.AlgeriamediaprofileAlgeria99haslimitedandhighlycontrolleddomesticbroadcasting,butalivelyandmoreoutspokenpress.Satellite‑dishownershipishigh.StationsbasedinFrance targetviewers inAlgeria andotherEuropean channels arewatched.Arabic channels operating across the Middle East are popular. The linesbetweendomesticandinternationalmediaareblurred,asarethosebetweenthecommonlyspokenlanguages.Therearelimitationstointernetaccessandactivity, thoughtherewereestimated tobeover5,000Algerianblogs inlate2008,coveringsocial,culturalandpoliticaltopics.

ThecountryhasrecentlyemergedfromabrutalinternalconflictafterIslamistsweredeniedanelectionvictory in1992.More than150,000peopledied.Sincethen,Islamistinsurgencyhasbeenreplacedbyal‑Qaeda‑inspiredmilitants carrying out a deadly bombing campaign. Algeria can be adangerousplaceforjournalists.

6.1.1.MediaregulationFreedom House defines Algeria as ‘not free’ overall and as regards pressfreedom specifically.AlthoughAlgeriaʹs constitution guarantees freedomofexpression, government dominance over the broadcasting sector, economicconstraintsanddifficultiesfacedbyjournalistslimitsthisinpractice. Algeriaʹs televisionand radio stations are state‑controlledandoffer alimited range of opinions and programmes. No private broadcasting ispermitted. Though Algeriaʹs lively private press often criticises theauthorities, legislation imposes prison terms and fines on journalists foundguilty of insulting the president or any public institution. Journalists aretargeted for exposing embezzlement and state advertising is employedas alever to keep papers in line. Internet users and service providers can faceprosecutionovermaterialdeemedtobeoffensiveorharmfultopublicorder.Bloggershavebeenchargedandsuedforpostings. Language is a significant factor in broadcasting. Berbers preservedsomeoftheirlanguageandculturefromArabinfluenceandmakeupathirdof the population. Historically, language has been a tool of power. Today, 99 BBC Monitoring Country Profiles: Algeria http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‑/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/790556.stm; BBC Monitoring Algeria Media EnvironmentGuide,2009,France24audiencedata,2009,BBCaudiencedata,2000

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bothBerber andArabic areheavilymixedwithFrench,whichhasbeen thedominant languageof the localelite.Moreconventional formsofArabicarenotalwayswellunderstood.6.1.2.DomesticmediaTelevision is the dominant medium in Algeria and offers a route to widerperspectivesoninternationalaffairs.Thedividinglinesbetweendomesticandinternationalbroadcastingareblurred.Over90%ofhomeshave televisions.Of5milliontelevisionhouseholds,4millionaccesssatelliteservices.

The national television service ENTV (Enterprise Nationale deTélévision) carries programmes in Arabic, Berber and French, transmittedterrestrially and via satellite. It is run and controlled by the state. Newservices were launched in 2009 to widen the spectrum of Berber dialectscoveredandoffer a religious channel al‑Quranas amoderate alternative toextremeIslamistvoices. Algerianviewerswatchalotofforeigntelevisionandthepresenceonbuildingsofnumeroussatellitedishes isanotedphenomenon.There isstillsupport for the state‑run local ENTV and though viewing of Al‑Jazeera isvery significant, French domestic and international channels, and theMoroccan‑based bilingual French/Arabic service Medi1 are popular. Itslanguageisreadilyunderstood. Algeria is large and uses satellite broadcasting internally andexternally. External and domestic services elide. Algeriaʹs Channel 3 (Al‑Thalithah TV) is a state‑controlled entertainment and news channel whichbroadcasts to the Arab world and Africa and is watched at home. State‑controlledCanalAlgeriebroadcasts toviewers in theAmericas,EuropeandAfrica,andispopularinAlgeria. Radio is also state‑controlled and, though less dominant, is morelocalised. Algeriaʹs National Radio Company, Entreprise Nationale deRadiodiffusionSonore(ENRS),comprisesnationalchannelsinArabic,BerberandFrench,and40regionalstations. Thepresssectorhasbeenvolatile.Todaytherearesome50dailies, inArabic and French, offering a range of viewpoints, some critical ofgovernment. Rapid growth in mobile phone usage goes alongside lowbroadband access, so most internet users rely on dial‑up connections andcyber‑cafes.6.1.3.InternationalbroadcastersWith around 600,000 Algerian migrants in France and other cultural links,interestinFrenchbroadcastersissignificant.ItisatleastmatchedbyinterestinArabic‑languagechannelsbroadcastingacrosstheMiddleEast.Arangeofcommercial and state‑financed international broadcasters are available via

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satellitefree‑to‑airwithinAlgeriatothosewiththerightequipmentinstalled.These include: France 24, TV5Monde andEuronews, aswell as a range ofpan‑ArabserviceslikeAl‑Jazeera,Al‑Arabiyaandothers.InterestinFrance24hasgrownsincethelaunchofitsArabic‑languageservice.

French domestic channels like the private TF1 have been popular inAlgeria and viewers were disconcerted to find in early 2009 that many ofthese channels haddisappeared from their screens as the distibutorCanal+tighteneduponitscontrolofmaterialpreviouslyaccessibletodescramblersandpirates. BerbereTV,launchedin1999,isbasedinParis.ItbroadcastsinBerberand French, and targets audiences in France and North Africa. The samegroup also produces Berber radio programmes, which can be accessed viainternet and satellite. Effectively, they appear as local services and gathermaterial locally,butarebasedabroadandtransmitfromabroad.BeurTV,aFrance‑based privately owned channel, is similar in targeting audiences inFrance,theMaghrebandtheMiddleEast. Greater range is offered throughpay‑TV services, suchas theFrenchcompanyCanal+,butatacostmanyarenotableorwillingtopay. ThereisahistoryoflisteningtoforeignradiostationsinAlgeria,muchof it fromneighbouringcountriesMoroccoandTunisia.TheMorocco‑basedMedi1 (with its sister television service) has been the most popular. Paris‑based Berbere Radio and Beur FM target audiences in France and NorthAfrica. Some internationalandregional radiosareavailableviasatellite free‑to‑airorviasubscription.NointernationalradiochannelsareavailablelocallyonFM.RadioFranceInternationaleusesshortwaveasoneofitsplatformsfortheregion.OthermajorstatebroadcastersalsouseshortwaveforArabicandFrench transmissions to the region include US Radio Sawa, BBC WorldService, DeutscheWelle, Radio China International. Some of these serviceshaveaudiencesinAlgeria.6.2.AlgerianewsagendaanalysisThe news agenda analysis carried out forAlgeria100compared one localproviderwithtwopan‑ArabtelevisionservicesandFrance24:

• Consumers need to look beyond the limited local broadcasting for awideragendaandhavethemeansandopportunitytodoso.

• Al‑Jazeeraʹs new agenda islikely to appeal to anaudience concernedaboutthefateofArabandotherMuslims.

• Both pan‑Arab channels reviewed followed a news agenda focusedawayfromtheNorthernhemisphere.

100ServicesreviewedandnewsitemsasreportedbyBBCMonitoring–http://news.monitor.bbc.co.uk.

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6.2.1.TheexerciseThesurveyofbroadcastingforAlgeriastudiedthenewsprogrammeofonelocalprovider(witharegionalslant),generalnewsprogrammesinArabicoftwopan‑Arabic television stationsAl‑ArabiyaandAl‑Jazeera, togetherwiththe latterʹs daily programme for the Maghreb, plus news programmes inArabic and French from France 24 on two days in February 2010. Thechannelsandbroadcastswere:1. AlgerianA3CTVNewsinArabic

1830gmt9and10February20102. Al‑JazeeratelevisionnewsinArabic

1200gmt9and10February20103. Al‑JazeeraMaghrebHarvestinArabic

2100gmt9and10February20104. Al‑ArabiyatelevisionnewsinArabic

1100gmt9and10February20105. France24televisionnewsinArabic

1300gmt9and10February20106. France24televisionnewsinFrench

2000gmt9and10February20106.2.2.FindingsAllfourproviderslookedatinthisstudy–thelocalandthreeinternationals–focused heavily on news in the politics category. The internationalprovidersʹsecond area of emphasiswas security, closely followed by theeconomy.In contrast to some other surveys, none of the news providers –localor international–offeredanythingin thecategoryofeducation,healthorscience. TheAlgerianproviderA3Ctelevision,whichoperatesviasatelliteandisbothaninternalandexternalchannel,carriedthewidestspreadofreportsbysubjectofanyoftheproviderslookedat.ItfocusesheavilyonAlgeriaandwith a strong nation‑building angle. There is emphasis on development –improvements in local housing, roads,tourism and environmentalprojects.InpoliticstherearereportsonAlgeriaʹsrelationswithothercountries(SaudiArabia)ororganisations (NATO), andonAlgeriaʹspositionon theWesternSahara.These emphasise either Algeriaʹs status or view.There is alsointernational news, such as on clashes in Afghanistan, but these are lowpriority.A report on 10 Februarymarks the 50th anniversary of Frenchnuclear tests inAlgeria,withcalls forFrance toacceptresponsibility for theconsequences of colonialism.This type of approach is echoed in the Al‑Jazeeraprogrammes. The news agendaspresented by France 24 in its French and Arabicnews broadcasts for 9 and 10 Februaryresembled each other. The

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emphasiswas on international news in the categories of politics andsecurity.TheshorterArabicbulletinsledonthetopstoriesoftheday–Iranʹsmove tostartenrichinguraniumandstatementsandreactions to thismove;strikes in Greece over the governmentʹs austerity package. The onespecifically French story over the two days was Franceʹs decision to sellwarships to Russia andUS concern about themove.Therewere no storiesspecifically related toAlgeria or theMaghreb. Regional stories on theArabworld concerned a report about security threats in theYemen, the politicalsituation in Iraq and the normalisation of relations between Chad andSudan.Western,human interest storieswere the arrest ofMichael JacksonʹsdoctorandreportsonsnowstormsintheUSA. France24bulletinsinFrenchweresimilarinformandemphasis.AdifferenceliesinthegreaternumberofstoriesdirectlyrelatedtoFranceortheEU:aFrenchsoldierkilledinAfghanistan;controversyoverthedetentionofteenagersafteraFrenchcollegebrawl;weatheralertoversnowfallsinFrance;anewEUCommission.TherewerenostoriesabouttheMaghreb.TheonlystoryrelatingtotheArabworldconcernedthereleaseofaReuterscameramanheldinIraqbyUSforces. Al‑Arabiyaʹsnewsagendaon9and10Februaryisheavilyfocusedonthemaininternationalpoliticalnewsstories.Onbothdays,it leadsonIranʹsmoveonuraniumenrichmentandreactionfrommajorpowerstothemove–the USA, Russia, China. Regional political stories cover Chad–Sudan talks,upcoming Iraqi elections. Stories not covered elsewhere area report on theliving conditionsofMuslims inFrance, anda reportonanEgyptiandenialthat surveillance cameras are to be installed in mosques. Interestingly theSaudi‑interestreportonavisittothekingdombytheQatariemircoveredbyAl‑ArabiyawasnotmentionedbytheQataristationAl‑Jazeera. Al‑JazeerainitsnewsprogrammesalsofocusesontheIraniannuclearissue.Storiesin the politics and security category dominatethe bulletins.There is no news specifically about Algeria or the Maghreb, and yet thereporting would interest a viewer concerned about the situation of thePalestiniansorMuslimselsewhere.On9Februarytheleadreportisonextra‑judicialexecutionsinNorthernNigeria,withexclusivefootageofexecutions.Security stories cover special operations by Israeli forces. The ‘good news’story is one of triumph through adversity:a feature on a Palestinian youthwhoeducatedhimselfinprison.ThereislittlenewsaboutEurope–theonlystorycoveredsubstantiallybeingtheUkrainianelection.Europeanviewsarenotfeaturedonmajorregionalorinternationaldevelopments. Al‑Jazeera has a distinct appeal to an Algerian audience in itsprogrammestargetedattheregion.TheMaghrebHarvestprogrammefocusesexclusivelyonregionalissues,withtheapproachbeingtohandletheregionas an entity rather thansingle out individual countries within it.Therearefew’good news’ stories and no reports of economic, social or

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technological development of any kind. Instead there are storiesaboutsufferingcaused by the Maghrebʹscolonial past. On 9 February, forexample,there are reports on mounting calls for compensation for thecolonialeraaswellacriticismofItalyoveritstreatmentofmigrants.6.2.3.MorealternativeviewsWithnolocal commercialbroadcastersto offer an alternative view to thestate‑runstations,consumershavetheoptionofthelocalandfreerpressandthe internet,where distinctly different and less positive anglesare to befound.Asexamples:

• On 6 February, the El‑Khabar website reports that 2,000 Algeriandoctorshaveemigratedinthepasttwoyears.

