GOLD

Top: The original Turin Papyrus of the Egyptian gold mine (circa 1320 B.C.),

the oldest geological map extant. (Photo courtesy 11 Soprintendente per Ie antichita egizie, Prof. S. Curto, Turino). Bottom: Interpretation of the script on the Turin Papyrus of the Egyptian gold mine (after Ball, 1942; see chapter 3).

GOLD History and Genesis of Deposits

Robert W. Boyle Geological Survey of Canada

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Sponsored by SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOlDGISTS

and SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOlDGISTS FOUNDATION

~ VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD ~ _______ New York

Copyright © 1987 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 86-15675 ISBN -13:978-1-4612-9169-5

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyrights herein may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means­graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems­without permission of the publisher.

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15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Boyle, R. W. (Robert William), 1920-

Gold: history and genesis of deposits.

Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Gold ores. 2. Gold. I. Title.

TN420.B63 1987 553.4'1 86-15675 ISBN -13: 978-1-4612-9169-5 e-ISBN -13: 978-1-4613-1969-6 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1969-6

Foreword Preface Contents by Author

INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS

References and Selected Bibliography / 7

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL GEOCHEMISTRY OF GOLD AND TYPES

xi xiii xvii

1

OF AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS 11

General Geochemistry of Gold / 11 Auriferous Deposits / 12 References and Selected Bibliography / 20

CHAPTER 2: GOLD DURING THE PRE·CLASSICAL (PRIMITIVE) PERIOD (5000 o.c.-600 o.c.) . 23

Gold Deposits in Primitive Times / 24 References and Selected Bibliography / 27

CHAPTER 3: GOLD DURING THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

Gold Deposits and Theories of Their Origin / 30 References and Selected Bibliography / 38

CHAPTER 4: GOLD DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Theories of the Origin of Gold Deposits in Medieval Times / 40 References and Selected Bibliography / 49

CHAPTER 5: GOLD DURING THE RENAISSANCE

Theories of Origin of Gold Deposits during the Renaissance / 52 References and Selected Bibliography / 64

v

29

39

51

vi / Contents

CHAPTER 6: GOLD DURING THE TRANSITION TO MODERN SCIENTIFIC VIEWS 65

Theories of Origin of Gold and Other Mineral Deposits / 66 References and Selected Bibliography / 76

CHAPTER 7: GOLD IN THE MODERN ERA

Outline of Theories of Origin of Mineral Deposits in the Modem Era / 81 References and Selected Bibliography / 82

79

CHAPTER 8: GEOCHEMISTRY OF GOLD 85

Geochemistry of Gold / 88 8-1 BISCHOF, K. GUSTAV: Gediegenes Gold / 89

Lehrbuch der chemischen und physikalischen Geologie, 3 vols., Adolph Marcus, Bonn, 1855, pp. 2050-2057

8-2 CLARKE, FRANK W.: Gold / 97 The data of geochemistry, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 770, 1924, pp. 656-663

8-3 FERSMAN, A. E.: Gold (Au-At. Wt. 79) / 105 Translated from Geochemistry, vol. 4, Leningrad, 1939, pp. 262-271

8-4 GOLDSCHMIDT, V. M.: Gold / 118 Geochemistry, A. Muir, ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954, pp. 197-205

8-5 RANKAMA, K., and TH. G. SAHAMA: Silver, Gold / 128 Geochemistry. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1950, pp. 702-707

8-6 PETROVSKAYA, N. V.: An Outline of the Geochemistry of Gold / 135 Translated from Native Gold. Idz. "Nauka", Moscow, 1973, pp. 8-20

Specialized Papers on the Geochemistry of Gold / 151 8-7 LENHER, V.: The Transportation and Deposition of Gold in Nature / 153

Econ. Geology 7:744-750 (1912) 8-8 SMITH, E G.: The Alkali Sulphide Theory of Gold Deposition / 169

Econ. Geology 38:561-590 (1943) 8-9 LAKIN, W. H., G. C. Curtain, A. E. Hubert, H. T. Shacklette, and

K. G. Doxtader: Geochemistry of Gold in the Weathering Cycle / 178 U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1330. 1974, pp. 71-75

8-10 FREISE, E W.: The Transportation of Gold by Organic Underground Solutions / 182 Econ. Geology 26:421-431 (1931)

