Good Homework, Bad Homework: How to Tell the Difference - … · On unit tests given in manipulated homework studies, the average student doing homework performed better than about

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Good Homework, Bad Homework: How to Tell the Difference

Harris Cooper Duke University

Department of Psychology & Neuroscience 417 Chapel Road

Durham, NC 27708 (919) 660-5664

[email protected]

Questions about Homework

!  What is the public attitude toward homework? !  What are the potential positive and negative effects

of homework? !  What might influence homework�s effectiveness? !  Does homework improve achievement? !  What are some research-based findings suggesting

how homework can be made more effective? !  What are some homework tips for teachers, parents,

and students?

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Some Research References

What is Homework?

Homework is… tasks assigned to students by school teachers

that are intended to be carried out during non-school hours !  Excludes

!  Extra-curricular activities !  Home study courses !  Tutoring

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What is the American Public�s Attitude toward Homework?

!  Public opinion on homework vacillates between support and opposition

!  but amount students do has changed little !  except for youngest students (Gill & Schlossman, 2003)

!  Homework controversies tend to follow a 30-year cycle with public outcries for more homework and less homework occurring about 15 years apart

Nick News On-line Poll 10 Things I Hate About School (2004)

10. Rumors and gossip 9. Standardized tests 8. Violence and bullying 7. School materials are worn out or old 6. Too much pressure to be popular 5. Dress codes interfere with individuality 4. Teachers don�t understand students 3. Lunch at school is awful 2. TOO MUCH HOMEWORK 1. Classes are boring

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What are Some Possible Positive Effects of Homework?

Immediate academic !  Better retention of factual knowledge !  Increased understanding of material !  Better critical thinking, concept formation, information

processing !  Curriculum enrichment

Long-term academic !  Willingness to learn during leisure time !  Improved attitude toward school !  Better study habits and skills


Non-academic !  Greater self-direction !  Greater self-discipline !  Better time organization !  More inquisitiveness !  More independent problem solving

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Greater parental appreciation of and involvement in schooling

What are Some Possible Negative Effects of Homework?

Satiation !  Loss of interest in academic material !  Physical and emotional fatigue

Denial of access to leisure-time and community activities

Parental interference !  Pressure to complete assignments and perform well !  Confusion of instructional techniques

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What are Some Possible Negative Effects of Homework?

Cheating !  Copying from other

students !  Help beyond tutoring

Increased differences between high and low achievers

What Factors Might Influence the Effect of Homework?

!  Student and School Factors

!  Assignment Characteristics

!  Initial Classroom Factors

!  Home and Community Factors

!  Classroom Follow-up

!  Outcomes Measured

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Student and School Factors

!  Student characteristics !  Ability !  Motivation !  Study habits

!  Subject matter

!  Grade level

Assignment Characteristics

Classification !  Skill area utilized

!  Degree of individualization

!  Degree of student

choice

Within Classifications !  Reading !  Math

!  Memory or Retention

!  Geared to individual students !  Geared to groups of students

!  Compulsory !  With task options !  Voluntary

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Classification !  Amount

!  Purpose

!  Instructional

!  Non-instructional

Within Classifications !  Frequency !  Length

!  Practice !  Preparation !  Extension !  Integration

!  Parent-child communication !  Fulfilling directives !  Punishment !  Community relations


Classification !  Completion deadlines !  Social context

Within Classifications !  Long-term !  Short-term

!  Independent !  Assisted

!  Sibling !  Parent !  Other student group

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Initial Classroom Factors

!  Provision of materials

!  Facilitators !  Suggested approaches !  Links to curriculum !  Other rationales

Home and Community Factors

!  Competitors for student time !  Home environment

!  Space !  Light !  Quiet !  Materials

!  Other�s involvement !  Parents !  Siblings !  Other students

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Classroom Follow-up

!  Feedback !  Written comments !  Grading !  Incentives

!  Testing of related content !  Use in class discussion

Outcomes Measured

!  Assignment completion

!  Assignment performance

!  Positive effects

!  Negative effects

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Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement?