• On 7 February, the Echourek El‑Youmi website reports terroristsextortingmoneyfromfarmers.

• Also on 7 February, the website of the Algerian newspaper Libertécarriesareportonlinksbetweenal‑QaedaandthedrugstradeintheSahel.

• On6February,anArabic‑language jihadistwebsiteurges theMuslimyouthof the Islamicnationingeneral,andofAlgeria inparticular,tosupportjihadandtoofferresistancetonon‑Muslimforeignpowers.

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Chart 7. Analysis of local, regional and world broadcast news supply inAlgeria

Algeria

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

A3C TV Al-Jazeera Al-Jazeera

Maghreb

Al-Arabiya France 24 -

Arabic

France 24 -

French

International

Regional

Local

ThissimplifiedchartrecordsaslocalallreportswithanAlgerianconnection(evenifwithawiderrelevance).SeeTables27–35intheAppendixforcloserdetail.6.3.EgyptmediaprofileEgypt isakeymediaplayerin theMiddleEast.101ThemostpopulousArabcountry, it is the regionʹs largest single national media market.Thereisvariety of national television, radio and press sources, as well aslively internetuse. Yet Egyptians choose Al‑Jazeera as their favouritetelevisionchannel. Egypt has historically been a major producer of Arabic films,programmingandmusicandthefactthatEgyptianArabiciswellunderstoodacross theMiddleEasthasmadeitsproducts accessible(Boyd, 1982).Egypthas a history as an international broadcaster, dating back to the early1950s.More recently, it was the first Arabcountryto launch its ownsatelliteandits channelsare widely available. The Egyptian press isreadacrosstheArabworld(ElAmrani,2005). Egyptians can access numerous state‑run and private televisionchannels andthree‑quarters of the population have access to satellite

101BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:Egypt,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm;BBCMonitoringEgyptMediaEnvironmentGuide,2010,BBCaudiencedata,2009,France24audiencedata,2009,RFIaudiencedata,2010.

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television.Privately‑ownednewspapers,withanindependenteditorialline,havemadeanimpactontheEgyptianmediascene.Yetthestatesubstantiallycontrolsthemediaandjournalistsaresubjecttoharassmentandarrest.Theinternethasbecomeanimportantmediaplatform,withyoungactivistsusingittoexpressoppositiontogovernmentpolicyandpractice.6.3.1.MediaregulationFreedomHouseratesEgyptas‘notfree’,butratesitspressas‘partlyfree’,inrecognition of the courage of Egyptian journalists and the greater range ofviewpoints represented. The Egyptian constitution provides for freedom ofopinion and expression, but legislation partially restricts these rights inpractice.Disseminationof ‘falsenews’and criticismof thepresident remaincriminaloffences.Yetjournalistsexpressviewsonawiderangeofpreviouslytabooissues. The governmentpart‑owns the three largest daily newspapers andcontrols the licensing, printing and distribution of newspapers, includingthose of opposition parties. Thestate was traditionally the owner of allelectronicmedia. Private television and radio are now permitted and therehasbeentalkofprivatisingthedullstate‑runservices(ElAmrani,2005).6.3.2.DomesticmediaEgyptʹsstateTV,EgyptianRadioandTelevisionUnion(ERTU),establishedin1960, has changed in recent years to meet competition from pan‑Arabnetworks. It runs eight terrestrial channels: twonational and sixregionalones.102 There is ablurred line betweenEgypt’s owndomestic andexternal services. Nile Thematic TV(also state‑owned) was established in1998towinbackaudiences.Ithas12channels,includingtheArabic‑languageNileNewschannel.103 Private satellite television channels emerged after the governmentestablished theMedia Production City, a free media zone, in 1997. Privatestationshavespokenoutaboutcorruptionandgovernmentperformance.Free‑to‑airAl‑MihwarTVandDreamTVbothcarrytopicaltalkshows;OTVaims to counter religious extremism. There area number of free‑to‑airreligiouschannels.Muslimchannelsinclude:Al‑NasTV,Al‑RahmahTVandAzhari TV. Christian channels Aghapy TV and CTVare run by the CopticOrthodoxChurch. Most leading Arab pay‑TVnetworksare basedat the MediaProductionCityinCairo.AmongthemareOrbit,ArabRadioandTelevision(ART),ShowtimeandStarSelect,eachhavingapackageofmostlynon‑Arabicchannels, consisting of films, sports, soaps and news.Saudi‑owned Orbit

102http://ertu.org/tv_channel/ch1.html.103www.nilenews.tv.

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TVispopularfortalk‑showsonEgyptianissues.Pay‑TVintheArabworldistargetedatthemoreaffluentconsumer,butmanyuseillegalconnections.

Thoughprivate stations arenowallowed,overallEgyptian radiohasseenlittlechangeinrecentyears.ThereligiousHolyKoranNetworkratesasthemostpopularstation.

Independentnewspapershaveemergedinrecentyearsandpushedtheboundariesofpoliticalreporting.Thishasbeenwellreceivedbyreadersanddemand is apparent at news stands, where independent newspapers areplacedwithineasyreachofreaders. Egypt has a weak landline network, but significant mobile phoneuse.Internet penetration isbehind many Middle Eastern countries, but theinternet has become a forum for publicising human rights abuses andorganisingprotests.Egyptianmediaorganisationsrunactiveinternetsitesoftheir own andthere were more than 160,000 Egyptian blogs by the end ofApril2008,representing30%ofArabblogs.Some19%werepolitical.Onlineradio stations include Horytna (Our Freedom) Radio;104 Mahatat MasrRadio;105andRadioAl‑Misriyin,theonlinemouthpieceoftheEgyptianrulingNationalDemocraticParty(NDP).1066.3.3.Egypt’sexternalbroadcastingEgypt has a lengthy history as an international broadcaster.UnderNasserʹsleadership,it was the first Arab country toconstruct high‑poweredtransmitters to reach its own people so as to carry theNasserite pan‑Arabmessage.

In 1998,Egypt launched its first satellite. Itsnetwork comprises threemajorchannels.EgyptianSatelliteChannel1(ESC1)broadcastsinArabicandtargetsEgyptianexpatriatesandArabaudiencesworldwide;ESCUSA;NileTV International broadcasts in English, French and Hebrew. Internationalradiobroadcasting comes fromtwonetworks.TheVoiceof theArabs (Sawtal‑Arab),establishedin1953,hasthreeradiostationsbroadcastinginArabic,onededicatedtoPalestinianaffairs.TheDirectedNetworkcomprises48radiostationsbroadcastingin35languages.

6.3.4.InternationalbroadcastersForeign television dominatesEgyptiansʹ viewing. A vast range of Arabic‑languagechannels,suchasAl‑JazeeraandAl‑Arabiya,togetherwithWesternofferings likeBBCArabic, theUSAl‑HurraandCNN,aswell asEuronewsand France 24, are available to viewers via satellites covering the region,which includeArabsat, Nilesat and Intelsat.Al‑Jazeera was rated

104www.horytna.net.105www.mahatetmasr.com.106http://hezbradio.com.

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substantiallythemostpopularinsurveyscommissionedbytheBBCin2006and2008(44%and68%weeklyreachrespectively).Al‑Hurrascored5%and11%respectivelyandBBCArabicgot4% in2008, its launchyear.EuronewsshowsstronglyinFrenchsurveys.

Short wave still delivers a significant range of radio listening to theareaandmajor state broadcasters targeting the area viamedium and shortwaveinArabicincludeUSRadioSawa,BBCWorldService,DeutscheWelle,Voice of Russia, Radio China International and Radio Monte Carlo. Someinternationalradiosareavailableviasatellite(free‑to‑airorviasubscription).NointernationalradiochannelsareavailablelocallyonFM.

There is a history of listening to foreign radio stations in Egypt, butfiguresaredeclining in the faceofcompetition fromsatellite television.TheBBCArabicServiceachieveda4%weeklyreachin2008,RadioSawahad6%,thelong‑establishedRadioMonteCarlo2%.6.4.EgyptnewsagendaanalysisThe news agenda analysis carried out forEgypt107 compared one localprovider withtwo pan‑Arab television services andsixother internationaltelevision broadcastersin Arabic (American,British,Chinese,French,IranianandRussian).Itconcludedthatonthereviewday:

• TheEgyptianandpan‑Arabbroadcasterscovereda rangeof regionalandinternationalstoriesbutlittleEuropeancontentorperspective.

• Al‑Jazeera featured a high proportion of material showing concernaboutthefateofArabsandMuslims.

• Westerninternationalbroadcastershadawiderrangeofinternationalstories.

• Otherinternational broadcasters mainly reported ontheir owncountries.

6.4.1.TheexerciseThe survey of broadcasting forEgyptstudied the news programme of onelocal provider, two pan‑Arab broadcasters, and fiveother state‑fundedinternationaltelevision broadcastersoperatingin Arabiconone day inFebruary2010.Thechannelsandbroadcastsstudiedwere:1. NileNewstelevisioninArabic

1600gmt10February20102. Al‑JazeeratelevisioninArabic

1200gmt10February2010

107ServicesreviewedandnewsitemsasreportedbyBBCMonitoring–http://news.monitor.bbc.co.uk.BBCMonitoringstudyforBBC:DomesticBroadcasterInternationalNewsCoverage,2009.

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3. Al‑ArabiyatelevisioninArabic1100gmt10February2010

4. Al‑Alam(Iranian)televisioninArabic1700gmt10February2010

5. CCTV‑9(Chinese)inArabic1200gmt10February2010

6. RussiaTodayinArabic1400gmt10February2010

7. BBCArabictelevisioninArabic1700gmt10February2010

8. France24televisioninArabic1300gmt10February2010

9. Al‑Hurra(US)televisioninArabic2200gmt10February2010

6.4.2.FindingsThe programmes reviewed fall into three broad categories. First, there areprogrammesthatofferedarangeofinternationalandregionalreportsfromadistinctMiddle East perspective. These came from the pan‑Arab channels,including the Egyptian domestic one. Secondly, therewas a setofinternational broadcasters that offereddifferent perspectives oninternational and regional affairs. Some differenceswereto do with theircountry connections. These services are: France 24, BBC Arabic Television,and Al‑Hurra. And thirdly, therewasa set of International broadcasterswhosemainpreoccupationintheirbroadcastswastoreportabouttheirowncountryoritspointofview.ThesebroadcastersaretheChineseCCTV,RussiaTodayandtheIranianAl‑Alam.