General Summary / 194 References and Selected Bibliography / 194

CHAPTER 9: THE ORIGIN OF EPIGENETIC GOLD DEPOSITS-THE ORE-MAGMA THEORY 197

The Ore-Magma Theory of the Origin of Auriferous Veins / 197 9-1A SPURR, J. E.: The Origin of Ore Magmas or Solutions: Veindikes / 205

The Ore Magmas. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1923, pp. 1-3 9-lB SPURR,J.E.:TheOriginofFissureVeins / 207

The Ore Magmas. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1923, pp. 707-709 9-2 FARM IN, R.: Host-Rock Inflation by Veins and Dikes at Grass Valley,

California / 210 Econ. Geology 36:143,163-174 (1941)

Contents / VII

9-3 BICHAN, W. J.: Nature of the Ore-Forming Fluid / 223 Econ. Geology 36:213-217 (1941)

References / 227

CHAPTER 10: THE ORIGIN OF EPIGENETIC GOLD DEPOSITS- THE MAGMATIC HYDROTHERMAL THEORY 229

The Magmatic Hydrothermal Theory of the Origin of Auriferous Deposits / 234 10-1 EMMONS, W. H.: Gold and Igneous Rocks / 235

Gold Deposits o/the World, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1937, pp. 12-37 10-2 MOORE, E. S.: Genetic Relations of Gold Deposits and Igneous Rocks in the

Canadian Shield / 261 Econ. Geology 35:127-139 (1940)

10-3 MALCOLM, W: Gold Fields of Nova Scotia / 277 Canada Geol. Survey Mem. 385, 1976, pp. 52-54

10-4 KNOPF, A.: The Mother Lode System of California / 281 Us. Geol. Survey Prof Paper 157, 1929, pp. 45-48

10-5 WHITE, D. E.: Active Geothermal Systems and Hydrothermal Ore Deposits / 294 Econ. Geology, 75th Anniv vol., 1981, pp. 392-393

References and Selected Bibliography / 296

CHAPTER 11: THE ORIGIN OF EPIGENETIC GOLD DEPOSITS- THE GRANITIZATION THEORY 299

Mineralization Related to Granitization / 300 Conclusion / 305 References / 306

CHAPTER 12: THE ORIGIN OF GOLD DEPOSITS- THE EXHALITE THEORY 309

Application of the Theory to Gold Deposits / 309 Comment / 313 References / 313

CHAPTER 13: ORIGIN OF EPIGENETIC GOLD DEPOSITS-SECRETION THEORIES 315

Secretion Theories of the Origin of Epigenetic Gold Deposits / 318 Conclusion / 331 References and Selected Bibliography / 331

CHAPTER 14: GOLD DEPOSITS-QUARTZ-PEBBLE CONGLOMERATE AND QUARTZITE TYPE 335

The Witwatersrand / 336 14-1 GREGORY,J. W: The Origin of Gold in the Rand Banket / 337

Inst. Min. Metall. Trans. 17:39-41 (1907)

viii / Contents

14-2 HORWOOD, C. B.: Concluding Remarks / 342 The Gold Deposits of the Rand, Charles Griffin & Co., London, 1917, pp. 369-393

14-3 GRATON, L. C.: Hydrothermal Origin of the Rand Gold Deposits / 367 Econ. Geology 25 (supp!. to no. 3): 182-185 (1930)

14-4 MELLOR, E. T.: The Conglomerates of the Witwatersrand / 373 Inst. Mining and Metallurgy Trans. 25:261-291 (1916)

14-5 LIEBENBERG, W. R.: The Occurrence and Origin of Gold and Radioactive Minerals in the Witwatersrand System, the Dominion Reef, the Ventersdorp Contact Reef and the Black Reef / 404 Geol. Soc. South Africa Trans. 58:218-222 (1955)

14-6 PRETORIUS, D. A.: The Depositional Environment of the Witwatersrand Goldfields: A Chronological Review of the Speculations and Observations / 409 Minerals Sci. Eng. 7(1):18-20,23-47 (1975)

14-7 HALLBAUER, D. K., and K. T. VAN WARMELO: Fossilized Plants in Thucholite from Precambrian Rocks of the Witwatersrand, South Africa / 439 Precambrian Res. 1:199-212 (1974)

Other Deposits / 453 References / .453

CHAPTER 15: GOLD DEPOSITS-PLACERS

Eluvial Placers / 456 Alluvial Placers / 462 15-1 TYRRELL, J. B.: The Law of the Pay-Streak in Placer Deposits / 465