Literature Search Outcomes

!  Manipulation of homework !  6 studies or reports, 7 independent samples, 9 d-indexes

!  Naturalistic, cross-sectional measures !  Structural Equation Models

!  4 studies using the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS), 3 High School and Beyond (HSB), 1 original data

! Multiple regressions !  8 studies using data from NELS !  10 studies using other data sources

!  Simple correlations !  32 studies

!  35 independent samples !  69 separate correlations

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YES

Studies Manipulating Homework Practical Summary

!  On unit tests given in manipulated homework studies, the average student doing homework performed better than about 73% of students doing no homework

!  Grading on a curve, the student who received the middle C grade on the unit test in the homework group would have moved up to a B- grade had she or he been graded in the no-homework group

!  Relative to other education interventions, this is an above average size effect

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Studies Manipulating Homework Practical Summary

On unit tests, the average student doing homework performed better than about 73% of students doing no homework

d = .60 Percentile Rank = 73%

No Homework Homework

Achievement

�Grading� Homework on a Curve

d-index range Percentile Rank Range Grade % of scores

>1.75 > 96 A 4

1.35 – 1.75 92 – 96 A- 5

1.00 – 1.34 85 – 91 B+ 6.5

.75 – .99 78 – 84 B 7

.47 – .74 69 – 77 B- 8.5

.18 – .46 58 – 68 C+ 11.5

.17 – -.17 43 – 57 C 15

-.18 – -.46 31 – 42 C- 11.5

-.47 – -.74 23 – 31 D+ 8.5

-.75 – -.99 16 – 22 D 7

-1.0 – -1.34 9 – 15 D- 6.5

-1.35 – -1.75 4 – 8 F+ 5

< -1.76 < 4 F 4

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Homework Compared to Other Education Interventions

Effect Size Label Effect Size (d) Range

Large .71 or above Above Average .50 - .70 Average .35 - .49 Below Average .20 - .34 Small .19 or below Note. Based on Lipsey & Wilson�s (1993) compendium of average effect sizes in 181

meta-analyses of educational effects. Twenty percent of ESs were placed into each category.

Relative to other education interventions, this is an above-average effect

Does Homework Relate Differently to Different Achievement Measures?

Practically speaking, NO !  Homework had only a slightly larger relationship

to class grades than to standardized tests !  homework is part of grade !  teachers consider motivation in grades

!  BUT !  closer alignment of assignment and test content may reveal larger effect than broader measures !  manipulations of homework have only used unit tests

as measures so more manipulation studies are needed that use broader achievement indices

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Does the Homework-Achievement Link Vary with Grade Level?

YES

Does the Homework-Achievement Link Vary with Grade Level?

K-6 !  Relation of homework to achievement is small, if

it exists at all

!  Grade 7-12 !  Relation of homework to achievement is positive

and �above average� for education interventions

!  BUT !  assignments that are highly aligned with test

content appear to be effective at all grade levels

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Why is the Relationship Weak for Young Children?

Young children have !  limited attention spans

!  difficulty tuning out distractions

!  undeveloped study habits !  little knowledge of how to self-test !  problems distributing time between

easy and hard tasks

Is There an Optimum Amount of Time to Spend on Homework?

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

None <1 1 to 5 5 to 10 >10

Hours Per Week Spent on Homework

Achi

evem

ent

Junior High (n=365,700) High School (n=51,100)

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Is Subject Matter Important?

Practically speaking, NO !  Small differences across different types of

subject matter !  The impact of homework may relate more to

type of learning than content of material !  Memorization versus learning of concepts

What about the Frequency and Length of Assignments?

Homework had !  larger positive associations when students did

more assignments per week !  negative associations with duration of the

homework treatment

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Is the Timing of Homework Important?

Same-day content : pertains to material presented in class on the day the problems are assigned

Distributed content: material that has not yet been covered in class (preparatory), or that was covered in lessons prior to the current day (practice)

Research shows that assignments that include both distributed and same-day content are more effective than same-day content only

Should Hard and Easy Material Be Interspersed Throughout an

Assignment?

!  Embedding brief problems or questions in longer sets of more challenging problems or questions appears to have positive influences on students� homework completion and accuracy !  Moreover, evidence suggests that students prefer

interspersed to regular assignments

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Should Teachers Individualize Assignments within a Class?

!  Studies revealed no improvement in achievement when individualized-homework classes were compared to same-assignment classes

!  and teachers spent a lot more time at it

!  Research on learning styles suggests taking contextual preferences (e.g., noise, light, design, mobility, and time of day) into consideration may improve performance

Does it Help Students to Provide them with Study Aids?

!  The only study that purposively manipulated the use of study aids (including instruction on how to use them) found significant positive effects !  The other less rigorous studies produced results

generally consistent with this finding

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Are Comments and Grading Important to the Utility of Homework?