PAN‑ARAB

WithinEgyptitself,NileNewsisthemostpopularindigenousnewschannel.Satellite‑based, it is a local domestic service for Egyptians and Egyptʹsregionalvoice.On10February,NileNewswasunusualamongthedomesticbroadcastersreviewedinthisstudyinprovidingaprogrammemoredevotedto international and regional than to local domestic news. On the daytherewasnopurelyEgyptiannews.TworeportswithanEgyptiandimensionrelated tomilitaryactivity in theGazaStripandstressing the importanceofEgyptian proposals as a key to reconciliation.Themajority of reportswereabout the Muslim world. They divided equally between international andregional,andbetweenpoliticalandsecurity‑relatedstories.Othersubjectsdidnotcomeup.AstudyconductedbyBBCMonitoringfortheBBCinDecember

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2009broadlyconfirmedthistendency,showinglocalnewstocomprise20%ofbulletinswithregionalandinternationalnewsat80%.108

On 10 February, the broadcast led on a suicide attack in Pakistan,followedbyatwo‑waydiscussionfromIslamabadwithapoliticalanalystonthe Pakistan governmentʹs claim about the death of a Taliban leader.TherewassubstantialcoverageoftheIraniannuclearissue.ReportsfromtheSudanstressedtheexclusivenessofNileNewsreporting–indicatingawishtoemphasisetheauthorityoftheservice.TworeportsonYemen–oneabouttherisksfromSomalial‑Qaedasupportersthere–werefollowedbynewsonclashes in Somalia itself.Other than a report on the Ukrainian election,therewerenoreports todowithEurope.NoEuropeanviewswerenotedonothertopicsreported.Inthisrespectandasregardsitsgeneralnewsagendaontheday,theNileNewsprogrammeʹsclosestparallelswereamongthepan‑Arabservices,Al‑JazeeraandAl‑Arabiya,itsclosestcompetitors.

NileNewscontrastedwithEgyptianexternalradiostationVoiceoftheArabs.On10February,onethirdofthereportsandfeaturesintheVoiceoftheArabs0600gmtnewsprogrammerelatedtoPalestine.

Surveys show that Al‑Jazeerais the most popular channel inEgypt.Its1200 gmt news broadcaston 10 February offered viewers awiderange of both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ news,withconsiderablegeographical spreadand an emphasis on theMuslimworld.There is greater stress on regionalthan international stories. Reports on politics and securitydominatedthebroadcast. News about Europewas limited andEuropeanviewswerenotfeaturedonmajorregionalorinternationaldevelopments.Alengthy reporton the Iranian nuclear issue carried Iranian and US officialviewsandaninterviewwiththechannelʹsTehrancorrespondentjudgingthatsanctionshadnotworkedinthepast. Regional stories covered included a lengthy report on Morocco–PolisariotalksinNewYork,withtheviewsofbothsidesandthemediatingUN. Moves to mediate between government and rebels in Yemen werecovered.SeveralstorieswouldinterestviewersconcernedatthefateoffellowMuslims: a Syrian court sentencing a Muslim missionary toimprisonment;the Israeli authoritiesgrantingawards to soldiers for ‘specialoperations’.Rare ‘good news’ stories includeone of triumph throughadversity – about a Palestinian youth who educated himself in prison.Asimilar ‘soft’ news story, on the condition of children in Jordanian carecentres,closesthebroadcast. TheSaudichannelAl‑ArabiyaratesthethirdmostpopulartelevisionchannelinEgypt,accordingtoBBCsurveysin2008.Itsnewsagendaon10Februaryfocusedonthemaininternationalpoliticalnewsstories.Thetop

108BBCMonitoringstudyforBBC.DomesticBroadcasterInternationalNewsCoverage2009,unpublishedreport.

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itemswereaboutIran(thenuclearenrichmentissueandinternalIranianprotest).TherefollowedreportsonthedeathofTalibanleaderinPakistanandthecrashofanEthiopianaircraft.AreportondifferencesbetweentheUSAandRussiaoveraplannedUSmissileshieldinEuropewastheonlystorycontainingaEuropeanelement.

Thereisabodyofreportsonregionalissues–MiddleEastandAfrican– on upcoming elections in Iraq and Sudan. The bulletin concludeswith asection covering softer, human interest stories. There is a report on thedamagecausedbyIsraeltoPalestinianrefugeecampsontheWestBank.Andthereare tworeportswithdirect local relevance toEgyptians:denialby theEgyptiangovernmentthatsurveillancecamerasaretobeinstalledinmosquesand…areportonaweddingfortwochimpanzeesatCairozoo.

‘WESTERN’NEWSAGENDAS

TheArabic‑languagebroadcastsoftheFrench,BritishandUSpublic‑fundedchannelsofferadistinctdifferencetothepan‑Arabicchannels.Theshort(15‑minute)bulletin from theArabic‑language serviceofFrance 24 at 1300gmtprovided little news of the Arabic‑speaking world. Its characteristicwas afocus on developments in Europe and a French interpretation ofevents.Politics dominated.Though the range ofinternational newswas notextensive,therewasauniqueperspective. Thetopthreereportswereaboutstrikesheldbypublic‑sectorworkersin Greece over the governmentʹs austerity programme, with the France 24correspondent reporting the countryʹsmood;plus a reportonanupcomingEUsummittodiscusstheGreeksituationandthatinSpainandPortugal.

The next three items concernedthe Middle East. France 24 reportsPresidentObamaʹsviewonsanctionsagainstIranoveruraniumenrichment–with an interview from a French lawyer about the legality of sanctions.109SecondcomesareportabouttheanniversaryoftheIranianRevolution,withtheIranianauthoritiesʹcallforunitybalancedbyoppositioncallsforpeacefulprotests. TheBBCArabicTelevisionnewsprogrammeon10FebruaryisuniqueinthisexerciseinnotcarryingareportontheIranuraniumenrichmentissue.Overall, the 30‑minute news programme carried a wider range ofinternational and regional stories than the short France 24 programme. Butthough therewasawider rangeof subjectmatter (about 50%of reportsonsecurity),therewerenospecificallyEgyptianstories. TheleadstorywasthecivilwarinSomalia.Nextfollowedreportsonan attack on a police patrol in Pakistan; Lebanese fears ofwarwith Israel;clashesbetweenYemeniforcesandrebels;USAdenialthatitsmissileshieldin Europe targets Russia. There are reports about the Ukrainian 109Seesection8foradetailedanalysisofthetreatmentoftheIranianuraniumenrichmentstoryforfourArabic‑languagebroadcasters.

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electionoutcome; the Nigerian Vice‑President taking over as ActingPresident;thefinancialcrisisinGreece. ThemostnotablesinglereportconcernedBritish judgescallingontheBritish government to disclose secret documents relating to aUKGuantanamodetainee(alsocarriedbytheBBCWorldNewsinEnglish).AsintheKenya study, of all the channels reviewed here, this appeared the onlycaseobservedinoursampleofaservicecastingits‘home’governmentinanunfavourablelight.The programme concluded withan item about a newNASAtelescope thatcapturesphotosof thesunʹsatmosphere–anupliftingstoryonthepowerofsciencenotcoveredelsewhere.

TheUSArabic‑languagetelevisionAl‑Hurracarriedarangeofreportsinitshalf‑hourbulletinat2200gmt,describedasbeing‘forEurope’.Thereportingwasbook‑endedbyUSperspectives:aleaditemaboutUSsanctionsonIraniancompaniesandanextensiveclosingitemaboutopinionsontheUSadministrationʹsprioritiesintheMiddleEast. In between, the bulk of the programme was devoted mainly tointernational and regional political stories. There were reports on theanniversaryoftheIranianRevolution;theceasefirebetweengovernmentandrebels in Yemen; the banning of candidates from upcoming Iraqi elections;Morocco–Polisario talks inNewYork;Nigeriangovernment support for thenewActingPresident.AspecificallyEgyptianstorywasaninterviewwiththeMuslimBrotherhoodlawyerabouttheaccusationsbeingmadeaboutsomeofthemovementʹs leaders.TherewerenoEuropean storiesorviews–barringtheRussianviewof the Iraniannuclear issue.Other thana reporton snowstorms,therewasnonewsabouttheUSA.

‘SELF‑FOCUSED’NEWSAGENDAS

Threeinternationalbroadcastersreviewedweremainlyoccupiedreportingontheir own country or that countryʹs point of view.These broadcastersweretheChineseCCTV‑9,RussiaTodayandtheIranianAl‑Alam.

TheChineseofferthemostextremeexample.ChinesetelevisionCCTV‑9 in Arabicwasnotable in carrying just one report about theMiddle East.Over half its reportswere aboutChina (in contrast to the CCTV‑9 English‑language news broadcast of the sameday).The five top news items in thisArabic bulletin were political, economic and general news: China–NorthKorea relations; the Chinese foreignministryʹs view on the Korean nuclearissue; a Chinese rescue team returning from Haiti, Chinese legal actionagainst an Australian mining firm; a Chinese economistʹs view aboutconsumer confidence. There follow four items of international news: theUkrainian election outcome; two Japanese car manufacturers recallingvehicles over safety issues; the impact of an avalanche inAfghanistan. Theremainingsevenreportsintheprogrammeare‘soft’culturalnewsitems,fivewith a Chinese angle, including Chinese New Year preparations across

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Southeast Asia and Australia and various items on Chinese culture. ThebulletinʹssingleMiddleEastreportisaboutaUAEfootballerfailingadrugstestbut insistingonhis innocence.TheBBCprogrammemonitornoted thatthe Arabic was accurate, that delivery was accented, and place‑names notArabised,makingfordifficultiesunderstandingsomereports.

InRussiaToday’sbroadcast,three‑quartersofthereportswereaboutRussiaorgaveaRussianviewoninternationalaffairs.ThebulletinledwithareportonIranianuraniumenrichment.TheChairmanoftheRussianNationalSecurityCouncilwasreportedsayingMoscowbackedpoliticalsolutions.Next,theRussianforeignministerwasshownholdingmeetingswithformerUSStateSecretaryMadeleineAlbrightandaNATOdelegation.ARussianarmychiefcriticisedUSplansforamissileshieldinEurope.ReportsnotgivenaRussianslantwere:thedeathofPakistanipolicemeninasuicideattackandnewsofHondaandToyota’sdecisiontorecallvehiclesoversafetyconcerns.

On 10 February, theArabic‑language Iranian televisionAl‑Alamhadsome similarities with the Chinese and Russian approach. In the half‑hournews broadcast at 1700 gmt, one‑third of the reports were about Iran orstressedan Iranianviewonamajor issue.Reports cover the anniversaryoftheIranianRevolution;andtalksbetweentheIranianSpeakerandaleaderofthePalestinian IslamicJihad.ThereareUS, IsraeliandBrazilianreactions toIranʹs decision to begin enriching uranium – both negative and positive.Athird of reports were on security‑related issues, including reports on apotentialcease‑fireinYemen;clashesinvolvingSomaligunmen;abombblastin Pakistan; Indian missile tests.Thearrest and questioning of MuslimBrotherhoodmembersinEgyptwerereported.

ALTERNATIVEVIEWS

There are other sources on issues such as the Muslim Brotherhood. Thegeneral impact of Islamist media on the Egyptian press has been noted(Richter, 2008). On 10 February, we see that both the Cairo‑based dailynewspapers Nahdat Misr and Al‑Misrial‑Yawn carry reports about theMuslimBrotherhoodmovementandarrestsofmembers.On11Februarythedaily Al‑Shaʹb reports charges against arrested members and the start tointerrogations.Stronger views come on 10 February on the website of theJordanianMuslimBrotherhood,whichcondemned the arrests in Egypt andsaidtheywouldhavenoimpact.TheMuslimBrotherhoodmaintainsitsownwebsitewhichcarriednumerousreportson10Februaryaboutthearrestsandcriticalreactiontothem.

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Chart8.Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinEgypt

Egypt

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ThissimplifiedchartrecordsaslocalallreportswithanEgyptianconnection(evenifwithawiderrelevance).SeeTables27–35intheAppendixforcloserdetail.