Inst. Mining and Metallurgy Trans. 21:593-613 (1912) 15-2 LINDGREN, W.: Gold of the Tertiary Gravels / 489

The Tertiary gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof Paper 7], 1911, pp. 65-76

15-3 MACKAY, B. R.: Economic Geology: Placer Gold / 504 Beauceville Map-area, Quebec, Canada Geol. Survey Mem. 127. 1921, pp.63-69

455

15-4 SHlLO, N. A., and Yu. V. SHUMlLOV: Mechanisms of Behaviour of Gold during Placer Formation Processes in the North-East of the USSR / 514 25th Internat. Geol. Congress, Australia, Abstracts, vol. 1,1976, p. 224

15-5 ZHELNIN, S. G., and Yu. A. TRAVIN: Comparative Features of Placer Geology in the Modern Structure of the North-Eastern US.S.R. / 516 25th Internat. Geol. Congress, Australia, Abstracts. vo!' 1, 1976, pp. 229-230

Special Problems of Placer Gold / 518 15-6 MERTlE, J. B., JR.: Placer Gold in Alaska / 520

Washington Acad. Sci. Jour. 30:(3): 114-124 (1940) 15-7 CHENEY, E. S., and T. C. PATTON: Origin of the Bedrock Values of

Placer Deposits / 532 Econ. Geology 62(6):852-853 (1967)

15-8 GUNN, C. B.: Origin of the Bedrock Values of Placer Deposits / 534 Econ. Geology 63(1):86 (1968)

15-9 TUCK, R.: Origin of the Bedrock Values of Placer Deposits / 535 Econ. Geology 63(2):191-193 (1968)

15-10 KROOK, L.: Origin of the Bedrock Values of Placer Deposits / 537 Econ. Geology 63(7):844-846 (1968)

References / 542

Contents / IX

CHAPTER 16: OXIDATION AND SECONDARY ENRICHMENT OF GOLD DEPOSITS 545

16-1 EMMONS, W. H.: Gold I 548 The Enrichment of Ore Deposits, US. Geol. Survey Bull. 625. 1917, pp.305-324

16-2 SMIRNOV, S. S.: Gold I 569 The Zone of Oxidation of Sulphidic Mineral Deposits. Izd. Akad. Nauk USSR, Moscow, 1951, pp. 198-207

16-3 ZVYAGINTSEV, 0: Review: Behavior of Gold in the Zone of Oxidation of Auriferous Sulphide Deposits I 577 Geochemistry 6:683-685 (1959)

16-4 LESURE, E G.: Residual Enrichment and Supergene Transport of Gold, Calhoun Mine, Lumpkin County, Georgia I 581 Econ. Geology 66:178 (1971)

References I 582

CHAPTER 17: GOLD DEPOSITS-SPECIAL TOPICS

Associated Minerals and Elements in Auriferous Deposits I 583 Aul Ag Ratios and Fineness of Native Gold in Auriferous Deposits I 584 Wall Rock Alteration Effects in Auriferous Deposits I 587 Structural Environment of Deposition of Epigenetic Gold Deposits I 596 References I 598 17-1 WHITE, W. H.: The Mechanism and Environment of Gold Deposition

in Veins I 599 Econ. Geology 38:512-532 (1943)

17-2 EBBUTT, E: Relationships of Minor Structures to Gold Deposition in Canada I 619

583

Structural Geology of Canadian Ore Deposits, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Montreal, 1948, pp. 64-69, 73, 77

CHAPTER 18: THE ECONOMICS OF GOLD AND GOLD MINING 627

History of the Economics of Gold to the End of the Middle Ages I 628 Economics of Gold during the Transition to Modern Times I 643 Economics of Gold and Gold Mining during the Modern Era I 646 Uses of Gold I 655 The Future of Gold I 657 Conclusions I 660 References and Selected Bibliography I 661

Author Citation Index / 663 Subject Index / 671

FOREWORD

GOLD: History and Genesis of Deposits is the product of an effort by the Society of Economic Geologists to publish materials that will expand knowl­edge concerning timely, specific topics important to the study of economic geology and to economic geologists. A volume on gold was selected for a general review-type publication because of the importance of the gold mining industry in the 1980s. The officers and council of the Society of Economic Geologists authorized the preparation of this book on gold in 1981, and Dr. Robert W. Boyle was selected as its author.