!  Research seems to indicate that it is important

to provide some form of feedback on homework !  Comments are most effective !  Grades can motivate performance (to avoid failure or

demonstrate success) but might diminish the desire to learn for learning’s sake (mastery)

Does Homework Relate to Students� Attitudes and Conduct?

YES !  Homework shows a positive correlation with

students� attitudes and conduct !  While dramatic instances of homework causing poor

attitudes may capture attention they are not frequent enough to determine the general relationship

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Should Children with Learning Disabilities be Assigned Homework?

!  Homework has the same positive and negative effects for students with a LD as it does for those without a LD

!  Completing assignments is more difficult for a student with a LD

!  In correspondence to the child�s LD, assignments should be:

!  shorter !  More focused on reinforcement of skills instead of

integration or extension !  More closely monitored by teachers

!  Parents should be involved continually and give assistance during study

Does Parent Involvement Help? !  Parent training can reduce homework problems

and increase homework completion !  There is little evidence that involvement

improves grades or achievement scores after elementary school !  but there are no studies of long-term effects

!  Achievement correlations are !  negative for middle school students but positive for

elementary and high school students !  stronger for parent rule-setting than other strategies !  negative for math but positive verbal achievement

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What are Some Ways that Parents Can Become Involved in Homework?

Autonomy support — parents encourage child to use independent problem solving

Direct parent involvement — parents are interested in homework and take an active role in assignments

Provision of structure — parents provide clear and consistent guidelines

Interference — parents make homework more difficult (e.g., conflicting instruction, pressure to complete)

Are Some Types of Parent Involvement More Beneficial Than Others?

!  As parents� support for autonomy increases, so does the achievement of their child

!  Direct parent involvement shows the opposite relationship !  this may not be a causal relationship !  perhaps student�s poor achievement leads to

direct parent involvement

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Does Grade Level Make a Difference for Parent Involvement ?

An active teaching role for parents may be most

appropriate for students in early grades who are experiencing difficulty in school

In the upper grade levels, parents report using autonomy training more often !  homework content gets complex in higher grades !  parents may no longer be effective in a teaching role

Homework Tips for Teachers

!  Give the right amount of homework !  Research suggests students should get

about 10 minutes of homework each night for each grade (10 minutes for 1st grade, 20 for 2nd, and so on)

!  Adjust upward a bit if assignments are mostly reading or your students come from families with strong educational orientations

!  Don�t overload kids with homework. It can ruin motivation

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The PTA and the NEA

�Most educators agree that for children in grades K-2, homework is most effective when it does not exceed 10-20 minutes each day; older children, in grades 3-6, can handle 30-60 minutes a day, in junior and senior high, the amount of homework will vary by subject….�

Henderson, M. (1996). Helping your student get the most out of

homework. Chicago, IL: National Parent Teachers Association.


!  More frequent but shorter assignments are better than fewer but longer assignments

!  This strategy makes practice more frequent, helps prevent learning fatigue, and assists students in establishing a regular routine for studying at home

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!  Distribute material across multiple assignments !  Learning is greatly facilitated when

assignments include review of material covered in class in past lessons and introduction of concepts and procedures to be discussed in future lessons. Don�t stick just to material learned in class that day


!  Distribute easy and hard material throughout an assignment

!  Research shows this kind of alternation of easy and hard material helps keep students engaged and interested

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!  Consider giving students homework choices and varying assignments according to individual students� learning styles

!  Choice can enhance students� interest in material and help them establish a sense of autonomy

!  Being sensitive to how individual students learn is a way to ensure that each student studies under the most beneficial circumstances


!  Be careful about parent involvement !  Consider the time and skill resources of

parents when requiring their involvement ! Working parents may have little time for a direct

homework role !  Poorly-educated parents may have trouble being

good mentors !  Students who are doing well in school may

benefit most from homework they do all by themselves

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!  If possible, help students with their study skills

!  Provide materials that help students manage time and stay organized

!  Talk with students about studying strategies

!  These are skills that need to be learned, just like reading and math.