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7.SouthAsia–themediumofEnglishThe countries of South Asia overall enjoy diverse and dynamic mediaenvironments,shareacolonialpast,havelarge,far‑flungdiasporaandarearegion at the centre of world attention over levels of terrorist activity. YetIndia andPakistan represent sharp contrasts in economic and technologicaldevelopment, security situations, levels of press freedom, media scale andrange.7.1.IndiamediaprofileIndia,theworld’slargestdemocracyandthesecondmostpopulouscountry(population1.2billion),110emergedasamajorpowerinthe1990s.Thoughthegapsbetweenrichandpoorarevastandthestateoftheeconomyvariesbetweenhighlyadvancedandtraditional,Indiahasafast‑growingandpowerfuleconomy.Thecountryalsohasamajorculturalinfluenceandismilitarilysignificant.Overrecentyears,Indiahasexperiencedinternalviolenceandterroristattacks.RelationswithneighbouringPakistanaretense,overdisputedKashmirandterrorism. Indiaistheworldsecondlargestmediamarketandenjoysacomplex,dynamic and comparatively liberal media environment. There is a widediversityofdomesticnewssources,bothstate‑runandprivateandincludingnumerous24/7newschannels.Thereisahistoryofinterestinforeignmedia,thoughconsumptionhasdeclined.Indiahasalargeandwidespreaddiasporaandisavigorousexporteroffilmsandbroadcasts.7.1.1.MediaregulationFreedomHouse rates India ‘free’ overall and ‘partly free’ as regards pressfreedom.Deregulationofbroadcastingandmobiletelecomsinthe1990shaverevolutionisedthemarket.IndiahasthefreestpressinSouthAsiaandIndia’sconstitution provides for the right to freedom of speech and expression.However,media freedom is threatenedby increases inviolencebypoliticalparties and religious and separatist groups. While the internet in Indiaremains largely unrestricted, online journalists and bloggers have beenarrested.7.1.2.DomesticmediaIndiacamecomparativelylatetotelevision,whichbeganonatinyscaleinthelate1950s.Foroverthreedecades,domestictelevisionwasdominatedbythestate‑run domestic service Doordashan. Indian broadcasting has flourishedsincethemonopolywasbrokenin1992.Thearrayofchannelsisstillgrowing 110BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:India,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm;BBCMonitoringresearch,BBCaudiencedata,2009.

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(Mehta, 2010).Private cable and satellite stations command large audiences.Newsprogrammesoftenoutperformentertainmentshows(Kohli,2003;CottleandRai,2008).

India has the fastest growing television market in the world withhundredsof services.Thenumberofnews channels alone rose fromone in1998 toover50 in2010.Examplesoperating inEnglishhave included:NewDelhi TV (NDTV); CNN/IBN; CNBC‑TV18. Examples operating in Hindiinclude:STARTV;AajTak;ZeeTV. Three notable phenomena are: first, the international availability ofsomeoftheseservices;secondly,thetendencyfornewstobesensationalisedand sport‑ and celebrity‑linked; thirdly, the trend towards localisation ofnews.Increasingly,channelshavemovedintovernacularlanguagestomatchlocalinterests.

The cable TV market is one of the worldʹs largest. Multi‑channel,direct‑to‑home (DTH) television has been a huge success. Operators haveattractedmillionsofsubscribers.DTHsubscriberscouldreach60millionby2015.

In all this, Doordarshan Television, the public TV, hasmaintained aposition,nowoperatingover21servicesincludingitsflagshipDD1channel,whichreachessome400millionviewers. Radioismuchlesspopularthantelevisionandhasbeendescribedasahighly under‑utilised medium in India. Radio broadcasting in the countrydates back to the mid‑1920s. After commercial beginnings, the authoritiestook over in the 1930s and post‑independence All‑India Radio was themonopolyprovider.Thissituationhasinsomerespectscontinued.Althoughmusic‑basedFMradiostationshaveproliferatedinthecitiessincetheywerepermittedin2000,onlyAllIndiaRadioisallowedtobroadcastnews. India has the oldest press in Southeast Asia. The press is lively andthrivinginthecurrentclimate.Circulationshaverisenandnewtitlescompetewithestablisheddailies.Internetusehasalsosoaredandby2007,around60million Indianswere online.Mobile phone subscriber levels escalated afterliberalisationofthemobiletelecomsmarketin1994.7.1.3.InternationalbroadcastersHistorically, international broadcasting had a significant influence in Indiaand the BBC World Service, as one example, enjoyed some of its largestaudiences in the country. Sri Lankan radiohad significant audiences in thesouthernstates.Muchof thischangedwithmediaderegulation in the1990sandtheincreasingchoiceinthedomesticmarket.Audiencesforinternationalradiobroadcastersbegantomeltaway. This situation, coupled with India’sposition as a settled and mature democracy, meant that it was less of a

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strategicpriority for somemajorpowers.VoiceofAmericahasdropped itsbroadcastinginHindi. Yet there are international broadcasterswho continue to target Indiaboth in English and Hindi. Examples include: China Radio International,Deutsche Welle, Voice of Russia and the Japanese radio external service.Regional players include Iran and Pakistan, while religious broadcasterstargetingthecountryincludeRadioVaticanandTransWorldRadio.Someoftheseoperatorswillhavesmallaudiences,butBBCWorldServiceradiostillachieves audiences of some 20 million weekly (significant for its overallperformance).MostofthisaudienceisforthevernacularHindiservice. The All India Radio monopoly on radio news broadcasting withinIndiaisanobstacletointernationalbroadcastersinestablishingrebroadcaststhroughlocalpartners. As for international radio, India isnothighpriority in the targets forinternational broadcasters – especially when it comes to vernacularlanguages.Nevertheless,internationalTVbroadcastersdotargettheregioninEnglish, including:Al‑Jazeera television, BBCWorldNews,DeutscheWelletelevision,CCTV‑9 andRussiaToday, aswell asCNNI. In the case of BBCWorldNews,aspecificstreamaimsatattractinglocalviewers. Because India is such an attractivemarket, commercial TV operatorshave targeted the country from the first opportunity, often through localpartnerships. Example include: CNN/IBN and CNBC‑TV128, among theleadingnewschannels.7.2.PakistanmediaprofilePakistansocietyisunderextremesocial,politicalandeconomicpressureanditscitizensliveunderthreatofviolence.111Pakistanitselfisunderpressuretocombat terrorism at home and there is tension in relationswith India. Thecountry ispopulous (populationaround160million) andhas awidespreaddiaspora.Pakistan’smediaarevariedandlively,butnotfree.Televisionisthedominant medium. Research suggests increasing scepticism about thedomesticnewsmedia.

The strategic significance of Pakistan is reflected in the efforts byinternationalbroadcasterstotargetthecountry.Thereisconsiderablechoice,thoughthewidestaccessdependsonanindividual’sresources,locationandeducation.Butinternationalnewsmedia,too,areviewedwithscepticism.

111BBCMonitoringCountryProfiles:Pakistan,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1157960.stm;BBCMonitoringPakistanMediaEnvironmentGuide,2009,BBCMonitoringresearch;BBCaudiencedata–‘PakistanPerformance’,2009unpublishedreport.

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7.2.1.MediaregulationFreedomHouse ratesPakistanas ‘partly free’ but as ‘not free’ in respect ofpressfreedom.Recentperiodsofmartiallawmeanttighteningofmediarulesunder emergency rule. Even now, the constitution and other legislationauthorizethegovernmenttocurbfreedomofspeechonsubjectsincludingtheconstitution,armedforces, judiciaryandreligion.Theregulatoryauthoritieshave intervened to restrict and halt broadcasts, particularly those critical ofthe government, and to ban live news coverage during periods of politicalunrest. Most telling for international broadcasters are restrictions on thebroadcastingoflivenewsthroughlocalpartners.Theregulatorsperiodicallyorderahalttothecarriageofforeigntelevisionchannelsviacableinperiodsoftension.

Language is a significantbroadcasting issue inPakistan,where some60languagesarespoken.Englishisusedastheofficiallanguage,Urduisthenational language and understood by some 80% of the population, thoughonly 7% use it as a first language, far fewer than Pashto and especiallyPunjabi.

7.2.2.DomesticmediaTelevisionisthedominantmediumandagrowtharea.Morehouseholdsowntelevisionsetsthanradios.In2006,therewere20televisionchannels(5state‑run and 15 privately owned).Today, there are around 50 private channels,availableviasatelliteorcable,towhichaminorityhaveaccess.Therearenoprivate,terrestrialstations.

Thestate‑runoperatorPakistanTelevisionCorporationLtd(PTV)comesunderthedirectionoftheMinistryofInformationandBroadcasting.ItoperatesPTVHome,aninternationallyavailablenewschannelPTVNews,regionalnetworksinseveralnumberoflanguagesandentertainmentchannels.Commercialtelevisionhasbeenpermittedsince2002andtheregulatoryauthority(PEMRA)hasissuedover80satellitetelevisionlicencessincethen(thoughnotallhavebeentakenup).Anumberofnewschannelshavecomeintoexistence,whichinclude:GeoNews(Urdu),partoftheGeoTVgroup;ARYNews(UrduandEnglish),partoftheARYgroup;AajTV;DawnNews(EnglishandUrdu),ExpressNews(Urdu)andExpress24/7(English).Anumberofreligiouschannelshavealsocomeintoexistence,including:ARY’sQTV,HaqTV,PeaceTV.

The state radio broadcaster, the Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation(PBC),alsounderthecontroloftheMinistryofInformationandBroadcasting,operates nationally and regionally and runs 31 stations throughout thecountry, including Kashmir. It operates in English, Urdu and 19 regionallanguagesandreachesaround95%ofthepopulation.Muchofthecontentisentertainment,somereligiousandeducational,somenews.

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RadioPakistantransmitsnationallyonmediumwaveandonFMinurbanareas.ItrunsaseparatecommercialFMentertainmentnetworktoattractyounglisteners.NewsandcurrentaffairsprogrammesarebroadcastinUrdu,Englishandregionallanguages.In1995,private‑sectorFMbroadcastingwaspermittedinKarachi,LahoreandIslamabad.Over100privateFMradiostationshavebeenlicensed,buttheyarenotpermittedtobroadcasttheirownnewsprogrammes.ScoresofunlicensedFMstationsarealsoreportedoperatinginthetribalareasofNorthwestFrontierProvince,usuallybyclerics.Someofthemareaccusedoffanningsectariantension.TheTalibanfrownsontelevision.

Pakistanʹs press is among themost outspoken in SouthAsia, but itsinfluenceislimitedbyaliteracylevelofaround50%.Thenumberoftitlesfellsharply between themid‑1990s and 2006, but circulation doubled. There iscross‑ownership of newspapers and broadcasting outlets. Analysis hassuggested that the editorial standards of English‑language and Urdu‑language press are different, with the former relatively more careful andimpartial.

Mobile phone use has skyrocketed in Pakistan, reaching over 90millionin2009.Althoughfibresystemsarebeingconstructedthroughoutthecountry to speed network growth, fixed‑line availability is still limited. Soalthough many domestic news providers, including state and commercialbroadcasters, run news and information websites and although bloggersplayedapartisby‑passingmediaregulationsinthe2007stateofemergency,internet usage is still limited, with only 18 million users in 2008 in apopulationofmorethan170million.

7.2.3.InternationalbroadcastersA range of commercial and state‑financed international broadcasters areavailable via satellite free‑to‑air within Pakistan to those with the rightequipment.TheseincludeCNNI,BBCWorldNews,Al‑Jazeera,RussiaTodayand CCTV‑9. They have lower viewership then domestic channels. TheaudienceforBBCWorldNews,forexample,fellfrom4%in2006tounder2%in2008.

Major state broadcasters target the area via short wave in English:Voice ofAmerica, the BBCWorld Service,DeutscheWelle,Voice of RussiaandChinaRadioInternational.Yetthoughtheyattractsomelisteners,thisisnot the route to large audiences, which come from broadcasts in Urdu.International operators using Urdu include BBCWorld Service (which hashadpermissiontohavenewsbulletinsrebroadcastlocally),VoiceofAmerica,Voice of Russia, China Radio International. Regional broadcasters include:All‑India Radio, Voice of Turkey, Saudi Arabian radio, and Voice of theIslamic Republic of Iran. Radio Sedaye Kashmir, a station that represents

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IndianpointsofviewonKashmir, broadcasts inUrduandKashmiri,usingAllIndiaRadioshort‑wavefacilities.

VoiceofAmericarunsradiobroadcastsinPashto,aswellasUrdu,andhasUrdu televisionprogrammingairedbyGeoTV.TheUSAalsooperatesPashto‑language services as part of the Radio Liberty/Radio Free Europenetwork.Pashto‑languageRadioMashaal, launchedin2010,aimstocounterIslamicextremistradiostationsinPakistanʹsNorthwestFrontierProvinceandTribalAreas.