Dr. Boyle has extensive experience in the study of gold deposits. He has an international reputation and a broad interest and understanding of the gold mining industry, the origin of gold deposits, and the history of gold as a metal and ore from prehistoric times to recent. Dr. Boyle uses important publications on gold deposits as source materials to document the various pathways of geological thought over time to introduce the reader to modern concepts. The book contains a wealth of information concerning gold.

The Society of Economic Geologists hopes the book will appeal to a broad spectrum of readers wishing to develop a better understanding of gold and gold geology. The book is written to present gold, which has long been viewed as a symbol of wealth and power, as a mineral commodity. Knowledge of the geology of gold has changed and developed over an extended history but the long grassroots-type interest in it has changed little. Information concerning both interests is to be found in the book, giving the reader the opportunity to follow the historic development of an understanding of the occurrences and sources of gold.

In the 1960s the Society considered and rejected the idea of publishing a series of single-topic, review benchmark-type volumes. The idea was revived in the 1980s with this volume on gold to be the first of a series. This idea is now in abeyance and is not likely to be revived. The reception of this volume may hold the future of other commodity-oriented, review-type books prepared under the guidance of the Society of Economic Geologists.

This volume owes much in its concept to E. L. Ohle and H. L. James; in carrying it from manuscript to publication to Brian 1. Skinner, Editor of Economic Geology and to Charles S. Hutchinson, Jr., of Van Nostrand Reinhold Company; for moving the book through its long development phase to the past chairmen of the SEG Publications Committee- Robert O. Rye, Eric S. Cheney, and particularly John E Slack for overseeing the review process; and to Roger P. Ashley, Richard W. Hutchinson, and J. James Eidel for technical reviews.

SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOIDGISTS

Xl

FOREWORD

GOLD: History and Genesis of Deposits is the product of an effort by the Society of Economic Geologists to publish materials that will expand knowl­edge concerning timely, specific topics important to the study of economic geology and to economic geologists. A volume on gold was selected for a general review-type publication because of the importance of the gold mining industry in the 1980s. The officers and council of the Society of Economic Geologists authorized the preparation of this book on gold in 1981, and Dr. Robert W. Boyle was selected as its author.

Dr. Boyle has extensive experience in the study of gold deposits. He has an international reputation and a broad interest and understanding of the gold mining industry, the origin of gold deposits, and the history of gold as a metal and ore from prehistoric times to recent. Dr. Boyle uses important publications on gold deposits as source materials to document the various pathways of geological thought over time to introduce the reader to modern concepts. The book contains a wealth of information concerning gold.

The Society of Economic Geologists hopes the book will appeal to a broad spectrum of readers wishing to develop a better understanding of gold and gold geology. The book is written to present gold, which has long been viewed as a symbol of wealth and power, as a mineral commodity. Knowledge of the geology of gold has changed and developed over an extended history but the long grassroots-type interest in it has changed little. Information concerning both interests is to be found in the book, giving the reader the opportunity to follow the historic development of an understanding of the occurrences and sources of gold.

In the 1960s the Society considered and rejected the idea of publishing a series of single-topic, review benchmark-type volumes. The idea was revived in the 1980s with this volume on gold to be the first of a series. This idea is now in abeyance and is not likely to be revived. The reception of this volume may hold the future of other commodity-oriented, review-type books prepared under the guidance of the Society of Economic Geologists.

This volume owes much in its concept to E. L. Ohle and H. L. James; in carrying it from manuscript to publication to Brian 1. Skinner, Editor of Economic Geology and to Charles S. Hutchinson, Jr., of Van Nostrand Reinhold Company; for moving the book through its long development phase to the past chairmen of the SEG Publications Committee- Robert O. Rye, Eric S. Cheney, and particularly John E Slack for overseeing the review process; and to Roger P. Ashley, Richard W. Hutchinson, and J. James Eidel for technical reviews.

SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOIDGISTS

Xl

PREFACE

The general philosophy underlying this volume on gold cart be simply stated as the collection, sifting, and analysis of landmark papers on the history and genesis of the deposits of the most noble of metals. This volume seems necessary today since the literature on the geology and geochemistry of gold is so vast, so scattered, and in the case of many classic and historic papers, quite inaccessible to many economic geologists, particularly those who have little or no access to major libraries because of their isolation in mining camps, located in many cases far from urban centers. This book is designed to alleviate this problem, at least in part, although it should be emphasized that no single volume on gold can ever hope to include all of the significant conceptual papers on the history and genesis of the deposits of this precious metal.