!  Don�t grade or comment on every homework assignment

!  Periodic commenting or grading can be just as effective as providing feedback on every assignment !  However, it is important to let students and

parents know what your grading policy is and to collect all assignments, in case you need them for diagnosing a student�s learning difficulties

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Homework Tips for Parents

!  Be a stage manager !  Make sure your child has a quiet, well-lit place

to do homework !  Make sure the needed materials (paper,

pencils, dictionary) are available


!  Be a motivator !  Homework provides a great opportunity for

you to tell your child how important school is !  Be positive about homework

! The attitude you express about homework will be the attitude your child acquires

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!  Be a role model !  When your child does homework, don�t watch

TV. If your child is reading, read too. If your child is doing math, balance your checkbook

!  Help your child see that the skills they are practicing relate to things you do as an adult


!  Be a monitor !  Watch for signs of failure and frustration !  If your child asks for help, provide guidance,

not answers !  If frustration sets in, suggest a short break

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!  Be a mentor !  When the teacher asks that you play a role in

homework, do it !  If homework is meant to be done alone, stay

away !  Homework is a great way for kids to develop

independent, life-long learning skills !  Over-involvement is a bad thing

Homework Tips for Students

!  Pick a good time to do homework !  Try to do your homework at the same time

everyday ! Right after school, just before dinner, or right after

dinner

!  Try not to leave homework until just before you go to bed

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!  Find a place that makes studying easy !  Collect up all the books and supplies you�ll

need (and your snack) before you begin to work

!  Do your homework in the same place every day


!  Remember to make time for long-term projects !  Think about using a weekend morning or

afternoon for working on big projects !  especially if the project involves getting

together with classmates

!  If you need special stuff for a project, make sure to tell your parents to get it for you well in advance

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!  Spend more time on hard homework than easy homework !  If you know what�s easy and hard, do the

hard work first !  Take a short break if you are having trouble

keeping your mind on an assignment


!  If homework gets too hard, ask for help !  If your parents are busy and you have an

older brother or sister, ask them for help, or get your parents to ask them

!  Only ask for help if you really need it

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If So, What Works Best?

Harris Cooper Duke University

Program in Education 213 West Duke Building

Durham, NC 27708 (919) 660-3167

[email protected] Co-authors:

Jorgianne Civey-Robinson & Erika A. Patall Thanks to:

Angela Clinton, Amanda Cuca, Heather Meggers- Wright, Lisa Molix, Kelly Reach & Jeffrey Valentine

A Recommended Homework Policy For Generic School District, USA

!  Homework is a cost-effective instructional technique. It can have positive effects on achievement and character development and can serve as a vital link between the school and family.

!  Homework should have different purposes at different grades. For younger students it should foster positive attitudes, habits, and character traits. For older students, it should facilitate knowledge acquisition in specific topics.

!  Homework should be required at all grade levels, but a mixture of mandatory and voluntary homework is most beneficial.

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A Recommended Homework Policy For Generic School District, USA

The frequency and duration of mandatory homework assignments should be

1.  Grades 1 to 3: three to four assignments per week, each lasting no more than 10 to 30 minutes

2.  Grades 4 to 6: three to four assignments per week, each lasting 40 to 60 minutes

3.  Grades 7 to 9: four to five assignments per week, lasting 70 to 90 minutes for all subjects combined

4.  Grades 10 to 12: four to five assignments per week, lasting 100 to 120 minutes for all subjects combined

A Recommended Homework Policy For Individual Schools

!  The frequency and duration of homework assignments should be further specified to reflect local school and neighborhood circumstances

!  In schools where different subjects are taught by different teachers, teachers should know !  What days of the week are available to them for

assignments !  How much daily homework time should be spent on

their subject

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!  Administrators should !  Communicate the district and school homework

policies to parents !  Monitor the implementation of the policy !  Coordinate the scheduling of homework among

different teachers, if needed


!  Teachers should state clearly !  How the assignment is related to the topic

under study !  The purpose of the assignment !  How the assignment might best be carried out !  What the student needs to do to demonstrate

that the assignment has been completed

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A Recommended Homework Policy For Teachers

!  All students in a class will be responsible for the same assignments, with rare exception

!  Homework will include both mandatory and voluntary assignments

!  Topics will appear in assignments before and after they are covered in class, not just on the day they are discussed

!  Students can expect assignments that !  help them practice skills already learned !  prepare them to learn new skills in class !  require them to apply learned skills to new

situations outside of school

A Recommended Homework Policy For Teachers

!  Homework will not be used to teach complex skills. It will generally focus on skills and material already learned, on extending these skills, or on the integration of skills already possessed by the student

!  Parents will rarely be asked to play a formal instructional role in homework. They will be asked to create a home environment that facilitates student self-study

!  Not all homework assignments will be formally evaluated. They will be used to locate problems in student progress and to individualize instruction

Documents

Good Homework, Bad Homework: How to Tell the Difference - … · On unit tests given in manipulated homework studies, the average student doing homework performed better than about