WhilethereareverysmallaudiencesinPakistanformanyoftheseservices,theimpactcanbeconsiderable.TheBBChasenjoyedthelargestaudiences,andthoughtheyhavebeenfalling,theBBCWorldServiceisstillthesecondmostpopularstationinPakistan(afterRadioPakistanitself)andreachessome9millionlistenersweekly.ResearchsuggeststheVoiceofAmericahasbeengrowingitsaudienceanditsleveloftrust.1127.3.SouthAsianewsagendaanalysisThenewsagendaanalysisforSouthAsia113isdifferentfromtheothers.Thesizeandcomplexityofthebroadcastingmarketsmeantthatitwasimpossibletoconductnewsagendaanalysisalongsimilarlinestothatconductedelsewhere.Insteadtheanalysispresentedherelooksattelevisionbroadcastinginasinglelanguageandonethatisnotthenativelanguageofthecountriestargeted.InternationalbroadcasterstargettheIndiansubcontinentinvernacularlanguages–butalmostexclusivelythroughradioandinternetnewsservices.BoththeBBCandAl‑JazeerahavehadplanstostartoperatinginUrduandVoiceofAmericaprovidesvideocontentrebroadcastbyGeoTV.Fornow,themajorinternationaltelevisionbroadcasterstargettheregionwithservicesinEnglish.InternationalradiobroadcastersarebarredinbothIndiaandPakistanfromofferingnewsprogrammesthroughlocaloutlets.Satellitetelevisioncanofferlivenews. InIndiaandPakistan,Englishisalsousedbydomesticbroadcasterstoreachlocalelites,thoughitappearsincreasinglyhardtomakethisfinanciallysupportable.Justdaysafterthereviewperiod,thePakistantelevisionchannelDawn News TV changed tack. On 22 February, it stopped being a purelyEnglish channel and started broadcasting a three‑hour slot in Urdu.DawnNewshadalreadyretrenched.FortystafflostjobsinJanuary2010.AsaresultofthechangeatDawnNews,Express24/7cannowbillitselfastheonly24‑hour English‑language news channel in Pakistan. Bloggers have questionedtheviabilityofEnglish‑languagetelevisioninPakistaninthelongerterm.

112BBCaudiencedata‘PakistanPerformance2009’113ServicesreviewedandnewsitemsasreportedbyBBCMonitoring.BBCMonitoringstudyforBBC:DomesticBroadcasterInternationalNewsCoverage,2009.

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7.3.1.SummaryoffindingsThenewsagendaanalysiscarriedoutforSouthAsiaon9and10FebruarycomparedtheoutputofoneIndian,onePakistaniandthreeinternationaltelevisionservices–allbroadcastinginEnglish–andconcluded:

• The local providers are overwhelmingly focused on local news andissuesandprovidealmostnopictureofinternationalaffairs.

• The international providers offer perspectives on international newsand vary considerably in the extent to which they regionalise orlocalisetheirnewscontentandintheireditorialstance.

7.3.2.TheexerciseThe survey of broadcastingto South Asia studied the newsprogrammesofone Indian, one Pakistani and three international televisionservices,allbroadcastinginEnglish,on9and10February2010.Thechannelsandbroadcastsstudiedwere:1. IndianNDTVnewsinEnglish

1530gmt9and10February20102. PakistanDawnNewsTVinEnglish

1700gmt9and10February20103. CNNInternationalinEnglish

1500gmt9and10February2010(forSouthAsia)4. Al‑JazeeratelevisioninEnglish

1500gmt9and10February20105. BBCWorldNewsinEnglish

1600gmt9and10February2010(forSouthAsia)AllwererecordedandmonitoredinNewDelhi.7.3.3.FindingsINDIANNDTVNEWS

A study conducted by BBC Monitoring for the BBC in December 2009indicatedthatbetween33%and38%ofNDTVʹsstorieswereoninternational(including regional) issues and 62–7% were local.114Of the internationalstories, over 40% were either drawn from news agency copy or directtranslationsofthem.

Underthe categorisation employed by this study, compatible resultsarefoundintheNDTVnewsprogrammeson9and10February.Some75%ofthe stories are purely local, with just 10% about regional or internationalstories. Theremainder are local stories with an international connection.

114‘BBCMonitoringStudyforBBC.DomesticBroadcasterInternationalNewsCoverage,2009’,unpublishedstudy.

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Politics is the main subject category, followed by economics – thougheconomicstoriesoftenhaveapoliticaldimension.Whereinternationalstoriesare reported theremay be an elementof trivialisation. The broadcast on 10FebruaryclosedwithareportaboutaWhiteHousespokesmanmakingfunofSarahPalinformakingnotesonthepalmofherhand.Manyofthepoliticalstories are to do with national and local (i.e. state) developments anddisputes.Much attention is paid to India–Pakistan relations and to theKashmirsituation. Considerableattentionispaidtosport,especiallycricket,whichisnotrestricted to the closing sectionand also appearsduring the body of thebroadcasts. Excitement is drawn not only from the matches but also fromcontroversial issues surrounding the game, which become politicised– forexample,theorganisationoftheIndianPremierLeague. Some subjects are covered insomedepth withdiscussion and avarietyofviews.TheIndiangovernmentdecisionnottoallowthecultivationof GM vegetables is the lead on 9 February and comprises a substantialreport, an interviewwith the Environment Minister and a discussion withpanellistsrepresentingopposingviews.Hereasthroughouttheprogramme,theoutputishighlyproduced.Graphicshelptheviewerassesstheprosandconsoftheissue.Theuseofsplitscreensallowsbothpanelliststobeviewedandthecontributionsandreactionsseensimultaneously. Paceandvarietyarealso injected throughtheconstantuseof tickers,thecuttingofinterviews,forexample,intosegmentswhichcanbemixedwithother contributions, plus the number of items covered.The overall effect isthatthechannelisbothconsideredandbalanced.TheGMdiscussionisbothprobingandreasonedand,thoughtheviewpointsareopposed,themanneriscivilised. A report onstrongly worded statementsmade by the Pakistaniforeign ministerbefore imminent bilateral talkscontrasted them with moreconciliatoryremarksmadesomeweeksbeforetodrawconclusionsaboutpre‑talksposturing.

PAKISTANDAWNNEWSTV

IntheDawnNewsprogrammeson9and10Februarysome70%ofthestoriesare purely local, and30% are regional or international (and that includessport).International reports themselvesoftenhave local relevance;aroundathird of them here have a local connection.As would be expected in theprevailing circumstances, the major subject category by some margin issecurity (around 35%).Dawn’s news programmes are one hour long (likethoseofNDTVandAl‑Jazeera)andcarryaround25reportseachday–morethan other sources. The pace is fast, though business was hampered on 9Februarybytechnicaldifficulties. Aviewergainsanimpressionofworldeventsfromthenews:theIranuraniumenrichmentissue;theimpactoftheHaitiearthquake.Somearemore

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inthenatureofcuriosities:thetrialofMichaelJacksonʹsdoctor;snowstormsin the USA. And there is sport – predominantly cricket, includinginvestigationsintoPakistanʹspoorrecentperformance.Sportsreportsappearinthebodyoftheprogrammes.

There is fuller coverage of regional affairs: the announcement ofparliamentary elections in Sri Lanka and the arrest of the defeatedpresidential candidate.But thebulkof the reporting is eitherdirectly aboutPakistanor aboutPakistan in relation to another country–most frequentlyIndiaorAfghanistan.Reports emphasise the statusofPakistan.USDefenceSecretaryGatesisquotedpraisingPakistanʹsfightagainstterrorism.AreportthatPakistanwillhold talkswith Indiastresses thatPakistan isnotbackingdownonlong‑standingbilateralissues. Local reports on security issues centre on incidents or on politicalaspects rather than the impact of insecurityon thepopulation.Examplesofcoverage are:deaths in a suicide bombing (extensively covered on 10February);theattemptedassassinationofalocalpolitician;thereporteddeathof a Taliban leader. In contrast the Pakistani Urdu channel Samaa TV inMarch2010launchedaseriescalled‘Affected:theyarevictimstoo’,detailingthestoriesofindividualvictimsofterroristattacks,includingChristians. There is a proportion of economic news. The closest this comes tocoveringtheimpactonlocalpeopleisareportonthenon‑arrivalofpromisedaidinanearthquakezone.Localpoliticsarecoveredindetail.

CNNINTERNATIONAL

Thetwo30‑minuteCNNInewsprogrammestargetedatSouthAsiaon9and10Februarycontrasttothelocalproviders.Overtwodays,thenewsfocusedalmost exclusively on international affairs – traditional straight news. AfeaturethatdistinguishesCNNIisitsaccentoninternationalbusinessnews.

Politics and economics are the dominant themes.Politics hasinternational spread, touching on Europe, Africa, the Middle East. On 9February, reports include: the transfer of power to the Nigerian Vice‑President;Ukrainianpresidentialelections;Iranʹsuraniumenrichmentmoves.On10February,strikesinGreeceagainstgovernmentausteritymeasuresarecoveredatlength.LaterintheprogrammecomesareportonthefirstactionsoftheNigerianActingPresident.FurtherbriefreportsincludeaBritishcourtforcing thegovernment to release files relating to the treatment of aBritishterror suspect.Economic reports cover topical developments, like Toyotaʹsrecall of cars over safety concerns, and regular reports on stock marketperformanceintheUSA,EuropeandAsia. There are a number of general news stories with an internationalspread.Areportonvisitorsbrieflymaroonedontheobservationdeckoftheworldʹs tallestbuilding, inDubai,differssharply fromthestyle tobe foundonAl‑Jazeera.Therewaslittleevidenceofregionalisationintheprogrammes.

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TherewasjustonebriefreferencetoalocalPakistanstory,thereporteddeathof aTaliban leader.CNNI ingeneral carries sportsnews (including cricket)and featured a report on a struggling English Premier League club on 10February.

BBCWORLDNEWS

The BBC World News programme targeted at South Asia,like CNNIʹs, isjust30‑minutesduration.Ithasadifferentapproachandismoreregionalisedand localised.Around 80% of the reports are international in the sense ofbeing about the world outside India and Pakistan.However, half of themconcern regional issues, some with a very local connection. And theremaining20%of reportsdirectly concern IndiaorPakistan.There is also awider spread of subject matter, although politics andsecuritydominate.Stories come fromSouthAsia,theFarEast,MiddleEast,Americas.TheoverallbalanceistowardsAsia. Themain international story covered on both days was from theregion: the dissolution of parliament in Sri Lanka and arrest of the mainopposition candidate for the presidency. Other stories concern: the Iranianuraniumenrichment issue; extra‑judicial killings inNigeria; strikesover thegovernmentausterityprogrammeinGreece. Stories about India include: Indiaʹs shock defeat by SouthAfrica incricket;AmnestyInternationalʹscriticismoftheUKcompanyVedantaoveritsminingoperationsinEasternIndia.ThereportonaBritishcourtforcingthegovernment to release files relating to the treatment of a British terrorsuspect(also covered by CNNI) is the sole reviewed example of a stationcarryinganunfavourablereportonits‘home’government.Therepeateduseofmenus, teases, stingsandheadlinescontribute to theprogrammeʹspace–whilereferencestotheBBCNewswebsiteoffersasourceofdifferenttypesofnews,scienceandhumaninterest.

AL‑JAZEERATELEVISION

ThecontentonAl‑JazeeraInternationalʹsEnglishtelevisionnewsprogrammeat1500gmton9and10Februaryalsocontraststolocalproviders.Itismoreheavilyfocusedoninternationalnews.Around90%ofthereportsareaboutinternational news,though that includes a proportion of closer regionalissues,while10%ofreportshavealocalIndianorPakistaniconnection.