The book opens with a general historical introduction on gold followed by a background chapter on the geochemistry of the element and the types of auriferous deposits. This background sets the stage for chapters containing the classic papers on gold from the world literature, either in their entirety, in significant extracts, or in abstract form. The papers chosen to cover the subjects of the volume comprise principally papers from the last century to relatively recent contributions. Each paper or group of papers is accompanied by an appropriate introduction and concluding commentary. Where the papers are in a language other than English an attempt has been made to provide translations for those of more recent date.

The introductions and commentaries that accompany each paper or group of papers in the volume are intended to set the papers into historical perspective and to emphasize their importance in the growth of ideas relating to the history of gold and the genesis of its deposits. Sufficient references are given at the end of each chapter to enable the interested reader to pursue these subjects at greater length.

The history of gold is a long one, going back to the dawn of civilization, at least some 5,000 years. The theories postulated to explain the origin of the various types of gold deposits have, likewise, had a long life. To set the development of the varied theories of origin of auriferous deposits into a historical context is particularly difficult. Often at anyone point in time, two or more theories have been current, whereas at other times only one theory has generally prevailed. In addition, some theories of the origin of epigenetic and placer gold deposits have been cyclic, appearing from time to time during the history of economic geology. Despite these problems I think it is possible to define a certain historical sequence of theories respecting epigenetic gold deposits of certain general types. As followed in this book these are an early period when an igneous magmatic theory prevailed, a period when magmatic

xiii

xiv / Preface

hydrothermal theories predominated, a short period marked by granitization theories, and a recent period in which exhalite theories have been postulated. Secretion theories have had a cyclic history. Introduced first by Agricola during the Renaissance, they waned shortly thereafter to reappear in the latter part of the nineteenth century as lateral secretion (sensu stricto); forgotten for nearly 50 years they have again appeared in a modern guise as metamorphic and hydrothermal secretion theories (sensu lato). The enigmatic auriferous quartz­pebble conglomerates, the largest known gold deposits, have been explained in many ways, the predominating theories of their origin being strictly placer, modified placer, and hydrothermal. Likewise, the origin of the gold dust and nuggets in placers have from time to time had advocates of a purely mechanical process of concentration, an essentially chemical mode of formation, and a combined chemical-mechanical mechanism of accumulation.

Numerous classifications of gold deposits have been suggested since the inception of economic geology as a science. Most of these, twenty or more in number, are based mainly on genetic principles, are therefore speculative and often more deviative than useful, points emphasized by J. M. Maclaren many years ago in his great monograph on gold deposits. Genetic classifications are unsatisfactory for gold deposits because gold has such a diversity of deposits, originating from many physical and chemical processes, that each deposit type is a genetic study in itself. I was confronted with this situation in writing my monograph on gold in 1979; my answer to the problem was to frame a strictly taxonomic classification of auriferous deposits based on their geological setting and geochemical character. This classification, modified slightly to accommo­date recent work, appears in Chapter 1. The reader may find this classification somewhat of a departure from most textbooks on economic geology, but it seems to me that this type of taxonomic classification' is more valuable than one based on speculative genetic theories. By stating the geological and geochemi­cal facts clearly and objectively, it should be possible in most cases to discern the origin of particular types of gold deposits, and more importantly, to predict the environment where one may prospect for similar deposits.

The scientific and economic literature on gold is vast. That available for the period prior to the fall of the Roman Empire in the west in 476 A.D. is, however, meager, although originally the number of references to gold was evidently large, judging from the writings of Pliny the Elder in his Historia naturalis. That much of this early literature was lost is probably due to the edict of the Emperor Diocletian, passed about 290 A.D., ordering the destruction of all works on alchemical subjects, and especially on gold and silver, throughout the Roman Empire-a measure taken to prohibit the makers of gold and silver to amass riches which might have permitted them to organize revolts against the empire. During Medieval times the literature on gold was again restricted mainly because of the general decline in gold mining due to wars, brigandage, and political unrest. With the advent of more stable times and especially after the invention of the printing press circa 1445, the literature on gold has increased consistently to the present day. These vagaries in the availability of the literature on gold have caused some difficulty in the selection of landmark papers. Nevertheless in selecting papers, abstracts, and quotations concerning the geology, geochemistry, theories of origin, and economics of gold deposits, I have striven to maintain a proper historical balance in accordance with the literature available through the ages.