In other respects, Al‑Jazeeraʹs news programme resembles localproviders. The programmes are one‑hour long and stories are explored atlength. There is emphasis on exclusives, and exclusiveness shapes theprogrammes. On 9 February, the lead itemdevoted9 minutesto reports ofextra‑judicialkillingsinNorthernNigeria–featuringfootageobtainedbyAl‑Jazeera.Throughoutthestoryiscaptioned‘Al‑Jazeeraexclusive’.

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Internationalpolitics formthe largestsinglenewscategoryandwhilethe geographical balance is away from the USA and Europe, overall thespread is considerable, with reports from the Middle East, Africa, theUSA,Europe and Eurasia, as well as South Asia. Stories include: Iranʹsuraniumenrichmentmoves,includingRussianandUSviews;thetransferofpower to the Nigerian Vice‑President; the Ukrainian presidential election;rapprochementbetweenSudanandChad.Al‑Jazeeraprovidesoriginalnewsangles, for instance on political andeconomic ties between Israel andAzerbaijan. International security involves attention to state‑level bilateralconcerns, like thedifferencesbetween theUSAandRussiaover theformerʹsmissile shield plans, and coverage of the direct impact of insecurity onindividuals,forinstanceinasummaryofclashesinNigeria.

Storiesonregional issuesaremore limited innumberbut thesubjectmatter is varied and again connects to the situation of individuals, forinstanceareporton the impactofsecurityoperations inAfghanistanon thepopulation.Another report focuses on the role of the Afghan police inmaintainingsecurity, thedifficultiescausedbyanabsenceoffemaleofficersandproblemsofrecruitment. OnIndiaandPakistandirectly,thedeathofaPakistaniTalibanleaderisreported;asisIndiaʹsdecisiontodelaytheintroductionofGMvegetables.AnotherAl‑Jazeera connection toSouthAsia audiences is through sport. Itsprogrammesonbothdayscovercricket,EnglishPremierLeaguefootballandtheWinterOlympics.

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Chart9.Analysisoflocal,regionalandworldbroadcastnewssupplyinIndiaandPakistan

South Asia

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

India NDTV Pakistan

Dawn News

CNN I BBC WN Al-Jazeera (E)

International

Regional

Local

ThissimplifiedchartrecordsaslocalallreportswithanIndianorPakistaniconnection(evenifwithawiderrelevance).SeeTables36–40intheAppendixforcloserdetail.

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8.Fourinternationalbroadcasters’treatmentofa singlestory,9 and10February2010:AnalysisbyMohamadAgha8.1.BackgroundThe ongoing tension between Iran and the international community overIranʹs nuclear programme and the possibility of Iran developing nuclearweaponswasexacerbatedwhenIranannouncedthatithadbeguntheprocessof enriching uranium to 20%. The Iranian decision came after lengthy talkswith the UN and delegates from France, Russia and the USA whichculminated in a proposal drafted inOctober 2009 requiring Iran to send itslowenricheduraniumtoRussiatobeenrichedto20%andthensenttoFrancefor conversion into metal fuel rods.However, the proposals did not movebeyondthedraftformbecauseoftheconditionsimposedbybothsidesontheimplementationprocess.

A comparative analysis of media coverage of the Iranianannouncementofitsuraniumenrichmentprogrammeanditsofferforfurthertalks showed mostly subtle but occasionally marked differences in thecoverageofthestorybyfourArabic‑languagetelevisionchannels.8.2.DetailedanalysisThe television channels selected for thepurposeof the analysis all led theirbulletinson9or 10February2010witha reporton recentdevelopments inIranʹs nuclear energy programme and the production of 20%‑enricheduraniumattheNatanzplantincentralIran.Theselectedchannels–QatariAl‑Jazeera,RussiaToday,France24andUSAl‑HurraforEurope–alsocoveredthe proposal made by Iranian Vice‑President and Director of the AtomicEnergyOrganizationAliAkbarSalehiforfurthertalks,internationalreactionto Iranian uranium enrichment, US sanctions and calls for furtherinternational sanctions. Al‑Jazeeraʹs reportwas 6mins 25s, Russia Today 4mins25s,France243mins24sandAl‑Hurra4mins17s.

1. Al‑Jazeera[Arabic]1200gmt10February

2. Al‑Hurra[Arabic–US]2200gmt10February

3. RussiaToday[Arabic]1400gmt10February

4. France24[Arabic]1300gmt9February

Al‑Jazeera and Russia Today led the report with Ali Akbar Salehiʹsproposal for talks on the swapping of uranium fuel for low‑enriched

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uranium, providing the exchange took place in Iran. However, the twochannelsdivergedintheirinterpretationoftheIranianmove.

[Al‑Jazeera:]The Iranianscenariowas tomakea lastminutemove topull the rug fromunder the feet of theWest. The newdevelopmentnowistheannouncementmadebythedirectoroftheIranianAtomicEnergyOrganizationproposing that theexchangeofnuclear fuel [forlowenricheduranium]withtheWesthadtotakeplacesimultaneouslyandonIraniansoil.

RussiaTodaysaid:‘HereisIrandefyingitsfoesbyenrichinguraniumat20%atNatanz’andadded: ‘Thisstepwasdescribedby theUnitedStatesand itsalliesasprovocative.’TheRussiaTodaycorrespondentinTehranreported:

Thedecision[toenrichuraniumat20%]is justifiableasfarpoliticianshere are concerned since the superpowers have decided againstsupplyingIranwithfuelfortheTehranInstituteforScientificResearchunlessthelatterhandedoverallitslow‑enricheduraniumtoRussiainasingleconsignment,whichhasbeenrejectedoutrightbytheIslamicRepublic.

The correspondent added: ‘Thus, Tehran has been trying to play a doublegame;althoughitsnuclearplanhasescalatedthesituationtoagreatextent,ithasleftthedooropenforfuturenegotiationsonthewayofobtainingnuclearfuel.’

BothAl‑JazeeraandRussiaTodayreportedtheIranianjustificationforproducing high‑level uranium, namely that the superpowers refused tosupply Iranwith the fuel required tooperate theTehran installation.RussiaToday showed a video report of the Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesmanRamin Mehmanparast saying that the enrichment did not contraveneinternationalconventionsandIAEAprinciples,and that ‘TheWesthas timetochangeitsperspectiveandsupplyuswiththefueland,consequently,weshallstopthe20‑per‑centenrichmentprocess.’

Al‑JazeeramadeadistinctionbetweentheimpositionofsanctionsandtheUSpresidentʹsstance,whichitreportedasbeingfavourabletoleavingthedooropentonegotiationswithIran,andsaid:

Althoughit istooearlytosaythattheoptionofsanctionswouldwinovertheObamaoptionofleavingthedooropenfornegotiationswithIran,changesintheRussianstancehavebecomenoticeablenow,whichalsoraisesquestionsonthelikelihoodoftheChinesestanceremainingsteadfastvis‑à‑visthestancesoftheothersuperpowers.

Al‑Jazeeraʹs correspondent reporting from Tehran said that PresidentAhmadinezhadhadleftthedooropenforunconditionalnegotiationson theexchangeofnuclearfuelforlow‑enricheduraniumrightfromthebeginningandAliAkbarSalehisimplyechoedwhathadbeenofferedpreviously.

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Russia Today highlighted the Russian governmentʹs position andquotedChairmanof theRussianSecurityCouncilNikolayPatrushevsayingthathiscountrywascommittedtoresolvingtheissuepeacefully

but the international community hasnot succeeded in achieving thatyet. Iran has the right to develop a nuclear programme for peacefulpurposes and no one would object to that. However, like the othermembersoftheinternationalcommunity,weobjecttoIranpossessingnuclearweapons.

RussiaTodayalsoquotedPatrushevsayingthat,althoughIranhasstressedthatitwasnotplanningtoproducenuclearweapons‘itsactions,suchasincreasingtheuraniumenrichmentlevelto20%,raisedseriousdoubtsintheworld’.ThechannelinterviewedanIranianpoliticalanalystwhostressedthatfacedwithadenialofitsrightbyWesternstates,Iranhadnooptionbut‘totaketwostepsforwardandonestepbackinordertoassertitsrightthatisstipulatedininternationalconventions’.

France 24 began with reporting the commencement of uraniumenrichmentatNatanz,saying:‘Fromwordtodeed,IrantodaybegantoenrichuraniumatahighgradeatNatanzincentralIran,twodaysafterannouncingthat it would do so.’ France 24 was the only channel to report that theenrichmentprocesswascarriedoutunder thesupervisionofan IAEAteamand added that the presence of the team did not prevent widespreadinternationalcondemnationand threatsof tightening internationalsanctionsonIran.ThechannelwasalsotheonlyonetoquoteAliAkbarSalehisayingthattheproductionwasatexperimentallevel.

The channel reported US Defence Secretary Gatesʹs statement aftermeeting President Sarkozy in Paris urging the international community towork together to ensure that Iran returned to the negotiating table. ThechannelquotedRobertGates saying thatFrenchandUSviewson the issuewereclose.

Unlikealltheothertelevisionchannelsselected,Washington‑basedAl‑Hurra forEurope began the first itemwith theUSTreasury announcementregarding the imposition of new sanctions on four Iranian companiesassociatedwith theRevolutionaryGuardsand theextensionofsanctionsonanIranianconstructioncompany.

Al‑HurrasaidthattheUSTreasuryannouncementfollowedPresidentObamaʹs call for new sanctions on Iran because it had rejected all theproposalsmadetoresolvetheissuethroughdiplomaticmeansandtheofferof deals regarding the enrichment of uranium. Al‑Hurra quoted PresidentObamasaying:

The international community is taking rapid steps towards theimpositionofnewsanctionsonIranbecauseofitsnuclearprogrammeafter having made efforts to resolve the problem with Iran through

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diplomaticmeansbyofferingdealsontheenrichmentofuraniumbutIranhasrejectedalltheseoffers.

Al‑HurrafocusedonchangesintheRussianpositionandquotedtheRussiandeputy foreignminister saying that the imposition of sanction has becomemorepossible after Iran raised the level ofuraniumenrichment to 20%.Al‑Hurrasaid:‘ItissignificantthatwiththeannouncementoftheUSstance,theRussiandeputyforeignministersaidthattheimpositionofsanctionsonIranhadbecomemore likely following its enrichmentofuraniumat the level of20%.’

Thechannelarguedthat,despiteChinaʹsambiguousposition:these developments are too big to leave room for doubt that thesuperpowers are getting increasingly closer on the imposition ofsanctions on Iran, despite Director of the Iranian Atomic EnergyOrganization Ali Akbar Salehiʹs statement that an agreement onswappingofnuclearfuelwasstillopentodiscussion.

8.3.ConclusionAll four broadcasters gave prominence to this story and covered the samebasic points – the Iranian decision to enrich uranium to 20%, internationalreactions, Iranian proposals for further talks, US sanctions and calls forfurthersanctions.Thekeydifferencesbetween thebroadcasters’approachestothisstorycanbeidentifiedasdifferencesofperspectiveanddifferencesintheapproachtocausesandconsequences.

Al‑Jazeera’s report gave more prominence to Iranian willingness toholdfurthertalksontheexchangeoflowenricheduraniumfornuclearfuelandhighlightedtheIranianofficialstanceofhavingnooptionbuttoproduce20%enricheduraniumtosecurefuelfortheTehranmedicalresearchfacility.

While highlighting Iranʹs offer of talks and its reasons for producingfuelgradeuranium,RussiaTodayalsogaveprominencetotheUSreadinesstocooperateandengageintalkswithIranandstressedRussiaʹsoppositiontoattempts by Iran to develop nuclear weapons and the internationalcommunityʹsdoubtsaboutIranʹsnuclearprogramme.

France 24 focused on the commencement of uranium enrichment to20% by Iran,worldwide condemnation of the Iranian action and threats ofinternational sanctions. The channel reported Iranian reasons for beginningthe enrichment process and theUS position as stated byDefence SecretaryRobert Gates after meeting President Sarkozy in Paris. The only referencemadebyFrance24totheFrenchgovernmentʹsstancewasinquotingGatesassayingthattheUSandFrenchpositionswereclose.

Al‑HurraforEuropeʹsapproachwasmarkedlydifferentfromtheotherthree broadcasters selected for the analysis. Al‑Hurra focused on the USTreasuryannouncementon the impositionofnewsanctionson four Iranian

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companiesassociatedwiththeRevolutionaryGuardCorpsasaconsequenceof the Iranian decision to produce uranium enriched at 20%. The channelhighlighted President Obamaʹs call for further international sanctions,changesintheRussianposition–quotingtheRussiandeputyforeignministeron the increasing likelihood of international sanctions on Iran – and thepossibilityofachangeinChinaʹsstance.

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9.ConclusionThekeyquestionunderlyingthisstudyisaboutthecontinuingrelevanceofinternationalbroadcasters.Dotheystillofferdistinctivecontentinamuchmorecompetitiveenvironment?Theconclusiontobedrawnfromtheanalysisconductedisthattheycanprovidenewsperspectivesnotavailablefromlocalproviders.Thesecanbeperspectivesonlocalnews,mostoftenwhenbroadcastinginvernacularlanguages.Theyaremorelikelytobeperspectivesonglobalnews.Itisharderfortraditionalinternationalbroadcasterstoestablishandkeepmassaudiencesthanforthosebetterabletocreateacommonidentitywithviewersacrossaregion.Nevertheless,inallthecountriesstudied,withtheexceptionofIndia,internationalbroadcastersattractconsiderableattentionandattimesplayastronginternalrole.Yetthereareoftenincreasinglynumerousandattractivealternatives.

ThemoststrikingimpacthasbeenachievedinrecentyearsbythenewentrantssuchasAl‑Jazeera.Internationalbroadcasterswithapparentlyunlimitedresources,likeChina,havereceivedconsiderablemediaandacademicattention,butlargeaudienceshaveasyetrarelybeenregisteredinknownsurveys.Westernbroadcasters,whohaveoptedtolimitradioandmoveintokeytelevisionservices,haveachievedoverallmomentum,butsometimesatthecostoflocalrelevance.9.1.ThetargetcountriesConsiderable differences can be seen among the target countries selected.They vary hugely in size and population: from India at 1,170 million toSenegalat12million.Thecomplexityofthemediasystemsandthevarietyofindigenous sources vary accordingly, as do their levels of technologicaldevelopment. Senegal and Cameroon are the simplest and most limitedmarkets. Algeria is highly controlled and has high levels of audiences forforeignmedia.Indiaisoneoftheworld’slargestmarketsandisservedbyahighlydynamic,growinganddiversifyingmediasectorwhichisveryactiveinternationally.TheneedforsupplementarysourcesofnewsandinformationishigherincountrieslikeCameroon,AlgeriaandPakistanthanitisinIndia.

Despitetheapparentdifferences,itisthesimilaritiesthatarethemorestriking,especiallyifIndiaistakenasanexception.Thesimilaritiesrelatetofour broad areas: media environments; security situations; internationalconnections; language. These factors may increase the need for impartialsourcesofnewsandinformationaboutinternationalandaboutlocalaffairs. All the targetcountriesenjoy lower levelsofmedia freedomthan thedeveloped world (even India). With the exception of India, the targetcountries’ indigenousmediaaresubject to limitationsofdifferentkindsandvulnerable to forms of pressure. The limitations may be in the number ofavailablesources(Cameroon,Senegal),legalobstaclestotheestablishmentof

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newbroadcastingoutlets(Cameroon)orrestrictionsonbroadcastingnews(asin India,PakistanandAlgeria).Thevulnerabilitymaybe in thepressureonjournalists aiming to report freely (Cameroon, Algeria and Egypt). Withintheselocalmediaenvironments,state‑runbroadcasterstendtogiveexplicitorimplicit support to theexistingauthorityandplayastate‑building,orstate‑binding role. Commercial broadcasters aremore lively and to some extentcritical,thoughlesssothanthepress.

Several of the target countries are linked in the fearofviolence.Thismay be terrorist violence – currently most extreme in Pakistan, but alsoexperiencedinIndia,Algeria,EgyptandKenya.Itmaybeethnicviolence–asinNigeriaandKenya.Itmaybeseparatistclashes–asinSenegal.

The target countries are linked in having a colonial past – French orBritish. The domestic media and broadcasting environments were firstestablished under colonial rule. All eight retain close connections with theformercolonialpowers,includinglanguageconnections,andhavesubstantialdiasporas in them, so that there exists an ongoing natural interest in thecolonial powers and in news from and about them.All the eight countrieseitherhave,orhad,highaudiencelevelsfortheinternationalbroadcastersoftheirformercolonialpowers.

Though language environmentsvary (fromArabic‑speakingEgypt toCameroonwith250languagesanddialectsinuse),inallthetargetcountries,thereisalsoagrowingpowerintheapplicationofvernacularlanguagesandastrongidentitydrawfromtheiruse.Thereareoftenspecificandkeyfactorsto the formof language current. For example,Arabic is avehicle toMiddleEastbroadcasters establishinga supra‑national identity.Yet in theMaghrebdistinctive characteristicsof local formsofArabic leadaudiences to specificsources relevant to them. Local and regional vernacular broadcasting is agrowthphenomenon, isassociatedwithnewand interactive forms,andhasbeenlinkedwithethnictensions.

9.2.ThemajorinternationalbroadcastersThe similarities between major state‑funded international broadcastersbroadly relate to their strategies for delivery. They have traded radio fortelevision and have moved online. They use television for key audiencegroups andmaximise free availability. They use radio in a wider range oflanguages to reach more local audiences. Where possible, all use localpartnerstoreachlocalaudiences.Theylinkradioandtelevisionwithinternetservicesandhavethewidestrangeoflanguagesontheinternet.Although,asyet,onlineinternetusageisthesmallestofthethreeformsofdelivery,allseeitasthefutureandallofferalmostthesamedeliveryoptions.Allofferroutesforinteractionwithaudiences,whichtheyseeaskey.

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Alltheinternationalbroadcastersclaimtoofferaudiencesadistinctiveperspective anddescribe news as their toppriority content. Yet though theappearanceoftheinternationalbroadcastersissuperficiallysimilar,withslickpresentation and orderly and interactivewebsites, the distinctions betweenthem are considerable: in the audiences they seek; the purpose in reachingthem; the scales of operations (including differences between the currentpotentialsoftelevision,radioandnewmediadelivery)and–mosttellingly–theireditorialapproach.

Thedistinctionintargetingliesintheweightattachedbycountriestotargeting their own people abroad. Countries like China, Russia and Iranplacemuchemphasisontargetingdiasporas.ForcountriesliketheUSA,theUK,FranceandGermany,thisisnolongerastatedpriority. After thatdistinction, all state‑funded internationalbroadcasters seek‘foreign’audiencesabroadincountriesregardedaskey,oftenforgeo‑politicalreasons. Substantial differences exist between international broadcasters inthe range, scale and focus of their operations. Somemajor players, likeAl‑Jazeera and CNN, are focused on television supported by the internet andoperateinarestrictedsetoflanguages.Mostmajorstate‑fundedinternationalbroadcasterscombinetelevision,radioandnewmedia,buttovaryingextents–Francebroadcastson radio in 12 languages, theUSA in around50.Radioallows localisation; the internet has the potential to provide it as usagespreads; television can only target global elites and regional audiences inhigh‑prioritylanguageswhichcommandsubstantialpopulations. Akeydifferenceliesinthepurposeofthetargeting.China,RussiaandIranstresstheircountries’newsandpositions;France,Germany,theUKandUSAexpressapurposewhichismuchmoretodowithaviewofdemocracyandtheroleofthemediainfreesocieties. TheRussian,ChineseandIranianprovidersmayprovideinsights,butnot a critical view of the home country. The French, German, UK and USproviders may offer more self‑critical views. The pan‑Arab providers arecriticaloffellowArabgovernments,moresilentabouttheirown.Yettheyarebestabletoestablisharapportwithviewers,creatingacommonidentitywithanArab audience beyond national boundaries and reporting on previouslytabooissues.TheChinese inparticularmay takeavery strategicview.Andalthoughadeterminationtoreporttheirownpositionmayrestrictinterestfornow,theexampleofKenyashowsthattheycansecureaudiences.9.3.ContrastinginternationalandlocalbroadcastersThe contrasts between the international and the local providers areconsiderable as regards: the type of news offered; the level of localisationachieved;therangeandattractionoftheoutput;theresourcesavailable.Thestudyhasshownthat insomecases there isablurredlinebetweennational

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and international broadcasting (for example, in Egypt and Algeria). Thestrong general assumption that local broadcasters focus on local domesticnews is borne out by the study. The exception is formed by Egypt. Thetendency to broadcast largely local news and for international news to becarried where it has a very local bearing is most extreme in FrancophoneAfrica.Thephenomenon isalso tobeseen in theAnglophoneAfricastudy,where it is modified by the global interest in the major stories developinginternallyinNigeria.AsimilarfactorplaysapartinnewsinPakistan,whiletheIndianmediafocusonSouthAsiannews.IntheArabic‑speakingregion,where once national news broadcasters reported almost exclusively oninternalaffairs,adifferentdynamicof ‘national’ identityhasbeenfacilitatedbysatellitetelevision.

Local and regionalbroadcasters are able to localisenewsmuchmorethaninternationaltelevisionbroadcastersandusuallymorethaninternationalradio services. Examples of international broadcasters providing localalternativeservicesarenowlargelylimitedtoprioritycases,suchastheBBC’sHausaserviceandtotheUS‑fundedRadioLiberty‘surrogates’.

Insmallercountriesthelocalbroadcastershavedifficultymatchingtheattractionsoftheoutputofinternationalcommercialservices.Theirresourcesaretoolimited.Butevenincaseswhereconsiderableresourcesareexpendedby state‑run operators and a considerable range of services provided, as inEgypt,itisoutsideplayerswhoarethemostpopular.9.4.MassoropinionformeraudiencesFaced with increased competition and scarce resources many of thetraditional Western international broadcasters have refocused their efforts,funding themove into TV and the internet at least in part by reducing thenumber of language services on radio. This change has often beenaccompaniedbyarenewedfocusontargetingʹopinionformerʹaudiences,orpeoplewhoaredeemedtobestrategicallyimportantbythebroadcasterandoftenitsfunder.Atonelevelthisisapragmaticresponsetothedifficultyoflocalisingprofessionallypresented–andrelativelyexpensive–TVservices;itmakesmoresensetohaveaverywellexecutedandattractiveTVservicesinonlythreelanguages(astheFrenchandBritishdo)ratherthancompromisequality–andcompetitiveness–inordertomultiplythedifferentlanguages.However,asnotedabove,theresult isthattheseservicestendtohavemoreinternational and less local content. The next phases of this project – onconsumptionand trust–willreveal the impactonaudiences inmoredetail.For themoment it seemsreasonable toposit thatmore internationalcontentmightlimittheaudienceamongthosewhoneedlocalnews,butatthesametime opens up the possibility of reaching a more internationally focusedaudience,largelymadeupofopinionformersorotherswhofeeltheyneedto

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know about the big international issues beyond their country. Sowhile thenewsagendaanalysisrevealsthelimitedextenttowhichmanyinternationalbroadcasterscover localnews, thedegree towhich thismatterswilldependbothonfactorsaffectingdemandforlocalnewsfrominternationalsuppliers(suchasthequalityandquantityofsupplyfromwithinthelocalmarket)aswell as the audience that the international broadcaster is trying to reach.9.5.AreasforfurtherresearchSeveral unknowns about the impact of international broadcasters emergefrom this study. In the case of increasingly significant broadcasting powerslike Iran and China, little is known about the impact of their services intargeting diasporas and other audiences.While available audience researchshowsIranandChinaaslow‑levelcompetitors,weknowtheyattachweightat senior political level to their international broadcasting efforts.We knowlessabouthowtheymeasureimpactandsuccess. Littlehaseverbeenknownabout the levelsof resource,consumptionorimpactofthemajorreligiousbroadcasters.Attheverylocallevel,littleisknown about the level of listening to and impact of the local communitystations that have been established across the developingworldwithNGOand UNESCO support. For international broadcasters, the benefits ofassociationwithlocalpartnersisunderstoodintermsofaudiencereach,butotherbrandingaspectsarelessclear.9.6.TheroleplayedbyinternationalbroadcastersOverall,thereappearsastrongcaseforthekindofinternationalbroadcastingconducted by countries like France, Germany, the UK and USA. Theiraudiencescanbeverysubstantialandtheirlocalstatushigh,eveninrelationto localproviders (forexample, inNigeria,KenyaandPakistan).Elsewhere,theymaybe substantial and the servicesofferedmaynotbe available fromlocalprovidersintermsofinternationalnewscoverageand,insomecases,oflocalandregionalnews.