Preface / xv

The landmark papers on gold in this book provide well-defined points in the progress of the science of economic geology, especially in the study of the development of the theories of origin of economic deposits, not only of gold but also of the various elements with which this precious metal is associated. Such a study is not merely a subject of antiquarian interest. On the contrary, an adequate knowledge of the work and theories of the past should be an indispensible part of the training of any economic geologist who aspires to understand the processes that lead to concentrations of the elements. Often by looking back at the landmark papers one can mark out a clearer path ahead in this understanding.

Acknowledgments

In the selection of the classic papers that constitute "Landmarks" in the history and theories of origin of gold deposits I have corresponded with and sought advice from many geologists and geochemists throughout the world who are familiar with the literature on gold. In this respect I wish to thank collectively all those who responded to my queries about "Landmark Papers", and in particular I wish to thank many individuals who through the years have supplied me with reprints and other information on gold, especially Frank Ebbutt of Toronto; H. S. Bostock, J. E Henderson, and I. R. Jonasson of the Geological Survey of Canada; A. S. Radtke, formerly of the United States Geological Survey; 1.-1. Bache, BRGM, Orleans, France; M. Ziauddin, Geological Survey of India; D. A. Pretorius, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; and N. A. Shilo, N. V. Petrovskaya, I. S. Rozhkov, and N. V. Roslyakova and N. A. Roslyakov, of the Academy of the Sciences, USSR.

Translations of the classical papers in Russian were done by C. de Leuchtenberg during the first stages of preparation of this book and later by members of the Translation Bureau, Multilingual Services Division, Depart­ment of the Secretary of State, Ottawa. The drafting of a number of figures was carried out in the Geological Survey of Canada under the supervision of R. E Daugherty. The library staff of the Geological Survey of Canada, especially A. E. Bourgeois and D. E. Tedford, are thanked for their inestimable help in identifying sources and obtaining copies of most of the classical papers reproduced or commented upon in this volume. I also wish to thank the Librarians of the Ramakrishna Institute, Calcutta, for their assistance while researching ancient science, mining, and metallurgy in India. The typing of the manuscript was carried out in the Geological Survey of Canada word processing center under the supervision of Miss Janet Legere, to whom lowe a sincere vote of thanks for a job well done.

Drs. R. P. Ashley and R. W. Hutchinson have read the text and offered a number of improvements for which the writer is especially grateful.

Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my wife, Marguerite, whose help in the field in documenting many of the features of the classical gold fields and in assisting in the referencing, reading, and correcting of the manuscript has been more valuable than fine gold itself.

ROBERT W. BOYLE

CONTENTS BY AUTHOR

Bichan, W. J., 223 Bischof, K. Gustav, 89 Cheney, E. S., 532 Clarke, R w., 97 Curtain G. c., 178 Doxtader, K. G., 178 Ebbutt, R, 619 Emmons, W. H., 235, 548 Farmin, R., 210 Fersman, A. E., 105 Friese, R W., 182 Goldschmidt, V. M., 118 Graton, L. C., 367 Gregory, J. W., 337 Gunn, C. B., 534 Hallbauer, D. K., 439 Horwood, C. B., 342 Hubert, A. E., 178 Knopf, A., 281 Krook, L., 537 Lakin, W. H., 178 Lenher, V., 153 Lesure, R G., 581 Liebenberg, W. R., 404 Lindgren, w., 489

xvii

Mackay, B. R., 504 Malcolm, W., 277 Mellor, E. T., 373 Mertie, J. B., Jr., 520 Moore, E. S., 261 Patton, T. c., 532 Petrovskaya, N. V., 135 Pretorius, D. A., 409 Rankama, K., 128 Sahma, Th. G., 128 Shacklette, H. T., 178 Shilo, N. A., 514 Shumilov, Yu. V., 514 Smirnov, S. S., 569 Smith, R G., 169 Spurr, 1. E., 205, 207 Travin, Yu. A., 516 Tuck, R., 535 Tyrrell, J. B., 465 Van Warmelo, K. T., 439 White, D. E., 294 White, W. H., 599 Zhelnin, S. G., 516 Zvyagintsev, 0., 577

GOLD