However, sufficient localisation to attract significant audiences isharder to achieve through television than through radio. Localisation isclearly possible through the internet, but internet availability is not yetadequateeverywhere. WhiletheWesterninternationalbroadcastersarebynomeanstheonlysources of international and local news, the alternative providers, whoincludeRussia,ChinaandIran,providenewsperspectivestowhichWesterngovernmentsappearunwillingtohandthefield.Andthereareothersources,local, regionalanddiaspora,withverydifferentperspectives,whichwillfillanyvacuum.

111

LITERATURESURVEYANDREFERENCESAspects of international, regional and local broadcasting relevant to this work have beenstudiedandwrittenaboutoverrecentyears.115Theoverallimpactofchangesinbroadcastingbroughtaboutbyacombinationoftechnicaldevelopmentandregulatorychangeandleadingspecifically tosatellitedistributionhasbeenconsideredfromstrategic,politicalandculturalviewpoints (Chalaby, 2003, 2005;Norris and Inglehart, 2009), anddiminishing state controlovernewsflowsexplored(Price,2002).Theriseandavailabilityof24‑hournewschannelsisassessedandmapped(CushionandLewis,2010).

The phenomenon of pan‑Arab television has received most attention. The broadimpact has been assessed (Kraidy et al., 2005; Hafez, 2008a; Pintak, 2008). The impact inrelationtoviewsoftheWesthasbeengauged(Tatham,2006).Al‑Jazeerahasbeenthemainfocusofattention(Seib,2008).Theoverallstoryhasbeentold(Miles,2005),thenatureofthebroadcaster examined (Zayani, 2005), its influence on other Middle East broadcastersdescribed(Sakr,2005).ThecontentofAl‑Jazeera’sbroadcastinghasbeencomparedwiththatofotherinternationalproviders(Painter,2008;Barkho,2006,2007).

ThegeneraldevelopmentofbroadcastingintheMiddleEasthasbeenfollowedovertime(Boyd,1982;Rugh,2004)andtherecentemergenceofdifferingformsofIslamicreligiousbroadcastingnoted(El‑Sayed,2009). The history and recent development of broadcasting in India has been detailed(Kohli, 2003) and the impact of transnational broadcasting reviewed for India and widerSouthAsianmarkets(Thussu,2005;PageandCrawley,2005).Thechangingnatureofnewsand itsdeliveryasa formofentertainmenthasbeenstudied (Thussu,2007a,2007b),ashasthediversityofnewsnowavailable(CottleandRai,2008). Thegeneraland specificdevelopmentof themedia inAfricahasbeen trackedovertime (Martin, 1991) and the historical interaction of media and democracy in Africaconsidered(Hydenetal.,2002;Tetley,2008).Mostrecently,theinterplaybetweenmediaandidentityinAfricahavebeenstudied(NjoguandMiddleton,2009),ashasthedevelopmentoftransnationaltelevision(Myttonetal.,2005). Interestinindividualinternationalbroadcasters,suchasVoiceofAmerica,hasledtodetailed accounts (Heil, 2003). The overall history of international broadcasting has beendocumentedfrombothpoliticaland technicalviewpoints(Wood,1992). Recently,attentionhas been paid to new developments by international broadcasters, with often scepticalassessmentsoftheir likelyimpact.USdevelopmentshavebeenreviewed(Priceetal.,2008).An assessment of French international broadcasting has been made (Kuhn, 2010) and theintentionsbehindChina’srecentmajordevelopmentsanalysed(Sun,2010).ReferencesAmin, H. (2008) ‘Arab Media Audience Research: Developments and Constraints’, in K.Hafez(ed.),ArabMedia–PowerandWeakness(London,Continuum),69–90.Artz, L., and Y. Kamalipour (eds) (2007) The Media Globe: Trends in International MassMedia(Plymouth:Rowman&Littlefield).Ayish, M. (2008) ‘Arab World Media Content Studies: A Meta Analysis of a ChangingResearch Agenda’, in K. Hafez (ed.), Arab Media: Power and Weakness (London,Continuum),105–25.Barkho, L. (2006) ‘The Arabic Aljazeera vs Britainʹs BBC and Americaʹs CNN: Who DoesJournalismRight?’,AmericanCommunicationJournal,8(1):http://acjournal.org/holdings/vol8/Fall.

115Thisisaninitialsurveyoftheliterature.Therewillbeafullerliteraturereviewinthefinalreportoftheoverallproject.

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Appendix:NewsagendaanalysischartsCameroonstudyTable1.CameroonstatetelevisionCRTVinEnglish1830gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

6 4

Economic/Environment

9 3

Education/Health/Science

4 1 2

Security/Crime/Law

6

Religion/Culture

2

Media

General/Incsport

5 1

Table2.CameroonstateradioCRTVinEnglish1400gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

2 4

Economic/Environment

9 2

Education/Health/Science

5 2

Security/Crime/Law

3

Religion/Culture

2 2

Media

General/Incsport

2 6

Regional=African.

116

Table3.RadioFranceInternationaleinFrench0730gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

2 29

Economic/Environment

6 2

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

11 2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

5

Table4.France24televisionnewsinFrench2000gmt9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

8

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

3

Religion/Culture

Media

2

General/Incsport

5

Regional=African.

117

SenegalstudyTable5.SenegalstatetelevisionRTS1inFrench2000gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3 3 2

Economic/Environment

11 8

Education/Health/Science

5 1

Security/Crime/Law

1 1

Religion/Culture

9

Media

1

General/Incsport

4 4 9

Table6.SenegalWalfadjriFMcommercialradioinWolof0800gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

5

Economic/Environment

14 3

Education/Health/Science

10

Security/Crime/Law

4

Religion/Culture

8

Media

7

General/Incsport

2

Regional=African.

118

Table7.RadioFranceInternationaleinFrench0730gmt7,8,11,12Januaryand9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

1 30

Economic/Environment

6 2

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

11 2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

5

Table8.France24televisionnewsinFrench2000gmt9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

8

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

3

Religion/Culture

Media

2

General/Incsport

5

Regional=African.

119

KenyastudyTable9.KenyastateKBCradioinSwahili1000gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

2 1

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

1 1

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Table10.BBCWorldServiceradioinSwahili1530gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

2 1

Economic/Environment

1

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Regional=African.

120

Table11.ChineseRadioInternational(CRI)inSwahili1700gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

4

Economic/Environment

1 4

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

Table12.KTNcommercialtelevisioninEnglish1800gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

4

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1 1 1

Religion/Culture

Media

1

General/Incsport

Regional=African.

121

Table13.BBCWorldNewstelevisioninEnglish1900gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

1 3

Economic/Environment

Education/Health/Science

2

Security/Crime/Law

1

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Table14.CCTV‑9televisioninEnglish1500gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3

Economic/Environment

3

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

2

Religion/Culture

1

Media

General/Incsport

5

Regional=African.

122

NigeriastudyTable15.NigerianAfricanIndependentTelevisioninEnglish1900gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

6

Economic/Environment

3

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

Table16.NigerianMetroFMradio(Lagos)inEnglish1800gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

3

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Regional=African.

123

Table17.NigerianRadioKatsinainHausa1200gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

2

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Table18.RadioFranceInternationaleinHausa0700gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3 1 3

Economic/Environment

1

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

2 2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Regional=African.

124

Table19.BBCWorldServiceradioinHausa0530gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

6 1 1

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1

Religion/Culture

Media

1

General/Incsport

Table20.VoiceofAmericaradioinHausa1500gmt10Feb2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

2

Economic/Environment

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

Regional=African.

125

AlgeriastudyTable21.AlgerianA3CTVNewsinArabic1830gmt9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

1 5 5 4 2

Economic/Environment

8 3

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1 2 1 1 1

Religion/Culture

2

Media

1

General/Incsport

5 1

Table22.Al‑JazeeratelevisionnewsinArabic1200gmt9,10Feb2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

4 4

Economic/Environment

3

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

8 1

Religion/Culture

Media

2 2

General/Incsport

1

Regional=AfricanandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

126

Table23.Al‑JazeeratelevisionMaghrebHarvestinArabic2100gmt9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

1 2

Economic/Environment

3

Education/Health/Science

1 1

Security/Crime/Law

1 1 1

Religion/Culture

Media

3

General/Incsport

Table24.Al‑ArabiyatelevisionnewsinArabic1100gmt9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

7 8

Economic/Environment

1 1

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

3 2

Religion/Culture

1

Media

2

General/Incsport

1 2

Regional=AfricanandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

127

Table25.France24televisionnewsinArabic1300gmt9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

1 8

Economic/Environment

1

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1 2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

2

Table26.France24televisionnewsinFrench2000gmt9,10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

8

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

3

Religion/Culture

Media

2

General/Incsport

5

Regional=AfricanandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

128

EgyptstudyTable27.NileNewstelevisioninArabic1600gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3 4

Economic/Environment

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

2 2 3

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

Table28.Al‑JazeeratelevisioninArabic1200gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

1 2

Economic/Environment

1

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

4 1

Religion/Culture

Media

1 1

General/Incsport

Regional=AfricaandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

129

Table29.Al‑ArabiyatelevisioninArabic1100gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3 5

Economic/Environment

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1 1

Religion/Culture

1

Media

1

General/Incsport

1 1

Table30.IranAl‑AlamtelevisioninArabic1700gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

2 6

Economic/Environment

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

4 2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Regional=AfricaandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

130

Table31.ChineseCCTV‑9televisioninArabic1200gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3

Economic/Environment

3

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1

Religion/Culture

5

Media

General/Incsport

3

Table32.RussiaTodaytelevisioninArabic1400gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

4

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

Regional=AfricaandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

131

Table33.BBCArabicTelevision1700gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3

Economic/Environment

2

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

3 2

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

Table34.France24televisioninArabic1300gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

4

Economic/Environment

1

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1

Regional=AfricaandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

132

Table35.USAl‑HurratelevisioninArabic2200gmt10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

3 1

Economic/Environment

1

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

2

Regional=AfricaandArabic‑speakingMiddleEast.

SouthAsiastudyTable36.IndianNDTVtelevisioninEnglish1530gmt9and10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

8 2 1

Economic/Environment

5

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

4 1

Religion/Culture

3 1

Media

1

General/Incsport

5 1

Local=India/Pakistan.Regional=SouthAsia,includingAfghanistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal.

133

Table37.PakistanDawnNewstelevisioninEnglish1700gmt9and10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

6 2 1

Economic/Environment

8 2

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

13 2

Religion/Culture

4 1

Media

General/Incsport

3 1 2 6

Table38: CNNInternationaltelevisioninEnglish1500gmt9and10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

9

Economic/Environment

1 6

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

5

Local=India/Pakistan.Regional=SouthAsia,includingAfghanistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal.

134

Table39.Al‑JazeeratelevisioninEnglish1500gmt9and10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

12

Economic/Environment

1 7

Education/Health/Science

Security/Crime/Law

1 2 6

Religion/Culture

Media

General/Incsport

1 1 4

Table40.BBCWorldNewstelevisioninEnglish1600gmt9and10February2010

Local Local/Regional Local/International Regional International

Politics

1 6 4

Economic/Environment

1

Education/Health/Science

1

Security/Crime/Law

1 2 1

Religion/Culture

1

Media

1

General/Incsport

1 2 2

Local=India/Pakistan.Regional=SouthAsia,includingAfghanistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal.